UC-NRLF 


Z2L 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

BEQUEST 

OF 

ANITA  D.  S.  BLAKE 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

Microsoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/cornercupboardofOOphilrich 

\ 


THE  COMER  CUPBOARD 


FACTS    FOR    EVERYBODY. 

EMBRACING   PACTS   ABOUT 

I-THINGS  NOT  GENERALLY  KNOWN; 
II.-TIHNG3  THAT  OUGHT  TO  BE  KNOWN; 
III.-THINGS  WORTH  KNOWING. 


THE  FOOD  WE  CONSUME;  THE  CLOTHES  WE  WEAR;  THE  HOUSE  WE  LIVE  IN: 

AND    FACTS    FROM    THE  ARTS  AND    SCIENCES,  AS  WELL  AS    FROM 

LITERATURE.  MANUFACTURE,   COMMERCE,  ANATOMY, 

PHYSIOLOGY,    THE    GARDEN    AND    FIELD. 


ILLUSTRATED  WITH  OVER  1,000  ENGRAVINGS. 


THE    WHOLE    FORMSG 


A   COMPLETE    ENCYCLOPEDIA    OF   USEFUL,   KNOWLEDGE. 


BY  THE  AUTHOR  OF  "INQUIRE  WITHIN,"  "THE  REASON  WHY,"  ETC. 


NEW     YORK! 

DICK    &    FITZGERALD,    PUBLISHERS, 

No.    IS     ^jSTTsT    STREET. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1859,  by 
DICK    &    FITZGERALD, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  in  and  for  the  Southern  District  of 

New  York. 


GIFT 


AG  io5- 


ER  E  FJ^G  E. 


We  present  the  Reader  with  "the  Freedom  of  the  Cupboard,"  one  of  the 
greatest  privileges  that  can  be  conferred  upon  civilized  and  domesticated 
beings. 

The  Corner  Cupboard  has,  for  many  centuries,  been  an  object  cherished 
in  the  homes  of  the  people.  It  has  been  the  receptacle  of  the  most  treasured 
and  time-honored  objects.  Old  people  have  kept  the  keys  of  the  Corner  Cup- 
board with  a  degree  of  pride,  and  have  felt  themselves  to  be  the  conservators 
of  the  domestic  weal  by  holding  sacred  the  contents  of  the  family  treasury. 
When  the  Corner  Cupboard  has  been  opened,  children  have  gathered  round 
their  grandmammas,  and  have  stood  on  tip-toe  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  what  the 
Corner  Cupboard  contained. 

So  may  it  be  with  our  Literary  "Corner  Cupboard."  Every  time  it  is 
opened  we  trust  that  some  new  object  of  value  and  interest  Vvill  be  found  ; 
and  that  the  family  circle,  from  the  silver-haired  grandmamma,  to  the  auburn- 
haired  boy,  will  gather  in  a  group  and  rejoice  whenever  "The  Corner 
Cupboard"  is  unlocked. 

Our  "Corner  Cupboard"  contains  many  hundreds  of  Useful  Facts,  and 
useful  facts,  as  they  are  commonly  termed,  are  most  properly  the  demand  of 
the  age ;  and  this  demand,  it  is  the  object  of  the  present  work  to  si!' 
Besides  Facts  about  the  Food  we  Consume,  the  Clothes  we  Wear,  and  the 
House  we  Live  in,  we  have  herein — 

Facts  from  Arts,  Sciences,  and  Literature:  As, — The  Liberal  and 
Mechanical  Arts — Philosophical  and  Musical  Instruments— Chronological  Di- 
visions— Architectural  Orders — Months  and  Days — Poetical  and  Literary 
Terms — The  Stereoscope  and  Photography — Drawing,  Music,  and  Oil  Painting. 


Facts  from  Commerce  and  Manufactures,  deal  with  Metals,  Minerals, 
Woods  and  Alkalies — Gems  and  Precious  Stones — Colors  and  Paints — Curious 
Trees — Silk,  Flax  and  Cotton,  Pottery,  Glass,  and  Paper — Bleaching  and 
Dyeing — Gold  Ores  and  Manufactures — Weights  and  Measures  ;  while  our 

Facts  from  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  relate  to  the  Bones,  Muscles, 
Nerves,  Arteries,  and  Blood — The  Laws  of  Health :  How  to  Preserve  and 
How  to  Restore  it — Ventilation  and  the  Sanitary  Laws,  &c.     We  also  present 

Facts  from  the  Garden  and  the  Field: — As,  the  Culture  and  Manage- 
ment of  the  favorite  Flowers,  Weeds,  Grasses,  Vegetables,  and  Agricultural 
Operations.     We  have,  indeed,  gleaned 

Facts  from  all  Subjects  and  for  Everybody  ;  Including  Etiquette — 
The  Philosophy  of  Eating,  Drinking,  and  Cooking — Popular  Science  of  Com 
mon  Things — Laws  of  Chess,  Draughts,  Billiards,  Whist,  Cribbage,  and 
Cricket — Calendar  of  the  Months — Domestic  Natural  History — Education — 
Curious  Tables — Signification  of  known  Christian  Names — In  short,  all  those 
things  which  have  the  magic  power  of  metamorphosing  "  bleak  houses"  into 
happy  homes.  And  thus  we  claim  for  the  work  universality  of  scope  as  well  as 
utility  of  aim,  and  present  it  with  confidence,  as  comprising,  in  a  pre-eminent 
degree,  "Things  not  generally  known  ;  Things  that  ought  to  be  known  ;  and 
Things  worth  knowing  ;"  the  whole  collated  and  condensed  with  most  scru- 
pulous anxiety  for  accuracy  as  well  as  originality. 

In  the  treatment  of  the  work,  care  has  been  taken  to  give  the  plainest  and 
clearest  definitions  of  whatever  is  described  or  set  before  the  reader,  so  as  to 
be  neither  tedious  in  explanation,  nor  so  compressed  as  not  to  be  intelligible 
and  practically  useful.  In  a  word,  "The  Corner  Cupboard"  will  be  found 
to  contain  treasures  of  knowledge  upon  every  conceivable  subject,  having 
reference  to  the  health,  happiness  or  amusement  of  the  domestic  circle,  and  it 
will  become  a  household  phrase,  when  a  member  of  a  family  needs  the  aid  of 
knowledge  upon  any  subject — 

"You  will  find  it  in  THE  CORNER,  CUPBOARD." 


INDEX. 


Xarie 

Vtiqp 

Paqt 

A^STIS          •          9 

• 

• 

10 

Ash      .        . 

•       • 

.    3<  16 

Bistro 

.    311 

A   t  ii.i'r     .       • 

• 

• 

10 

. 

•       • 

.      64 

Bissextile,  or  Leap  Year 

.    lift 

•  S      • 

• 

. 

11 

As  de  . 

•       • 

.      64 

Black. 

.    311 

Ablution     .       ■ 

• 

. 

5 

Asp      . 

.       . 

.       5!) 

tail 

.    311 

Al)  >ri  ,''11109  .         . 

. 

9 

Aspect 

.       , 

.      69 

;\  Bramble  . 

.     158 

Absolution  . 

13 

Aspen 

.       69 

nlacklead  Pencils 

.      55 

Accounts,  Method  of  Keep- 

tan Creed      . 

.      68 

Bleed  How  to    . 

.     103 

ing 

25 

Allien 

.      48 

Bleeding  at  the  Nose 

.       20 

Acorns,  Germination  of 

t 

5 

Athwart 

. 

. 

.      40 

Acidulated  Drops 

lit 

1  here 

40,221 

tone 

.    311 

Acre    . 

, 

00 

•n,  Electrical 

.      69 

•      • 

.      68 

tic 

. 

878 

August 

.     2!4 

Blue    .... 

.     307 

Adhesive  Composition 

. 

Itation 

.       7- 

Blue  Stocking    .       • 

.    148 

ve    . 

, 

, 

.       59 

liter     .       • 

.    308 

bs      . 

. 

223 

,  to  Preserve 

,  lieirular         • 

.      :n 

;:  Harp 

. 

21,  21 

Avalanches 

.    300 

Boiling       .       .       . 

.      70 

or  \chate 

• 

. 

3 1  I 

iria  . 

.      68 

Ketches   .       . 

.      80 

Air,  (  hange  of    . 

, 

vvoirdupoise  \> 

'eight. 

.    262 

•  B     . 

,      30 

Air.  1  lasticity  of 

• 

. 

114 

. 

.      57 

P  leon 

.    215 

. 

• 

, 

1  IS 

. 

.       . 

.      50 

Book*,  to  preserve 

.     113 

ster    . 

• 

. 

Azure  .       . 

•       • 

.      30 

Water 

.  Prince    . 

• 

, 

proofing  . 

21 

1 

, 

301 

immon 

•       • 

.    337 

-,  to  Extract  Cork.' 

. 

. 

-  Mo    . 

•       • 

.    302 

from        .     -  . 

91 

Ale  and  Beer  Measure 

. 

e 

.    ■  . 

Bouquets     .    '    . 

150 

a 

. 

. 

161 

. 

.       , 

.       7:! 

mes      .       . 

.       41 

How  Eve   . 

. 

. 

Balloon 

.       . 

.      ofi 

. 

dnta    . 

. 

. 

21->. 

Halm  oi  ■ 

.     114 

Brass  Cuius 

2':-5 

1  as     .        . 

t 

. 

271 

aa,  or  Plantain  Tree 

.     188 

. 

Allspice      .       . 

, 

, 

65 

. 

.     339 

Of  Wore 

Aloes  .        .        . 

lis 

.    118 

Boy  his  Grandfather  . 

.       79 

Wood . 

301 

Bank  of  England 

.    178 

Bread  Fruit  Tree 

lid 

Alphabet     . 

. 

31 

-Note 

.     271. 

Breath,  to  Sweeten    . 

68 

■ Deaf  and  Dumb  . 

31 

Bantu,  Sir  Joseph 

.     185 

Bride  Cake          .        . 

181 

Hebrew 

. 

. 

205 

Itarber's  Poles, 

t  'rigin  of 

.       22 

Brg    . 

80 

Altimetry    . 

. 

. 

14 

Barloy 

.    207 

Bripantine          .       • 

30 

Amazon       .        . 

. 

. 

Barometers,  Leech     . 

.      17 

Britain       .       .       * 

138 

Ambulance        . 

. 

. 

135 

Bar<  .meters,  How  to  Consult 

Broil  ng     . 

72 

Amethyst   .       . 

. 

. 

them 

9 

Bronzing     . 

219 

Anagram     . 

. 

, 

116 

. 

.     120 

es,  and  their  Treat 

my 

. 

. 

40 

.     17*2 

ment 

22 

Anchovy 

. 

. 

191 

>l  the  E 

x chequer 

Budding 

117 

Is,  Names  of  the  va- 

Barons  by  Letters  Patent 

.     172 

Bulbous  Bouts    . 

LSI 

'  u-ts  in 

54 

n 

.    219 

Bullfinch,,  the     . 

257 

k-ula 

, 

, 

63 

. 

,        . 

.    116 

Burning,  to  Protect  Child- 

Annatto 

t 

310 

mr  Para 

#        . 

.      69 

ren  from 

29 

Annealing  . 

. 

, 

105 

.  Cla.ss 

#        , 

.    156 

Burns  and  Scalds 

29 

Annunciation  Day 

. 

, 

124 

. 

# 

. 

... 

205 

Antediluvian 

„ 

. 

#        , 

.     I.' 

!  utter,  to  Cure 

134 

Anthracite 

. 

Hats 

•        • 

.. 

ps  ;uid  Daisies 

110 

■'•  hite 

. 

69 

. 

. 

Butterfly     . 

~*73 

lit s,  to  Perfume 

. 

Beef  Piters 

.        # 

. 

ism    . 

. 

Beer  Measure 

.        # 

. 

i;irds 

51 

Apopuothegm     . 

279 

. 

.        . 

.     . 

Uride 

181 

s1  Weigl 

Si 

•        • 

.     Is 

Calislhenic  Kxcrciscs 

•1  > 

its  and 

. 

. 

d 

HS 

asures 

124 

Beeljc  T 

. 

. 

ura 

10 

April    . 

. 

15 

, 

# 

. 

.  !■;    . 

1  to 

April  Fools  Day. 

, 

, 

.     ])-> 

ies  ,  . 

>.  Parlour 

, 

3 13 

Belles  Lcttres 

# 

. 

en  t  < 

215 

Aquarius 

. 

. 

m 

. 

tt  Hals 

. 

. 

i 

, 

. 

. 

Architecture 

# 

# 

.     ' 

Daf  . 

93 

. 

. 

165 

i 

#        # 

.     . 

• 

68 

Arrowroot  . 

, 

j  knots 

,        # 

. 

re    . 

104 

Arsenic,  to  Detect 

, 

! 

.        , 

. 

1  of 

201 

Antidote  lor 

19 

.     131 

. 

190 

Artesian  Wtils    . 

:  irds,  1»: 

of    ! 

. 

Cardinal      . 

(.2 

pliere,  yriujulj 

r  Facts 

Rapid  Flight  of 

.     201 

Points          .        . 

88 

about  the 

, 

. 

Boast,  an  Empty 

•      ^7 

Virtues        . 

44 

ihdex. 


Paqe 

Page 

Fag« 

Cards          .       •       .       . 

44 

Coffee .... 

90 

December  .       .       .       . 

U 

Carmine               .        . 

308 

French  Method 

of 

Peck 

155 

Carols                        . 

275 

Preparing     . 

. 

90 

I'iadeipbia          .       .       . 

J2S 

Carpets,  Management  of   . 

67 

Milk 

90 

Diamonds    .        •       •        • 

*) 

Carving       . 

253 

Svrup  of 

10 1 

Diamond  Bcetla .       «        . 

152 

Caa'js,  to  Sweeten 

35 

To  Make  with  Hot 

Diana           .        .        #        . 

153 

Catherine  Wheel 

35 

Water   . 

80 

Diaphanie  .... 

249 

Cats"  Whiskers,  Use  of      . 

147 

Coin,  Gold  and  silver. 

293 

Dilettanti     .... 

152 

of  Lebanon 

303 

Coins,  to  take  Impressions 

Disinfecting  Liquid    . 

278 

Celery         .        .       .     \ . 

131 

from 

, 

180 

Dissolving  Views        . 

231 

Cements,  Manufacture  and 

Cold  Cream 

. 

112 

Dissolving  Vii  ws 

230 

Use  of      . 

119 

Colossus  of  Rhodes    . 

55 

DictiHed  Waters 

119 

Centre  of  Gravity       . 

43 

Colours  and  Paints     . 

, 

307 

Dii     liation 

163 

Ceres           .       .       .       . 

129 

Columbus   . 

184 

Dividing,   Powdering,  and 

Chans          .         .        »        . 

119 

Complexion,  to  Improve 

68 

Grinding. 

33 

Cha  eedony        •       • 

315 

Copper,  Plate  Printing 

( 

234 

Diving  Hell 

151 

Chameleon         •       • 

V.i 

Composite  Order 

, 

111 

Dog  Days    .... 

94 

Champagne         •        a        . 

148 

Conchology. 

. 

128 

Do^-s,  Distemper  in    . 

207 

Charade      .        •       •       . 

ne 

Condiments         .        . 

134 

Domesday  Book  .                . 

100 

Charcoal      .        .        .        . 

190 

Cone 

# 

80 

Door  .Mais  .... 

22 

Charles  I 

G3 

Conjunction 

2i4 

Doric 

88 

Chaplain                       . 

4* 

Consanguinity    . 

116 

Draughts    .... 

347 

Cheese         . 

205 

Con  versa  ion  and  Writing, 

Drawing,  Practical  Lessons 

Chemical  Transmutations . 

1L'9 

Modes  of  Address  in 

172 

in 

280 

Cherries      . 

119 

Convex  Lens 

81 

Dresden  China    . 

111 

Chesnut  Tree 

805 

Cookery,  Rudiments  of 

69 

Dress,  On  proper  Taste  in  . 

357 

Chess          . 

1«7 

Cooking  in  a  House,  to  re- 

Dresses,  to    Preserve    the 

Chicory               .        . 

117 

move  the  Smell  of  . 

t 

60 

Colours  of 

241 

Chilblains  . 

19,  65 

Copernicus .        .        . 

, 

64 

Dromedary 

92 

Chimneys,  Smoky 

354 

Coral  .... 

, 

87 

Drowning  and  Suffocation 

15 

China  and  Earthenware,  to 

Corinthian  Order        . 

. 

122 

Prevention  of      . 

15 

Clean        . 

62 

Cork    .... 

g 

109 

Drum 

220 

China,  Dresden 

111 

Corns,  Cure  for  .        . 

, 

62 

Duke  ....    141, 

1,3 

China  or  Glass,  to  pack      . 

211 

Cornet  a  Piston  .       . 

219 

Dun 

55 

Chiromancy 

105 

Cornelian     .        .        . 

, 

3i5 

Dulcimer    .       .       •       . 

220 

Chi  vine                      . 

191 

Corundum  . 

314 

Dry  .Measure       .        • 

202 

Chocolate    . 

90 

Corrosive  Sublimate  . 

, 

20 

D\eing,  Art  of    .       • 

42 

Christian  Names        . 

175 

Cosmetics    . 

, 

112 

Christmas  Customs    . 

275 

Court.  Plaister,  to  Make 

217 

Eagle 

272 

Day      . 

275 

Crescent 

, 

15" 

Karl     ....    148 

1/2 

Christian  Names,   Signifi 

Crests          .        .        . 

119 

Early  Rising 

13  i 

cation  of. 

296 

Cribhage             .        . 

, 

300 

Earthenware  and  China,  to 

Chromatvpe 

863 

Cricket,  Laws  of.        . 

. 

215 

Cl««an      .... 

62 

Church  in  tr  . 

119 

Cromwe'l,  Oliver        . 

, 

154 

Earrings      .... 

HI 

cities,   Growth  of  Amen 

. 

Crucifixes    .        .        . 

. 

275 

Earthquakes 

300 

can           .         .         . 

.     326 

Cruth  .... 

. 

220 

lias!  India  Company  . 

100 

Chrysididffl         .        . 

20 1 

Crvophorus         .       • 

, 

26 

Faster  Sunday     . 

153 

Chrysolite  . 

313 

Crystal         .       .       , 

, 

312 

Ebony         .... 

303 

Cinque  Ports      .       . 

44 

Cubic  Measure  •       • 

. 

262 

Eclipses  and  Moons   . 

199 

Cinnabar    .       •       •       . 

307 

Cuckoo        .        .        . 

i 

802 

Eclogue      .... 

278 

( larion              ,       , 

21!) 

Cucumbers          .        . 

. 

119 

Eggs,  <  Ornamental,  to  make 

21 

Clarionet                    . 

2:9 

Cups  in  Pies       .        . 

. 

21 

1  jgs,  to  Preserve 

113 

("la-ses  of  Flowers      . 

176 

Cutter 

. 

30 

kgg  Shells,  Etching  upon  . 

12 

Clfmale                      . 

US 

Cymbal,  or  Cymbalum 

220 

Egyptian  Architecture 

S9 

Calendar,  for  100  Years 

.      76 

Elder  flowers     . 

112 

Clocks  and  Watches  . 

278 

Dahlia,      Cultivation 

of 

Electric  Telegraph     . 

6 

Cloth  Measure    . 

262 

toe  .... 

, 

224 

Electricity  .... 

165 

Clotlies.  to  Brush      . 

233 

Daisies  and  Buttercups 

. 

no 

and  .Magnetism   . 

539 

Clouds                           . 

118 

Damp  Walls 

# 

41 

Electrotyping 

298 

Clove  Tree          .        .        , 

88 

Dandelion  .       .       • 

- 

23 

Election  Ribbons 

143 

Cloves,  Syrup  of         . 

104 

Discoveries  and  Invent 

ont 

326 

Elgin  Marbles    . 

12 

Clove-hitch  Knot 

4 

Day,   Division  of  the  into 

Kim 

305 

Coach  Accidents 

29 

Hours 

53 

Elm  destroying  Scolytus    . 

164 

Coincidences      . 

.     326 

Days,  Difference  of     . 

165 

Emblem      .... 

278 

Coat,  to  Fold  for  Packing. 

230 

Days  of  the  Week,  Roman 

Emerald      .... 

313 

Coats  of  Arms     . 

143 

names  of 

339 

Emery         .... 

169 

Cochineal    . 

303 

Deaf,  Axioms  for  the  . 

61 

Enamels      .... 

54 

Cockatoos   . 

136 

Deaf  and  Dumb  Alphabet . 

21 

England,  Climate  of  . 

12 

Cockroaches,  to  Destroy 

18 

Death  Watch      . 

21 

Enigma                     • 

no 

Cocoa         . 

90 

Death's  Head  Dawk  Moth  • 

152 

Epic  Poem          .       • 

279 

Cocoa-nut  Tree  .       .       . 

144 

Decanters,  Cleaning  . 

10 

Epuram     •       •      •      ■ 

2U 

Cod  Liver  Oil     .       .       . 

26 

Decanting  Liquius 

1G9 

Epiloguo    •       r       t        t 

m 

FFTDEX. 


Vii 


Pane 

Petje 

P,~7« 

Fpifaph      .... 

Furniture  Polish       . 

, 

242 

Hand  .... 

•  13       ... 

879 

Fustic         .        .       , 

. 

310 

Handel,  George  Frederick 

164 

. 

Handkerch  ef  to  Perfume 

86 

Esquire      .... 

17.3 

Gall  Nuts   .      .      . 

. 

861 

Hare,  to  Carve   . 

861 

8  of  Flowers,  to  Ex- 

Galvanic Hatfcry       . 

. 

10.J 

Harmonium        .        . 

21S 

tract        .... 

176 

Coil    .       . 

. 

i 

llarn   .... 

, 

219 



27 

Galvanism  .       .      . 

, 

201 

Harpsichord      .      . 

818 

Etching  upon  Ivorv  . 

12 

Gamboge    .       .       . 

. 

810 

Harrow        .        .        . 

, 

En  Sheila   . 

12 

Garnet       .       .      . 

, 

314 

Harvey,  William         . 

, 

154 

Giro    .       . 

18 

Gas     .... 

35 

Hautboy      .        .        . 

220 

rating    Dishes,  to 

nomy  of,    for 

Do 

Hay  Measure      .       . 

868 

Make      .... 

mestie  Purposes 

. 

179 

Headache,  Cure  for    . 

, 

49 

<>r     . 

807 

Gasometer 

169 

Heat  and  Cold    . 

48 

Exercises,  In-door 

12 

Gelatine 

. 

122 

11  brew  Alphabet 

, 

295 

.:  stances  in  the 

13 

Gems  and  Precious  Stones. 

312 

Heraldry      .        .        . 
Hermetic  Scaling 
Herschel  Sir  William 

, 

55 

Eyes,  Preservation  of  the  . 

270 

Gendarmerie 

. 

115 

t 

142 

Gentleman 

. 

174 

, 

215 

Faith          .... 

215 

Gipsies         .        . 

. 

113 

HidagC 

. 

147 

Falcon        .... 

Glaciers      .       .       . 

143 

1 1  ieroglyphics     . 

. 

342 

Farthing     .... 

Glass   .... 

Hives,  Cottage    .       . 

12 

Feathers,  To  Dye  Blue 

848 

Ware,  to  clean 

212 

Fumigating    . 

12 

February     .... 

94 

to  Join 

, 

848 

Holy  Thursday   .        . 

, 

184 

Feet,  To  remove  the  Of- 

or  China,  to  Pack 

. 

241 

Holly 

g 

306 

fensive  Smell  of 

208 

Etching  upon  . 

18 

Holyrood,  Origin  of  . 

. 

134 

Ferguson,  .James       . 

274 

Cracking     by     Hot 

Hone  .... 

, 

329 

Ferns  ..... 

2oi 

Water,  to  Prevent  . 

156 

Honeymoon        .        • 

. 

101 

Fiie,  or  Fiffars   .       . 

219 

Painting,     Transpa- 

Honey Soap       .       • 

, 

197 

Fig  tree      .... 

176 

rent,  for  Windows  . 

195 

Horse          .       .       . 

. 

894 

• 

317 

for  using    ordinary 

Horse  Power      .        , 

, 

148 

Filberts       .... 

847 

Engravings  on 

251 

Hosiery       .        ,        . 

. 

131 

Filtering  Liquids       . 

169 

Gloves        .       .       . 

59 

,  166 

Hotchpot    . 

102 

Filters         .... 

10 

Glowworm           .        . 

. 

14'. 

Hotte 

. 

212 

Fir 

3>  16 

Glue,  Bice  .        .       . 

. 

849 

Houses,  Transposition  of 

129 

Fire,  Precautions  in  . 

13 

Common  .        . 

, 

121 

Hour  Glass 

. 

135 

lips  .... 

30 

M  rme      .        . 

, 

121 

Hov    . 

30 

Franklin,  Benjamin    .        . 

153 

Liquid       .        . 

. 

121 

Hulks 

t 

30 

Fish  Pouds 

22 

Mouth 

. 

120 

Hunter,  John     .       . 

. 

214 

Fish,  to  Carre    . 

868 

to  Resist  Moisture 

, 

117 

Hurricanes         .       . 

. 

1«7 

Flannel  Shirts    .        . 

149 

Gnats          .        .       . 

, 

19 

Hyacinth    .        .       . 

( 

315 

. 

35 4 

Gobelin  Tapestry 

, 

117 

Hydrogen    .       .       . 

. 

1U0 

Flint,  or  Siiex     .       . 

328 

Gold  Coins          .        . 

, 

2P3 

Gas    . 

, 

212 

Flower,  the 

21-6 

Gold  Wire  Leaf  .       . 

i49 

Hygrometers 

( 

17 

Flowers,  Classes  of    . 

176 

Goldfinch           .       . 

, 

97 

Language  of 

268 

Gold  Fish    . 

, 

101 

Icebergs 

g 

295 

Essence    of     to 

Gonliau  Knot     . 

. 

139 

Impressions,  to  Copy 

69 

Extract    .... 

176 

Grate  Papers,  Ornamental, 

Inclined  Plane   .       . 

174 

Flute  

220 

to  Make 

251 

Indian  Ink          .        . 

. 

239 

Hying  Fish 

155 

Granite 

. 

327 

Rubber     . 

. 

312 

Food  in  Season  .       .       . 

23 

Grasshopper        .       . 

. 

158 

Indigo         .        .       . 

, 

101 

■ Nutritions 

261 

Gravity,  Centre  of 

. 

43 

Ink,  Black          .       . 

. 

113 

Forc.s,  the  Resolution  of  . 

146 

Gr<  enwich  Observatory 

, 

145 

Blue    .       .       . 

# 

113 

Fountain   Cheap,    How   to 

Guaiacum   . 

. 

304 

Green  .        .       . 

. 

113 

Make        .... 

119 

Guitar          ,        . 

2-0 

Marking     .       . 

. 

113 

Fowls,  How  to  Keep  . 

299 

Guillotine    .        . 

114 

Sympathetic       • 

. 

tm 

Fox  and  Geese,  Game  of    . 

2  IS 

Gum  Arabic        . 

, 

181 

Invisible     . 

. 

293 

Frankincense 

149 

Gums  and  Loose  Teeth, 

to 

Inorganic    . 

. 

2?3 

Freckle.-,  to  Remove  . 

89 

Strengthen  and  Fasten 

. 

65 

Insect's  Wings   . 

147 

French  Horn      .        .        . 

218 

Gun  Barrels,  to  Brown 

, 

180 

re 

Freestone  or  Sandstone     . 

328 

,  Varnish  for 

180 

for  Cabinets    . 

101 

Frieze         .... 

302 

Geographical  Origine 

. 

328 

Interest      .       .       . 

104 

Frijrate       .... 

30 

Gunnery      .       .        . 

. 

159 

Interjection        .       . 

. 

£34 

Frog          .... 

88 

Gutta  Percha  Soles    . 

, 

24 

Iodine         .        •       • 

. 

191 

Frost  and  Scow  . 

102 

Ionic  Order        .       • 

. 

99 

Fruit,  Rest  time  for  Fating 

26 

Haberdashers     . 

. 

128 

Isinglass     .        •        . 

. 

157 

Syrups  of 

104 

Hackney  Coaches 

# 

147 

Ivory  .... 

. 

3  4 

■           Digestive    proper- 

Hair Oil       . 

. 

112 

Black       . 

, 

311 

ties  of  . 

125 

Pomatum  for  the 

112 

Etching  upon  . 

. 

\i 

to  Pack    for  Car- 

  Dyeing  the 

. 

112 

riage     . 

249 

Black,  to  Dye     . 

113 

Jack    .... 

. 

178 

Frving        .... 

72 

Brushes,  to  Wash 

68 

117 

Jackdaws    . 

181 

Funnel,  to  make  a     .       . 

145 

Structure  of  the 

266 

Jams,  to  Keep  from  Mould 

136 

Fur  Clothing     .       , 

146 

Management  of  the 

268 

January      .       ,        . 

63 

yiii 

INDEX. 

Page 

Page 

Jasper        .       •       •       . 

315 

Mahogany,  Artificial  . 

Mamalukes          .        . 

. 

251 

JoanofAro        •       •       . 

63 

. 

22;) 

July     ..... 

213 

Mammalia . 

165 

June    ..... 

181 

Man  of  War 

30 

Jupiter        .... 

208 

Marble 

327 

8  Appearance  to  Plas- 

Kali and  Alkali 

342 

ter  Figures 

. 

88 

Kermes       .... 

309 

Marbles 

lOi 

Kettle  Drum 

220 

M  irch 

123 

Knife  Board,  to  Make  a     . 

23* 

Marquis      .        .        . 

145 

173 

Knighthood 

117 

Masks 

. 

151 

Knights  oftheGarter.Bath, 

Mast   .... 

. 

199 

•  histle,  and  ->t.  Patrick 

182 

Massicot     .       .       . 

• 

307 

Knives  and  Forks,  to  Pre- 

Matter, Divisibility  of 

. 

15 

serve  Clean     . 

41 

M»y    .... 

183 

Knots           .... 

3 

May- Day  Festivities  . 
Measures  of  Length, 

i:o- 

183 

Lac 

309 

man 

. 

264 

Lace,  to  Wash    .        . 

233 

. 

204 

Lake  or  Lacca    .        . 

309 

Medallion  Wafers 

139 

Lammas  Day 

215 

Medicine,    the     Nauseous 

Lamp  Black 

311 

Taste  of,  Prevented 

. 

39 

to  Prevent  the  Smok 

Medicines,  Aperient 

. 

343 

tag 

119 

Meerschaum       .        . 

. 

67 

Land  and  Sea  Breezes 

186 

Mensuration 

, 

178 

Larch  Tree 

306 

Merchant  Shigs. 

. 

30 

Laudanum,  Antidote  for    . 

19 

Mercury 

. 

89 

Laurel         .... 

275 

Metallic  Trees     . 

23 

Lavender  Water .        .        . 

209 

Pens,  to  Prevent 

Leaden  Cisterns,  to  Neu- 

Ink Damaging 

. 

198 

tralize  the  Effects  of 

91 

Mile  of  Various  Nations    . 

49 

Leather,  Morocco 

165 

Microjieter 

146 

Leaves,  Functions  of  . 

210 

Microscope 

80 

Leech  Barometers 

17 

Microscope      Glasses, 

to 

312 

Leeches,  to  make  Bite 

101 

Clean 

312 

Lemon        .... 

91 

Milk    .... 

265 

Length,  Measures  of . 

264 

of  Boses     . 

112 

Letters        .... 

34 

to    Prevent  Turning 

Leyden  Jar. 

94 

Sour 

91 

Libra,  or  the  Balance 

102 

Mill  Stones 

328 

Lighl          .... 

149 

Milton,  John 

274 

Light  House 

175 

Miniatures,  to  Prepare  Ivory 

Lightning  Stroke 

11 

for   . 

148 

11 
185 

Mistletoe    .       .       . 
Mists  .        *       •       . 

60 
111 

Lip  Salve    .... 

Liquids,  Decanting,  Strain- 

Mite   .... 

. 

204 

ing,  and  Filtering  of 

169 

Mitre           .        .        . 

. 

188 

Literary  Terms  . 

278 

Mnemonics        .       . 

. 

207 

Lii  hographic    Stones,     to 

Models        .       .       . 

. 

177 

Pack        .... 

247 

Mohair       .       .       , 

. 

130 

Liveries       .... 

155 

Mole   .... 

. 

3  2 

Logwood     .... 

303 

Monkey       .       .       . 

• 

302 

Long  Measure    . 

262 

Monsoons    .        .        . 

. 

1S6 

—Sight 

92 

Moon  and  Eclipses     . 

. 

199 

Lords,  Spiritual  and  Tem- 

Month        .        .        . 

. 

180 

poral        .... 

157 

Morocco  Leather        . 

. 

165 

Lories  ..... 

137 

Moss,  Formation  of  . 

. 

133 

Lotteries     .... 

59 

Moth   .... 

. 

209 

Lunar  Month      .        .        . 

263 

Mother  of  Pearl 

. 

1C9 

Luiher,  Martin  .        . 

274 

Mule    .... 
Muses,  the  Nine 

272 
128 

Macaws                    . 

137 

Mushrooms,  to  Distinguish 

Madder        .... 

308 

from  P  isonous  Pungi    . 

37 

Madrigal     .... 

279 

Music,  an  Easy  Method  of 

Magic  Lantern   . 

92 

Teaching  the  Rudiments 

of    ...        . 
Musical  Instruments 

234 

217 

in;?  Views 

230 

Magnetism          .        .    175, 

206 

to  Stain 

253 

Magnetic  Needle 

102 

Muslin,  Painting  upon 

250 

Chart*    . 

185 

in  Water 

]ia  -etude         ,       . 

354 

Colours    .       . 

250 

Mahogany  .... 

304 

Musk  .... 

130 

Page 
Nails,  Care  of  the  .  .  73 
Names,  Christian  .  .175 
Napkins,  How  to  Fold  .  161 
National  Debt  .  .  .  293 
Names  of  the  States,  Origin 

of  the  ....  78 
Necks,  Support  for  Stiff     .       13 

Sweiling  in  the       .      13 

Neptnne  ....  175 
Net  m  king  .  .  .  2"2 
New  Calendar    .  .293 

New  Year  3  1)  iy  .         .      6  J 

Nile,  Source  of  the  .  .  116 
Nitrogen  .  .  .  .190 
Nose,  Bleeding  at  the        .      28 

Noun 222 

November  .  .  .  .273 
Numerals  .  .  .  .293 
Nursery  Pictures,  to  Pre- 
serve ....  353 
Nutmeg  ....  80 
Nutritions  Food        .      .    261 

Oatmeal      .       .       .       .130 

Ochre 311 

Octahedron  .  .  ,204 
October        .        .        .        .214 

Ode 279 

.  Oil  Cloths,  to  Preserve       .      91 

Oil  Paintings,  to  Clean       .      1 1 

:uous.         .        .        .     292 

Onyx 315 

Opal 315 

Optical  1  fleets    .        .        .115 

Illusion  .       .       .     122 

Orange  Tree  ...  81 
Organ  .        .       .       .217 

Organ,  Mechanism  of  an  .  193 
Or  omental  Eggs  .  .  20 
Osier,  or  Willow  .  .  308 
Ottoman  Empire,  the  .  139 
Ourang  Outang  .  .  .  242 
Oxygen        ...  190 

Oyster  Grottoes  .        .        .105 

Paint,  to  Remove  Smell  of      35 

,  to  Mix    .         .        .262 

,  White    House,    to 

make  ....  254 
Paints  and  Colours  .  .  307 
Painting,  Oil  332 

on  Velvet  .        .131 

Paintings,  Oil,  to  Clean  .  14 
Paper  ....  64 
Palms  .        .        .        .152 

Pan 272 

Paper  .        .        .        .347 

Paper  Hangings         .        .    177 

— ' to  Clean  .    247 

Paper,  Table       .        .        .263 

,  Transparent  .        .     175 

Paper  into  Parchment,  How 

to  make  ....  302 
Papier  Machfl  .  .  .  302 
Papvrus       ....     239 

Parachole  .  .  .  .122 
Parakeets  .  .  .  .  137 
Parcels  in  Paper,  to  Tie  Up  4 
Parrots  ....  136 
Parts  of  Speech  .  .  .  222 
Passion  Flower  .  ,  .  147 
Passing  Bell       .       .       .177 


INDEX. 


Page 
Paste  ....  120,  211 
Pa«t»,  Permanent  .  .  120 
lee  .  2t 
Pawnbrokers'  Signs  .  .  27  4 
Pea, tha  .  .  .  .  151 
818 

lUkl  .         .         .  1 74 

ii  arks,  to  Preserve  .  197 

urn    ....  157 

Metallic    .       .       .  166 

.  1U 

•■.•<pi(j    .     .     .  Ma 

P  rus        .  .  .    19J 

raphj      .  •  »   291 

•  •  .218 

Pics,  Cups  in      •  •  .     21 

i                       set    •        •        a  19 

Popular  Quotations   .        .  28 

Pnu.lei        ....  01 

Pinchbeck  .      •      •  3ii 

■io      .        •        •        .  279 

Pine 30G 

Pin  .Money  ....  64 

Plants,  Nourishment  of    .  140 

Water  for        .        .  230 

Physiological  Facts  .        .  324 

Plaster,  to  Make  Court      .  247 

Plate  Printing   ...  234 

Plaster  Casta       ...  22 

Plate  i  ilass,  Discovery  of  .  205 

Plated  Ware        .        .        .  134 

Pliers 242 

Pluto 92 

Pneumatic  Apparatus        .  Is2 

Poetical  and  Literary  Terms  278 

Poisons,  Accidents  from     .  19 

Poisonous  Vegetables  .  19 
Police          .        .        .        .366 

Polished  Iron,  to  Preserve.  241 

Polypi  ....  81 
Pomade  for  Baldness  .       .112 

Pomatum,  \\  bite        .        .  112 

Colouring    and 

Scenting.       .       .       .113 

Pope's  Hat .        .        .        .9-1 

Poplar        ....    305 

Porcelain  ....  63 
or  Glass  Ware,  to 

Clean  ,  .  .  .242 
Pores  of  the  Human  Body  .  293 
Porphyry  ....  327 
Post  Office  Rate*        .       .      27 

Postage 27 

Potatoes,  Mealy  and  Waxy  169 
Potiehomanie  ...  74 
Poultice,  Bread  and  Water  37 
Poultry,  to  Carve  .  .  259 
Pound  Sterling  .  .  .  143 
Pounds,  Shillings  and  Pence  53 
Practical  science  .  .  14 1 
Preposition  .        .       .223 

Preserves,  Covering  for  .  239 
Prints,  to  Transfer  to  Wood  142 
Prism  .         .        .        .209 

Profiles  in  Black,  Method 

of  Taking  .  .  .271 
Prologue  ....  279 
Pronoun  ....  223 
Proteinaceoua  .  .  .  293 
Pulleys  ....  66 
Pumice  Stone  .  .  .  329 
Pump 64. 

1* 


Page 

Page 

Punctuation       .       • 

, 

64 

Scripture,  Tablesof  Weight 

s 

Puzzle         .       •       • 

, 

116 

and  Measures  mentioned 

Pyramids    ... 

, 

882 

in     . 

261 

Scrubbing  Floors 

. 

til 

Quaker         .        .        . 

. 

135 

Bealing  Wax,  Red 

. 

88 

Quercitron  Bark         • 

. 

310 

ns,  the 

, 

103 

r,  to  Make  Fil 

Babbitt      .      .      . 

. 

3,9 

Washing  Lini  n 

16 

to  Carve .       . 

• 

259 

.  to  Muke  Artifi- 

Radiated Aninc  Is      . 

• 

10 

cial          .       . 

t 

16 

1  Remarkable  Works  of  Labor  325 

Sedan  Chairs 

g 

167 

Haiti    ...» 

• 

55 

Seed      .         .         . 

f 

240 

Water        .       • 

. 

151 

September  .       , 

, 

214 

Rainbow     .       .       . 

. 

205 

Serpent        .        . 

. 

29 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter   . 

. 

>45 

Serpentine  . 

887 

beading  Aloud  .       . 

. 

128 

Seven  Wonders,  the 

. 

199 

Kebus.       .       .       . 

. 

118 

Shakspeare,  William  . 

154 

Red     .... 

. 

308 

Shamrock,  how  it  came  to 

Chalk 

, 

30.1 

be  the  National  Emblem 

Lead   . 

. 

307 

of  Ireland 

, 

21 

Sealing  Wax, to  Mako 

89 

Shaving  Soap     . 
Shells, to  Polish. 

. 

.    251 

Reef  Knots 

. 

3 

. 

.    841 

Respiration 

. 

61 

shilling       . 

.    130 

eh 

Ships,  Description  of . 

30 

Increase  . 

. 

103 

Shirts,  to  Fold     . 

. 

272 

Restoration  Day         . 

. 

164 

Shoes 

3,3 

,  Retort. 

. 

201 

Ship  Tickets,  Composition 

Revnolds,  Sir  Joshua. 

. 

211 

Cor    ... 

119 

Rhubarb     . 

64,207 

Shorthand  . 

- 

295 

Uice  Paper,  to  Model  in 

. 

Mi 

Shrove  Tuesday. 

.        , 

94 

Kiddle 

. 

116 

Shuttle 

.    249 

digging      . 

. 

200 

Suk  rooms,  to  Fumigate 

42 

King  fast,  on  the  Finger 

. 

353 

S  Ik,  to  Keep       . 

.    226 

Boasting'     . 

. 

71 

Silkworms  and  their  Pro- 

Rocks, Transition  of. 

. 

272 

ducts 

. 

227 

Remarkaole  Comets  . 

. 

79 

>rma  Fggs . 

. 

.    117 

Boiling  Blinds    . 

. 

339 

Silver  Coins 

. 

203 

Roman    Money,    Weights, 

Silvi  r  Spoons      . 

and  Measures  . 

. 

283 

Simple  Bodies     . 

_ 

.    190 

Room  Papers,  to  Clean 

. 

247 

Skin,  Olive,  to  Dye 

.    112 

Roots 

. 

187 

to  clear  a  Tanned 

.    112 

,  Bulbous    . 

. 

181 

Dark  Colour  of  the 

.     176 

Rose  of  Wood  Shavings, 

to 

Skylark,  the 

.    168 

Make 

. 

299 

Slate    . 

#- 

.    32S 

Pink,  or  Roue  Lake 

3.9 

Sloop,  or  Shallop 

# 

30 

Roses,  Propagation  of 

. 

200 

Smacks 

, 

30 

to  nestore  Faded 

. 

242 

Smalt  . 

• 

.    307 

Rotten  Stone 

. 

99 

Snails. 

• 

i;o 

Royal  Mottoes    .       . 

. 

116 

Snakes,  Bites  of. 

• 

>v29 
.392 

Reubens,  Paul    . 

, 

185 

Snow  and  Frost  • 

• 

!  ubv  .... 

, 

313 

Snuff  Taking      . 

• 

.    135 

Ruddle,  or  Blood  Stone 

. 

311 

Soap  Bubble       . 

• 

.     181 

Shriving  . 

• 

.    26 1 

Sabbath      .       %       . 

. 

65 

Sore  Throats       . 

• 

,       4:1 

Saccharine          .        , 

. 

293 

Sound  . 

• 

.      91 

Sackbut      .        #        . 

. 

221 

South  Sea  Bubble 

• 

.      62 

Safety  Lamp      .       . 

. 

6 

Spanish  Black     . 

• 

a  j 

Saffron 

. 

310 

Brown   . 

. 

311 

Sasyo    .... 

. 

98 

Spasms        .        . 

. 

118 

Salamander 

142 

Bpiimet       .      • 

• 

.    218 

Salt  Water,  to  Make  Fresh 

16 

Spirit  Lamp 

144 

Sandal  Wood 

. 

3(11 

Spiritual  Peers    . 

. 

174 

Sao,  the      ... 

. 

24) 

Square  .Measure . 

. 

268 

Sapphire     .        .        . 

. 

313 

Bt.  Andrew**  ''ay 

, 

274 

Saturn         .        .        , 

_ 

64 

Statistics  of  Tea  and  Cof- 

saucepans,    Danger  from 

lee 

. 

.    249 

Copper    . 

, 

73 

Statistics.  Scriptural 

.    324 

Savings'  Banks  .       . 

. 

155 

St.  Patrick's  Lay 
St.  Valentine',*  Day 

, 

181 

Scalds  and  Burns 

m 

29 

%       , 

94 

Scurf  Skin  on  Face   . 

. 

112 

St.  Swit  hiii's  Day 

% 

214 

Scent.  Jar    . 

t 

139 

St.  Denys    . 

t 

245 

Scratching  out  Ink  Marks 

353 

St.  Luke      . 

. 

245 

IXBEX. 


Faqe 
Statistics,  Interesting,  .  '37 
Statistics,  Health  .  .  353 
St,  Crispin  ....  2t.;> 
St.  Simon  .  .  .  .2.5 
Bt.  Ju.ie  ....  245 
Staining  Liquids  .  .  16i> 
Stains,  to  Remove  from  the 

Hands  .  .  .  .251 
Stammering,  Cure  for  .  134 
Stanza  ....  279 
Starch  .  .  .  .  9  A 
Steam  Engine     .        #        .    151 

Navigation      .       .    292 

Sterna  .....  209 
Stereotyping  .  .  .141 
Slewing  ....  73 
Steel  Yard  .  .  .  .242 
■ to  Preserve  from  Rust      80 

Relished     ...      80 

Stereoscope  .  .  .  363 
Sti  kingPiaister        .      .212 

Still 44 

Stoekimrs,  Mending  .  .  152 
Stone,  Mercury  ...  20 
Stones,  various  ...  327 
Storm  Glasses  ...  24 
Sub  Rom    .       .       .       .160 

Ltien  and  Drowning.  15 
S  ilphur  ....  190 
Bumao  ....  310 
S  ramer  .  .  .  .188 
Sunbeam*  ....  14(5 
tun  dower  ....  63 
fjuti  Stroke,  Protection  from    13 

Dials    ....      17 

Swimming,  Method  of       .      16 

Belts         .        .      26 

Symbol  .  .  .  .188 
Sirups        ....    104 

Tamarinds  .       •       •       •    151 

Tambourine  .  .  .  220 
Ti  e  Worms  .  .  .  29 i 
T  too  ....  96 
Tea 90 

Plant  ....      89 

Sump  of     .        .        .    104 

Teasel  .  .  .  .159 
Teeth,  to  Make  them  White     88 

Loose,  to  Fasten     .      65 

Telescope,  Reflecting  .      60, 105 
Tetrahedron       .       .       .    15i 
Thermometers  for  Compa- 
rison       ....    13" 

Thimbles  ....  147 
Thirst,  Oause  off.  .  .  131 
Thorns,    How  to   Extract 

t'i  1 1  a  the  Flesh  .  .17 
Tioes,  the  .  .  .  .ISO 
Timber  Trees  .  .  .  305 
TL-ne  ....      50 

■ —  —  Jewish   Method   of 

Reckoning  .  .  .  265 
«— —  lioman,  Division  of.    264 


Time  Table 

Tivoli,  or  Chinese  Billiards 

Toad    .... 

Toast  and  Water 

Tobacco,  Virginian    . 

Toothache  . 

Topaz  .... 

Tortoise       .        .        . 

Tortoiseshell,  to  Mend 

Toucans 

Tracing  Paper    . 
Trance 

i  ran  s  for  Paper,  to  Make 
Transparent  Paper    . 
Transplanter,  the      . 
Tritmdria    .       .  o 

Triangle  .       • 

Time.  Variations  of  .  . 
Troj  Weight  .  .  . 
Truffle  Beetle  .  . 
Trumpet  .... 
Tru.-tee  .... 
Tubes  for  Chemicals  .  . 
Tulip,  Cultivation  of  the  . 
Turmerie  .       .       . 

Turn nikes  .... 
Turpentine  ... 
Tuscan  .  .  .  . 
Twelfth  Day       .       . 

Ultramarine  ... 
Umber  .... 
Undershot  Wheels  .  . 
Unicorn  .  .  .  . 
Union  Jack  .  . 
Utopia        .... 

Varnish,  Black,  for  Wood  . 

to  Colour  Baskets 

and  Old  Straw  Hats 
Vegetfibh»s,  Poisonous 
Velvet,  Painting  on 
Ventriloquism     . 
Ventilation         . 
Verbs  .        .        . 
Vermilion   .        • 
Violin 
Violoncello 
Vision,  Deceptive 
Viscount 

Vitriol,  Accidents  from 
Voice  Lozenge 
Voice,  Human,  Rauge 
Voltaire 
Vulcan        .       . 

Wafers  and  Wax 
Walking      . 
Walnut        .        . 
Wallflower .       . 
Warts  .        . 

Watch 

Watches,  the 
Water 


Paqe 
2>3 
2:;:i 
201 
170 
111 
130 
813 
249 
251 
137 
139 
175 
254 
175 
141 
209 
178 
8fi 
26-: 

178 
21S 
27l' 
141 
25- 
309 
130 
130 


Of  .  3 


63 

30S 
311 
212 
119 
160 
14* 


181 
185 

80a 

lor, 
75 
17!) 
205 
177 


J 

Water,  Gleanings 

16 

Hard,  or  Soft  . 

16 

Louse 

239 

Salt  Water,  Fresh    . 

16 

r  ii  Hi 

Washing  Linen  at  S  a    . 

16 

Sea,  to  make  Artifi- 

cial   

16 

Wheel,  Overshot 

62 

Waterproofing  Boots   and 

Shoos        . 

21 

Washington,  George 

94 

Wax  and  Wafers 

181 

Waxen  Flowers  and  Fruit, 

How  to  M;ike 

317 

Wedding  Rings,  Origin  of, 

130, 

149 

Wedding  Bines,  Fmger 

157 

Wedge,  Description  of 

14 

Wee, is,  Utility  of 

853 

Weights  and  .Measures 

262 

Roman 

204 

Weld 

a;o 

Wesley,  John     .       . 

1^5 

Wheat                       . 

49 

Whey         .       .       .       . 

209 

Wheels        . 

57 

Whirlwinds         . 

187 

Whist          .... 

349 

White  House  Paint,  to  make 

Economical     .       .       . 

254 

White  Lead 

307 

lV  hCcU            •            •            •            • 

loi 

Willow  or  Osier .       . 

303 

Wills 

3i 

Windlass     .... 

61 

•Vimlmill    .... 

l«-2 

Winds         .... 

1»5 

Windows,  to  Paint,  to  Re- 

semble  stained  Glass 

160 

Wine  Measure    . 

2G2 

How  to  Choose . 

176 

Winter       .... 

183 

Woad 

307 

Wolsey,  Cardinal 

274 

Wood,  to    ive  a  fine  Black 

Colour  to 

241 

Woods,  Fine       .        . 

303 

Wool  Weight      . 

283 

Woeester,  Battle  of  . 

244 

\  r en,  Sir  Christopher 

2  to 

Writing       .... 

213 

Writing  and  Conversation, 

Modes  of  Address  in 

172 

Yacht 

?0 

Yankees                       •        . 

178 

Year  of  our  Lord        .       . 

149 

Yellow         .... 

309 

Yew                     .       a 

304 

Yule 

275 

Zebra  .       •       •       •       - 

209 

Zodiac        •       •       *       . 

lai 

^DDITIO:iNr.A.I,    INDEX. 


PA-GK 

AMERICAN  FLAG 78 

AMERICAN  TERRITORY,  EXTENT  OF 148 

ATMOSPHERE,  SINGULAR  FACTS  ABOUT  THE, 37 

AVERAGE  OF  LIFE  AND  DEATH, 219 

BOOKS,  LOST  SACRED, 324 

BOOK,  AN  OLD, 326 

BOWIE  KNIFE, 826 

CALENDAR.  A  CURIOUS 293 

CALENDAR.  A  COMPLETE  FOR  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS, 76 

CALCULATIONS,  CURIOUS, 324 

CENT,  THE  OLD, 34 

CENT,  THE   CANADIAN, 215 

COINCIDENCE,   SINGULAR, 64 

CURIOSITIES  OF   LITERATURE, 215 

JEFFERSON  S  TEN    RULES, 37 

KNUCKLES,  TO  STRIKE  WITHOUT  HURTING  THEM  (a  Trick), 156 

MECHANICAL  FORCE  OF  LIGHTNING 29 

MOVING  THE  KNIGHT 48 

QUAINT  QUESTIONS 79 

RIVERS  AND  OCEANS, 326 

SHIPPING:  OF  THE  WORLD, 146 

TEA  AND  COFFEE,  CONSUMPTION   OF, 219 

THUNDER 275 

TYPE,  A  FONT  OF, l.!S 

VOICE,  THE  HUMAN, 275 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES, 48 

WORDS, 35 

WORLD  IN  EPITOME, 325 


THE  CORNER  CUPBOARD. 

$  fptttUsnj  of  Bstfal  fuurtoltlrj*. 


KNOTS.  The  most  simple  purpose  for 
which  a  knot  is  required,  is  the  fastening 
together  of  two  pieces  of  string  or  cord  ;  the 


Fig.  1. 
knot  selected  for  this  purpose  should  possess 
two  important  properties; — it  should  be 
secure  from  slipping,  and  of  small  size.  No- 
thing is  more  common  than  to  see  two  cords 
attached  together  in  a  manner  similar  to 
that  shown  in  Fig.  1.  It  is  scarcely  pos- 
sible to  imagine  a  worse  knot ;  it  is  large  and 
clumsy,  and  as  the  cords  do  not  mutually 
press  each  other,  it  is  certain  to  slip  if  pulled 
with  any  great  force.  Iu  striking  contrast 
to  this — the  worst  of  all, 
we  place  one  of  the  best; 
namely,  the  knot  usually 
employed  by  netters,  and 
which  is  called  by  sailors 
"the  sheet-bend.  It  is 
readily  made  by  bending 
one  of  the  pieces  of  cord 
into  a  loop  {a  b,  Fig.  2), 
which  is  to  be  held  between 
the  finger  and  thumb  of  the 
left  hand ;  the  other  cord 
e  is  passed  through  the  loop 
from  the  farther  side,  then 
lound  behind  the  two  legs 
of  the  loop,  and  lastly, 
under  itself,  the  loose  end 
coming  out  at  d.  In  the 
tmallness  of  its  size,  and 
the  firmness  with  which  the 
various  parts  grip  together, 
this    knot  surpasses   every 


common  stout  twine  less  than  an  inch  being 
iuffioient  to  form  the  loop.  Of  the  knot, 
Fig.  2  is  the  simplest  method  to  describe, 
although  not  the  most  rapid  in  practice ;  as 


Fig.  3. 
it  may  be  made  in  much  fess  time  hy  cro?s- 
ing  the  two  ends  of  cord  (a  b,  Fig.  3)  on 
the  tip  of  the  fore-finger  of  the  left  hand, 
and  holding  them  firmly  by  the  left,  thumb, 
which  covers  the  crossing;  then  the  parte 
is  to  be  wound  round  the  thumb  in  a  loop, 
as  shown  in  the  figure,  and  passed  between 
the  two  ends,  behind  a  and  before  b ;  the 
knot  is  completed  by  turning  the  end  b 
downwards  in  front  of  d,  passing  it  through 
the  loop,  securing  it  under  the  left  thumb, 
and  tightening  the  whole  by  pulling  d.  As 
formed  in  this  mode,  it  is  more  rapidly  made 
than  almost  any  other  knot ;  and,  as  before 
stated,  it  excels  all  in  security  and  compact- 
ness, so  firmly  do  the  various  turns  grip 
each  other,  that  after  having  been  tightly 
pulled,  it  is  very  difficult  to  untie. 

Rbef-Enots.    The  only  precaution  ne- 
y  in  making  a  reef-knot  is,  to  observe 


*  From  "  Inquire 
York.    Price  $1  00. 


ce 
other:  it  can,  moreover,  be  that  the  two  parts  of  each  string  are  on 
tied  readily  when  one  of  the  i  the  same  side  of  the  loop;  if  they  are  Qo£ 
b,  is  exceedingly  short ,  in  |  the  ends  (and  the  bows,  if  any  are  formed^ 
Within;   or,  Over  3,700  Facts  for  the  People."    Dick  &.  FitzgeraU,  New 


tacts  roit  everybody: 


are  at  right  angles  to  the  cords ;  the  knot 

is  less  secure,  and  is  termed  by  sailors  a 
granny-knot.  Other  knots 
are  occasionally  used  to  con- 
nect two  cords,  but  it  is 
unnecessary  here  to  describe 
them,  as  every  useful  pur- 
pose may  be  answered  by 
those  already  mentioned. 

The  Binding  -  Knots 
(Figs.  5  and  6)  are  ex- 
ceedingly useful  in  connect- 
ing broken  sticks,  rods,  &c, 
but  some  difficulty  is  ^  often 
experienced  in  fastening  it 
at  the  tinish ;  if,  however, 
the  string  is  placed  over  tho 
part  to  be  united,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  5,  and  the  long 
end  b,  used  to  bind  around 
the  rod,  and  finally  passed 
through  the  loop  a,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  6,  it  is  rea- 
dily secured   by    pulling  d, 

■when  the  loop  is  drawn,  in,  and  fastens  the 

end  of  the  cord. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  6.  Fig.  5. 

The  Clove  Hitch-Knot.  For  fastening 
ft  cord  to  any  cylindrical  object,  one  of  the 
most  useful  knots  is  the  clove  hitch,  which 
although  exceedingly  simple  and  most  easily 
made,  is  one  of  the  most  puzzling  knots  to 
the  uninitiated.     There  are  several  modes 


of  forming  it,  the  most  simple  being  perhaps 
aa    follows . — make    two     loops,     precisely 


Hg.  7. 

similar  in  every  respect  as  a  and  b,  Fig.  7, 
then  bring  b  in  front  of  a,  so  as  to  make 
both  loops  correspond,  and  pass  them  over 
the  object  to_he  tied,  tightening  the  ends; 
if  this  is  pronerly  done,  ihe  knot  will  not 
slip,  although  surrounding  a  tolerably 
smooth  cylindrical  object,  as  a  pillar,  pole, 
&c.  This  knot  is  employed  by  surgeons  in 
reducing  dislocations  of  the  last  joint  of  the 
thumb,  and  by  sailors  in  great  part  of  the 
standing  rigging.  The  loop  which  is  formed 
when  a  cable  is  passed  around  a  post  or  tree 
to  secure  a  vessel  near  shore,  is  fastened  by 
what  sailors  term  two  half  hitches,  which  is 
simply  a  clove  hitch  made  by  the  end  of  the 
rope  which  is  passed  around  the  post  or  tree, 
and  then  made  to  describe  the  clove  hitch 
around  that  part  of  itself  which  is  tightly 
strained. 

TheTyino  Up  ofPa.hcf.es  in  Paper  is  an 
operation  which  is  seldom  neatly  performed 
b}'  persons  whose  occupations  have  not 
given  them  great  facilities  for  constant  prac- 
tice. Whether  the  paper  be  wrapped  round 
the  objects,  as  is  the  case  usually  when  it  is 
much  larger  than  sufficient  to  enclose  them, 
or  merely  folded  over  itself,  as  is  done  by 
druggists,  who  cut  the  paper  to  the  required 
size,  it  is  important  that  the  breadth  of  the 
paper  should  be  no  longer  than  sufficient  to 
enable  it  to  be  folded  over  the  ends  of  the 
object  enclosed,  without  passing  over  the 
opposite  side.  It  is  impossible  to  make  a 
neat  or  close  parcel  with  paper  which  is  too 
broad ;  excess  in  length  can  be  readily 
disposed  of  by  wrapping  it  round;  the  ex- 
cess of  bread 'eh  should  be  cut  away.  With 
regard  to  turning  in  the  ends,  the  mode 
adopted  by  grocers  is  the  best.  The  most 
common  cause  of  failure  in  parcels  is  their 
being  badly  corded.  We  will  therefore 
(however  unnecessary  the  description  of 
so  simple  a  performance  may  appear  to 
those  already  acquainted  with  it),  describe 
the  most  readily  acquired  mode  of  cord- 
ing. 

Let  a  single  knot  be  made  in  the  end  of 
the  cord,  which  is  then  passed  round  the 
box  or  parcel.  This  knotted  end  is  now  tied 
by  a  single  hitch  round  the  middle  of  the 
cord  (Fig.  8)  and  the  whole  pulled  tight. 
The  cord  itself  is  then  carried  at  right  angles 


A    MISCELLANY   OF   USEFUL    KNOWLEDGE. 


found  the  end  of  the  parcel,  and  where  it 
crosses  the  transverse  cord  cm  the  bottom  of 
the  box  (Fig.  9),  it  should  (if  the  parcel  is 
heavy  and  requires  to  be  firmly  secured)  be 
I,  then  bin-k  under- 
neath it,  and  pulled  tightly,  then  over 
Lastly,  uiuler  the  oross  cord,  and  on 
wound  the  other  end  of  the  box.     "When  it 


Kg.  8. 

reaches  the  top  it  must  be  secured  by  passing 
it,  under  that  part  of  the  cord  which  runs 
lengthways  («,  Fig.  8)  polling  it  very 
tigut,  and  fastening  it  by  two  half  hitches 


Tig.  9. 
round  itself.  The  great  cause  of  parcels 
becoming  loose  is  the  fact  of  the  cord  being 
often  fastened  to  one  of  the  transverse  parts, 
(as  b,  Fig.  8;  instead  of  the  piece  running 
lengthways,  and  in  this  case  it  Invariably 
becomes  loose.  The  description  may  per- 
haps be  rendered  clearer  by  the  aid  "of  the 
figures,  which  exhibit  the  top  and  bottom 
01  a  box  corded  as  described.  The  cords, 
however,  are  shown  in  a  loose  state  to  allow 
their  arrangements  to  be  perceived  more 
easily. 

<  I ! .  ilMINATIOX  OF  ACOltNS.  Take  a 
hyacinth  glass,  or  a  broad-mouthed  bottle, 
and  till  it  about-one-third  With  water.  Cut 
a  piece  of  stiff  card-board,  or  tin,  to  tit 
closely  the  opening  of  the  glass  or  bottle, 
and  from  the  centre  thereof  suspend  an 
acorn  by  a  piece  of  thread  just  long  enough 
to  let  the  acorn  descend  nearly  to  the  water. 
It  will  be  advantageous  to  drop  the  acorn 
until  it  •  water,  and  then  to  draw  I 

It  up  very  gently  as  far  a»  may   be  doue  | 


without   overcoming   the   attraction  which 
be   wider   to   the   base    of  the  acorn. 

Keep  it  now  on  the  mantel- 
piece over  the  lire,  and  in  a 
few  weeks  the  germ  will  burst 
the  shell,  and  a  little  root  0£pj  ^ 
will  appear  and  descend  to 
the  water, 


^ 


•omc   more 


- 

where  it  will  be-^-J-^      l^- 

fully    developed.  W* 


Steep  the  acorn   in   water  a 
Jay    before     suspending     it.      ^ 
Soon     afterwards,     another 
germ    will  be  seen   to  strike 
upwards  until  it  reaches  the    ^__ 
covering  of  the  glass,  where   ^^ 
a  contrivance  may  easily  be 

or  its  escape,  still*  keeping  the  acorn 
in  tiie  same  relative  position.  And  thus  a 
sappliug  oak  may  be  produced— a  curiosity 
for  the  parlour. 

THE  SAFETY  LAMP  was  invented  by 
Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  and  was 
constructed  so  as  to  burn  with- 
out any  danger  in  an  explosive 
atmosphere.  It  is  merely  a 
common  oil-lamp,  the  frame 
of  which  is  enclosed  in  a  cylin- 
drical cage  of  wire-gauze, 
sometimes  made  double  at  the 
upper  part  where  the  hottest 
portion  of  the  gas  collects,  and 
containing  about  400  apertures 
to  the  square  inch.  The  wick 
is  trimmed  by  means  of  a  bent 
wire,  passing  tightly  through 
the  body  of  the  lamp,  so  that 
when  the  lamp  has  been  sup- 
plied with  oil,  the  wick  may 
be  kept  burning  for  any  length 
of  time  without  unscrewing  the 
cage.  When  this  lamp  is  im- 
mersed in  aH  explosive  mixture 
of  marsh -gas  or  coal-gas  and 
common  air,  the  gauze  cylinder  becomes 
filled  with  a  blue  flame,  arising  from  the 
combustion  of  the  gas  within;  but  the 
flame  does  not  communicate  to  the  outside, 
even  though  the  gauze  may  be  heated  to 
less  redness, 

ABLUTION",  or  a  Washing  Aivay—a.  re- 
ligious ceremony,  which  has  been  practised 
more  or  less  by  the  followers  of  all  creeds. 
The  Moh.i'.r  ms  and  Brahmins  are  very 
strict  in  their  a  dutions;  and  they  occupy 
an  important  rank  amongst  other  n  I 
of  India.  The  Ganges  is  considered  by 
the  natives  as  possessing  a  power  of  purifi- 
cation so  great  even,  that  if  a  votary  cannot 
rea'h  that  river,  and  who  calls  upon  it 
while  bathing  in  another  to  cleanse  him,  he 
will  be  freed  from  all  his  sins. 


c 


FACTS  FOIL  EVERYBODY: 


ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH.  .  In  the  de- 
scription of  the  electric  telegraph,  we  will 
lay  aside  all  technical  and  scientific  terras, 
and  explain  clearly  this  greatest  wonder  of 
our  day.  The  source  of  the  electricity  used 
requires  our  first  attention  This  is  what 
ii  called  a  voltaie,  or  galvanic  battery;  and 
it  is  so  called  from  Volta  and  Qalvani,  its 
originators.  We  can  make  a  very  simple 
battery  by  means  of  two  tumblers,  a  little 
Bait  and  water,  two  small  pieces  of  zinc, 
and  two  of  copper,  united  in  the  following 
manner : — A  and  B  are  the  tumblers,  c  c 
the  pieces  of  copper,  z  z  the  pieces  of  zinc  ; 
the  tumblers  being  partly  rilled  with  the 
salt  and  water,  the  battery  is  complete.    It 


Fig.  1. 
may  be  observed  that  the  metals  used  are 
dissimilar;  that  a  plate  of  copper  and  one 
of  zinc  unite  at  e,  and  that  there  ore  wires 
fixed  to  the  other  two  plates,  which  as  yet 
are  in  no  way  connected.  Whilst  things 
are  in' this  state,  nothing  will  take  place; 
the  battery  is  at  rest,  and  no  electricity  is 
evolved  by  it ;  but  if  we  join  the  two  wires, 
a  current  of  electricity  will  immediately 
pass,  and  this  current  will  continue  till  we 
again  separate  the  wires.  If  two  plates  of 
metal  are  placed  in  a  solution  which  will 
only  dissolve  one  of  them,  and  their  upper 
edges  aie  brought  into  contact,  whilst  the 
others  are  kept  apart,  a  current  will  pass 
from  one  to  the  other  through  the  solution, 
and,  passing  also  from  one  to  the  other  at 
the  point  of  contact,  will  continue  thus 
circulating,  till  either  the  soluble  matter  is 
consumed,  or  the  liquid  itself  is  saturated — 
that,  is,  has  dissolved  as  much  metal  as  it 
is  capable  of  dissolving.  This  is  always 
the  ease ;  but  often  the  effect  is  so  slight, 
that  it  is  rarely  perceptible.  Take  a  piece 
of  silver,  and  a  piece  of  zinc  the  size  of  a 
half-crown;  place  one  upon  the  tip  of  the 
tongue,  the  other  under  it;  bring  their 
.  into   contact,    and  what    is  called  a 

6h<"  k  will  be  perceptible  ;  that  is,  the  saliva 
acting  upon  the  zinc  and  not  upon  the 
silver,  a  small  hi-iery  is  made,  and  the 
electricity  passes  from  the  zinc  through  the 
tongue  to  the  rifver,  thence  to  the  zinc 
a^ftin.  and  thus  circulates  till  you  part  the 
edges  of  the  metals.    The  shock  is  very 


l  slight,    being    chiefly   known    oy  an   acid 
j  taste ;  nor  would  it  be  felt  at  all,  but  that 
|  the  tongue  is  so  acutely  sensitive.    We  have 
I  called  this  a  small  battery,  but  it  is  scarcely 
|  a  correct  term  ;  it  is  a  single  voltaic  pair — 
a  battery,  in  its  proper  sense,  being  made 
up  by  a  union  of  two  or  more  such  pairs, 
as  in'the  case  of  the  one  above.     In  prac- 
tice, a  battery  consists  of  twelve  or  more 
such  pairs ;  and  the  following  sketch  repre- 
sents one  commonly  used  in  working  the 
electric  telegraph: — 

Fig.  2. 

111!    M 


Fig.  3. 
It  contains  twenty-four  pairs  of  zinc  and 
copper  plates,  about  four  inches  square. 
Each  pair  are  soldered  together  by  means 
of  a  strap  of  metal,  as  in  Fig.  3.  To"  make  it 
quite  clear,  we  have  drawn  but  twelve  pairs 
in  section,  and  lettered  the  alternate  piat.es, 
z  standing  for  zinc,  and  c  for  copper,  'ihe 
trough  in  which  they  are  placed  is  either 
made  of  baked  wood,  glass,  eartlie.  ware, 
or  gutta-percha;  the  only  requisite  being 
that  it  is  a  non-conductor  of  electricity — 
that  is,  such  a  substance  as  electricity  will 
not  readily  pass  through.  The  last  plate  at 
one  end  is  zinc,  and  the  other  copper,  and  a 
wire  is  soldered  to  each.  If  these  wires  are 
joined,  a  current  of  electricity  will  pass 
from  the  zinc  plate  to  which  one  is  attached, 
through  the  exciting  liquid,  which  is  here 
sulphuric  acid  and  water,  to  the  copper 
plate  in  the  same  cell,  thence  by  the  metal 
strap  to  the  zinc  of  the  next  cell,  and  thus 
through  the  whole  series  to  the  other  single 
plate,  whence  it  passes  by  the  wires  to  the 
first  zinc  plate  again,  liut  as  each  pair  of 
plates  produce  similar  currents,  their  com- 
bined power  is  very  great,  and  a  large 
quantity  of  electricity  passes  through  the 
terminal  wires.  So  much  for  the  battery. 
We  will  now  go  a  step  further,  and  learn 
an  extraordinary  effect  which  it  is  capable 
of  producing.  You  know  what  a  magnet  is, 
and  many  of  yon  have,  we  dare  say,  seen  a 
mariner's  compass — if  not,  we  must  I 
toll  you  what  it  is.  It  consists  of  a  flat 
piece  of  steel,  of  this  shape,  winch  is  called 
a  needle.  ^^ — — ^- .^^This  is  sus- 
pended on  *^=-- — —Z~--~*~~~'^ **  point,  by 
means  of  a  small  hole,  or  rather  conical  in- 


A.   MISCELLANY   OF   USEFUL    KNOWLEDGE. 


drntion  made  in  its  centre.  This  needle 
being  magnetised,  and  thus  impended,  will 
always  point  in  the  tame  direction,  one  cud 
being  directed  to  the  north,  the  other  to  the 
6outh  ;  and  it.  thus  enables  the  sailor  to  go 
in  any  direction  he  may  desire.  For  if  lie 
knows  where  these  points  are,  lie  can  tell 
the  east  and  west;  and  if,  as  is  always  done, 
a  can!  is  placed  hclow  the  needle,  with  the 
intermediate  points  carefully  marked  upon 
it,  lie  has  no  difficulty  in  steering  exactly 
to  any  place  of  which  he  knows  the  posi- 
tion ;  and  thus  the  compass  19  to  the  sailor 
on  the  pathless  drop  just  what  the  direct  ton 
post  is  to  the  traveller.  Now,  if  we  take 
such  a  needle  as  we  have  described,  and 
suspend  it  vertically  on  an  axis  passing 
through  its  centre,  and  then,  by  means  of  a 
wire,  pass  a  current  from  our  battery  round 
it  thus,  the  needle  will  take  up  a  new  posi- 


retnrns  to  the  other   pole  of  the  battery; 
thus  the  current,  leaving  the  battery  by  the 


Fig.  5. 
tion  at  right  angles  to  that  which  it  main- 
tained  before,  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines. 
"V\  lather  the  upper  point,  or  north  pole,  of 
die  moves  to  the  right  or  left  in 
order  to  attain  this  position  depends  00  the 
direction  of  the  current.  'J bus  we  have 
arrived  at  the  principle  of  an  electric  tele- 
graph. We  have  but  to  agiee  upon  a  set 
01  signals  that  the  deflection  of  the  needle 
shall  signify  ;  and  if  we  can  contrive  to 
send  the  current  in  the  direction  we  wish, 
so  as  to  move  the  north  pole  of  the  needle 
to  the  right  or  left  at  will,  the  apparatus 
will  be  complete.  But,  in  practice,  it  is 
necessary  that  we  should  be  able  to  move, 
as  we  please,"  a  similar  needle  to  our  own, 
at  the  station  to  which  we  desire  to  send 
the  message.  In  order  to  accomplish  this, 
we  have  but  to  conduct  the  current  from 
one  station  to  the  other  by  means  of  an 
insulated  wire.  This  will  be  easily  under- 
stood by  the  following  diagram,  where  the 
battery  is  represented  at  A,  and  the  diffe- 
rent stations  at  B,  at  each  of  which  the 
needles  have  their  north  poles  upwards; 
and  the  wire  conveying  the  current  passes 
m  the  same  direction  round  all,  and  lastly 


Pig.6. 

copper  or  positive  end,  <?,  will  traverse  the 
wire  in  the  direction  of  the  arrows,  deflect 
the  needles  in  Ihe  same  direction  at  the 
different  stations,  and  return  to  the  zinc  or 
negative  end  of  the  battery  by  the  same 
wire. 

We  will  now  tell  you  a  very  curious  fact 
about  the  return  of  the  current*  The 
return  zvire  is  not  necessary,  nor  is  it  now 
put  in  practice;  for  a  man  named  Stern- 
rieil  proved,  in  1837,  that  if  we  buried  deep 
in  the  ground  the  end  of  the  wire,  attach- 
ing it  to  a  plate  of  metal,  the  earth  it-elf 
would  conduct  the  current  haek  again,  'bus 
saving  the  cost  of  a  return  wire.  Thus, 
in  the  figure  above,  we  have  represented 
this  by  dotted  lines,  anil  marked  tin-  direc- 
tion of  the  return  current  by  double  an-ows, 
N  0  being  the  plates  of  metal,  and  having, 
the  wires  attached  to  them. 


Fig.  7. 


3 


FACTS  FOB,  EVERYBODY: 


We  will  now  explain  the  instrument  by 
which  communication  is  made  with  the 
battery,  and  which  is  qualified  not  only  to 
geml.  but  also  to  receive  signals.  It  is 
represented  by  Figs.  7  and  8;  Fig.  7  being  the 
exterior,  and  Fig.  8  the  interior.  The  needles 
in  Tig.  7  (tor  there  are  usually  two;  are  on 
the  same  axis  as  the,  ones  on  which  the 
electric  current  acts,  only  their  poles  are 
reversed, — the  north  pole  of  the  one  being 
opposite  the  south  pole  of  the  otherr  by 
which  the  effect  of  the  earth's  magnetism  is 
annulled,  and  they  are  the  more  power- 
fully inliuenced  by  the  electric  current. 
It  is  by  means  of  these  outer  needles  that 
the  signals  arc  read  :  they  are  prevented 
from  deflecting  too  far  from  their  vertical  or 
Upright  position  by  two  ivory  studs,  one  on 
oaehside;  and  thus  the  signalling  is  ren- 
dered more  certain  and  rapid  than  if  they 
wen-  allowed  to  oscillate  further.  The 
handles  at  the  lower  part  of  the  instrument 
are  lor  moving  the  barrel  in  the  interior, 
the  one  at  the  side  for  ringing  a  signal  bell, 
which  is  also  effected  by  electricity. 


FW.  8. 

In  Figure  8,  we  are  looking  at  the  back 
of  the  instrument,  the  case  being  removed. 
B  is  the  coil  of  wire  for  passing  a  current 
of  electricity  round  a  magnetic  needle  sus- 
pended in  'it  by  its  axis.  In  the  former 
drawing,  the  wire  passes  but  once  round 
the  needle  ;  but  bv  winding  it  round  several 
times,  as  here  shown,  the  effect  is  greatly 
increased.  W,  W,  are  the  wires  which 
transmit  the  current  to  and  from  the  dis- 
tant station.  We  will  now  see,  first,  how 
the  instrument  is  calculated  to  recei 
nals.  C  is  a  cylinder  of  box-wood,  capped 
at  each  end  with  brass;  I),  P,  H,  0,  are 


slips  of  metal,  the  shape  of  which  is  seen 
clearly  on  the  left  side  of  the  barrel ;  a 
piece  of  wood.  K,  projects  from  the  front  of 
the  case,  having  a  metal  bar,  about  an  inch 
!  in  length,  inserted  through  the  end,  Stand* 
|  ing  across  it,  as  in  the  figure.  Now,  if 
W,  W",  are  connected  at  the  distant  Btataon 
with  the  two  poles  of  a  battery,  a  current 
will  pass  along  one  of  these  wires,  W,  and 
along  the  slip  of  metal,  0,  to  the  coil,  B, 
having,  in  its  passage  round  this,  deflected 
the  needle,  thereby  making  a  signal ;  it 
will  descend  by  a,  down  the  slip  of  metal,  x, 
thence  to  the  spring,  e  (which  is  a  part  of 
the  same  Blip),  through  the  metal  bar  tc  £, 
and  thence  by  F  to  W",  and  to  the  other 
pole  of  the  battery.  "We  have  told  you  that 
this  return  \vire,'W",  is  not  used  m  prac- 
tice: nor  is  it;  but  by  supposing  it  to 
exist  here,  the  direction  of  toe  current  is 
more  easily  understood.  We  have,  by  the 
dotted  lines,  shown  the  buried  plate  at- 
tached to  this  wire.  You  should  look  well 
at  the  figure,  and  read  this  description  of 
receiving  signals  several  times,  till  you  see 
it  clearly  ;  for  though  at  first  sight,  the  ap- 
paratus appears  very  complicated,  it  is  not 
so  ;  these  slips  of  brass,  so  curiously  shaped, 
being  all  that  is  required  to  receive  signals; 
to  send  them,  the  cylinder  C  is  added,  the 
action  of  which  we  will  now  explain.  The 
furthest  end  of  it  is  joined  to  one  of  the 
handles  seen  in  Fig.  7,  by  which  it  is  made 
to  revolve  in  either  direction.  Supposing, 
then,  we  move  this  handle  so  as  to  cause 
the  small  metal  pin  z  to  press  against  the 
spring  e,  we  can  thus  remove  the  end  of  this 
spring  from  the  short  bar  against  which  it 
rested,  whilst  the  pin  y  at  the  other  end  of 
the  cylinder  will  touch  the  curved  end  of 
the  slip  F  (both  these  pins  are  fixed  into 
the  metal  caps  at  the  ends  of  the  cylinder). 
The  current  will  now  pass  from  the  battery 
by  the  spring  H  to  the  brass  cap  of  the 
cylinder,  thence  bj  the  pin  z  toe;  4  being 
removed  from  the  short  bar,  and  the  current 
thus  cut  off  in  that  direction,  it  will  pass  to 
z,  which  is  a  part  of  the  same  slip  as  e, 
thence  round  the  coil  deflecting  the  needle, 
and  passing  to  the  next  station  by  the  slip  o, 
and  wire  W,  will  deflect  the  needle  there, 
and  return  by  the  earth-current  to  \V. 
Although  it  is  a  crooked  path,  the  electric 
current  traverses  it  so  quieklv  that  no  per- 
ceptible time  elapses  between  the  movement 
of  the  needle  at  our  own  instrument  and 
the  various  needles  of  all  the  telegraphs  on 
the  line.  Each  handle  has  a  separate  cylin- 
der, and  each  needle  a  separate  coil,  one 
only  bein^  represented  for  the  sake  of  clear- 
ness.    Every  word  of  the  message  sent  is 


A.  KISCEIXAirr   OF"   rSTFTTL    KVOWLTIPOT!. 


B 


spelt  letter  by  letter,  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  times  that  each  needle  moves.    The 

following  is  one  of  the  usual  alphabets,  and 

(as  iii  Fig.  7)  this  is  commonly  inscribed  on 

e  of  the  instrument    It  is  the  code 

of  a  single  needle  : — 

A — I'nc  movement  to  the  left. 

B-Two  left. 

C-'i  hree  left. 

D— Four  left. 

E  -One  left,  one  ricrht. 

F— One  left,  two  right. 

6— One  left,  thn  e  right. 

H— Two  left,  one  riRlik. 

1— Two  left,  two  ri.hr. 

J— Two  left,  three  right. 

K— Three  left,  one 
•    L— Three  left,  two  right; 

M— Four  left,  one  right.       \ 

N— One  right. 

O— Two  right. 

P— Three  right. 

Q— Four  Hght. 

K— ( >ne  right,  one  left. 

S— Two  right;  one  left, 

T— Three  right,  one  1- ft. 

U— One  right,  two  left-. 

V— Two  right,  two  left. 

W-  Three  right,  two  left. 

X— One  riant,  three  left. 

T— Two  right,  ihree  left. 

Z— One  right,  four  left. 
"With  two  needled  the  alphabet  is  some- 
what  different;  but  you  will  now  under- 
stand how  the  movement  of  the  needles 
can  shinty  words;  and  we  think  you  must 
now  have  a  very  good  idea  of  the  machinery 
of  an  electric  "telegraph.  We  shall  now 
show  you  how  the  alarum  is  rung  by  elec- 
tricity, to  give  the  clerk  at  the  instrument 
notice  that  a  message  is  about  to  be  sent  to 
Lun,  that  he  may  be  at  his  post,  and  ready 
to  watch  the  needles,  and  read. 

"Wonderful  as  it  may  appear,  an  electric 
current  passing  round  a  piece  of  soft  iron 
will  instantly  convert  it  into  a  magnet ; 
but  its  magnetic  properties  cease  as  soon  as 
the  current  stops.  In  the  telegraph  alarum 
this  effect  of  electricity  is  thus  applied  : — 
A  is  a  piece  of  soft  iron,  bent  into  the  form 
of  a  horse-shoe  ;  some  covered  copper  wire 
is  wound  round  it,  the  ends,  U  and  C,  being 
left  loose  for  the  purpose  of  connecting  them 
with  the  battery,  I)  is  a  piece  ox  steel, 
connected  with  the  lever,  E;  the  other  end 
of  which  forms  a  detent  or  catch,  which  falls 
into  one  of  the  notches  in  the  wheel,  F. 
This  wheel,  when  the.  catch  is  removed, 
Will  revolve  by  a  spring,  and,  like  the 
movement  in  a  common  clock,  acts  on  the 
hammer,  II,  which  strikes  the  bell,  Gr.  B 
and  C  are  connected  with  the  distant  sta- 
tion by  a  wire,  as  the  needle  apparatus. 
When  the  operator,  therefore,  at  that  sta- 
tion sends  a  current  from  his  battery  along 


this   wire,   A  will  become   a   magnet,  nnd 
attract  the  keeper,  1),  this,  by  means  of  the 

levers,  will  release  the  wheel,  F,   and  the 


Fig.  9. 
clock-work  will  cause  the  hammer  to  strike 
the  bell.  This  will  call  the  attention  of  the 
operator,  who  will  return  the  signal  and 
watch  the  movement  of  the  needles,  road 
the  message,  and  send  the  reply  in  the  same 
manner. 

BAROMETERS,  (HOW  TO  CONSULT 
THEM.)  In  wry  hot  weather,  the  fall  of 
the  mercury  denotes  thunder.  Otherwise, 
a  sudden  fall  denotes  high  wind. 

In  frosty  weather,  the  fall  of  the  baro- 
meter denotes  thaw. 

If  wet  weather  happens  soon  after  the  fall 
of  the  barometer,  expect  little  of  it. 

In  wet  weather,  if  the  barometer  falls,  ex- 
pect much  wet. 

In  fair  weather,  if  the  barometer  falls 
much,  and  remains  low,  expect  much  wet 
in  a  few  days,  and  probably  wind. 

A7".  B. — The  barometer  sinks  lowest  of  all 
for  wind  and  rain  together;  next  to  that 
for  wind — (except  it  be  an  east  or  north- 
west wind.) 

In  winter,  the  rise  of  the  barometer 
denotes  frost. 

In  frosty  weather  the  rise  of  the  baro- 
meter indicates  snow. 

If  fair  weather  happens  soon  after  the 
rise  of  the  barometer,  expect  but  liltle«of  it. 

In  wet  weather,  if  the  barometei 
high,  and  remains  so,  expect  continued  fine 
weather  in  a  day  or  two. 

In  wet  weather,  if  the  mercury  rises  sud- 
denly very  high,  fine  weather  will  not  last 
long. 

ABORIGINES.  A  term  by  which  we  de- 
note the  primitive  inhabitants  of  a  country. 


10 


FACTS   FOE.  EVE11VB0DT. 


FILTERS.  The  employment  of  a  com- 
mon flower-pot,  of  largo  dimensions,  which 
may  be  suspended  to  a  beam,  or  otherwise 
secured  in  an  elevated  situation, 
makes  a  good  and  inexpensive 
filter.  Into  this  pot  lay  a  mix- 
ture of  clean  sand,  and  some 
charcoal  broken  into  bits  about 
the  size  of  peas,  and  into  the  hole 
of  the  flower-pot  place  a  small 
plug,  drilled  through  the  centre, 
by  which  the  filtered  water  may 
be  conducted  to  the  pitcher  be- 
low. The  water  may  be  doubly 
filtered  by  employing  twoflower- 
pots,  one  suspended  over  the 
pr  other,  with  a  piece  of  sponge  in 
the  hole  of  the  pot,  the  under 
one  being  prepared  as  directed.  The  sand 
and  charcoal  should  occasionally  be  taken 
out  and  well  washed,  or  be  replaced  by  new 
materials. 

CAMERA  ORSCURA.  The  simplest 
form  of  the  Camera  Obscura  consists  of  a 
darkened  room,  with  a  round  hole  in  the 
window-shutter,  through  which  the  light 
enters.  Pictures  of  opposite  objects  will 
then  be  seen,  inverted,  on  the  wall,  or  on  a 
white  screen  placed  so  as  to  receive  the  rays. 


r> 


"We  give  here  a  very  simple  form  of  Camera, 
which  our  readers  may  easily  construct. 
A  B  C  D  is  a  small  rectangular  box,  closed 
on  all  sides,  except  the  space  EFGD, 
which  is  covered  with  a  piece  of  ground 
glass.  In  the  other  end  is  a  moveable  tube, 
T,  with  a  proper  lens;  and  in  the  body,  of 
the  box  is  a  mirror,  E  I  II  D,  set  to  an 
angle  of  45  dog.  Upon  this  mirror  the 
imase  of  the  object,  P  Q,  falls,  and  is  re- 
flected upon  the  ground-glass  plate. 

CLEANING  DECANTERS.  Those  en- 
crusted with  the  dregs  of  port  wine,  will  be 
readily  freed  from  stain  by  washing  them 
with  the  refuse  of  the  teapot,  leaves  and  all, 
whilst  warm.  Dip  the  decanter  into  a  ves- 
eel  containing  warm  water,  to  prevent  the 
hot  tea  leaves  from  cracking  the  glass,  then 
empty  the  teapot  into  the  decanter,  and  a 
few  strokes  will  clean  it.  The  tannin  of  the 
tea  has  a  chemical  affinity  for  the  crust  on 
the  glass. 

TO  CLEAN  PAPER  OF  ROOMS. 
Few  things  can  be  -devised  better  for  this 


purpose  than  the  old-fashioned  one  of  rob- 
ing the  paper  with  stale  bread  ;  but  where 
the  paper  is  greasy,  occasioned  by  persons 
reclining  their  heads  against  the  wall,  it  ia 
advisable  to  use  a  piece  of  flannel,  wetted 
with  spiritsof  wine,  or  Smith's  scouring  drops, 
a  mixture  of  turpentine  and  essence  of  lemon. 

ABACUS.  An  instrument  employed  to 
facilitate  arithmetical  calculations.  The 
name  may  be  given  with  propriety  to  any 
machine  for  reckoning  i 
w  ith  counters,  beads, 
Arc, in  which  one  line  is  j 
made  to  stand  for  units, 
another  ior  tens,  and  so  | 
on.  We  have  here  given 
the  form  of  an  abacus, 
such  as  we  may  recom- 
mend, for  the  purpose  of  J 
teaching  the  first  prin- 
ciples of  arithmetic,  the  j 
only  use,  as  far  as  we 
know,  to  which  such  an 
instrument  is  put  in 
this  country.  Its  length 
should  be  about  three 
times  its  breadth."  It 
consists  of  a  frame,  tra- 
versed by  stiff  wires,  on 
which  beads  or  counters  I 
are  strung  so  as  to  move  : 
easily.  The  beads  on\ 
the  first  right  hand  row  || 
are  units,  those  on  the  ! 
next  tens,  and  so  on. 
Thus,  as  it  stands,  the  number  57048  is 
represented  upon  the  lower  part  of  it. 

There  is  an  instrument  sold  in  the  toy 
shops  with  twelve  wires,  and  twelve  beads 
on  each  wire,  for  teaching  the  multiplication 
table,  and  for  this  purpose  much  used  in  our 
National  Infant  Schools.  The  Russians  are 
also  much  in  the  habit  of  performing  calcu- 
lations by  strings  of  beads.  In  China,  how- 
ever, where  the  whole  system  is  decimal, 
this  instrument,  called  in  Chinese  shwanpan, 
is  universally  used.  The  word  Abax  was 
the  Greek  term  for  this  instrument.  Their 
abacus  differs  from  that  described  in  having 
only  five  beads  on  each  line,  one  of  which  is 
distinguished  by  colour  or  size  from  the  rest. 

ABBATTOIR.  The  name  given  by  the 
French  to  the  public  slaughter-houses, 
which  were  established  in  Paris,  by  a  decree 
of  Napoleon,  in  1810,  and  finished  in  18  i 8. 
These  buildings,  which  are  of  very  large  di- 
mensions, Consist  of  slaughter-rooms,  built 
of  stone,  with  every  arrangement  for  clean- 
liness, and  with  ample  mechanical  aids. 
An  endeavour  was  made  to  establish  thera 
in  England,  but  it  failed. 


A    MISCELLANY   OF   USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


11 


-<=d; 


AESENTC  (TO  DETECT).     Ajaenic  is 
[y  soluble  in  any  organic  mixtures, 
and  may  generally  be  found  as  a  wrhi 
roent,  which,  when  thrown  upon  ;i  red-hot 
cinder,  gives  out  a  Btrowg  odour,  like  that  of 
onions,  and  a  thick  white  Bmoke.    The  best 
the  following: — Pour   two    table- 
ipeoted  Quid  into  a  six 
ounce  bottle,  and  add  seven  table-spoonsful 
of  water      Then  pour  in    one   table-spoon- 
ful of  sulphuric  acid.     Having  prepared  a 
cork  with  a  piece  of  to- 
bacco-pipe run   through 
it,  drop  into  the  bottle  a 
few  scraps  of  zinc.     Hy- 
drogen     gas     will      be 
evolved,     which,     after 
■waiting    two     or    three 
minutes,  may  be  lighted. 
If  amnio  is  present,  the 
onion  6inell  will  be  de- 
tected,    and    the    llame 
will  have  a  blnei-h-white   colour.    Upon 
holding  a  piece  of  glass,  or  a  white  saucer, 
Le  point  of  the  flame,  black  metallic 
.  in  fine  crystals,  and  white  arsenic, 
ied.     Common  arsenic  cauuo t 
y  the  taste. 
LIGHTNING.     To  avoid  accidents  from 
rag  during  a  thunder-storm,   sit  or 
as  near   the  middle  of  the  room  as 
possible.     Avoid  going  near  the  windows  or 
walls,  and  put  knives,  scissors,  and  all  kinds 
1    utensils  out   of   the    way.     Avoid 
standing    near    pipes,     iron-rail. ngS,     and 
i  if  caught  in  a  storm  in 
intry,  do  not  shelter  yourself  by  any 
under  trees.     On  a  wide  and  open" 
heath,  where   no  house  shelter  can  be  ob- 
tained, the  safest  plan  is  to  lie  down  flat  on 
the  earth. 
Stroke    of    Lightning.      Throw   cold 
ipon  a  person  struck  by  lightning.     It 
is  said  to  be  of  very  greatbenefit,  if  not  a 
positive  cure. 

Lightm.vg-Coxductors  should  be  made 
of  copper,  or  preferably  of  iron ;  if  of  the  latter 
metal,  the  pointed  "extremity  should  be 
gilded  to  prevent  rust:  they  "should  be  of 
ut  diameter;  should  project  some 
feet  above  the  highest  point  of  the  building, 
and  -ink  some  feet  into  the  groun  1,  till  they 
meet  with  moisture;  and  should  be  per- 
fectly insulated  from  the  building  they  are 
■d  to  protect,  by  being  made  to  pass 
through  glass  rings  wherever  they  come  in 
contact  with  it. 

ABBREVIATIONS *are  of  two  kinds; 
fir  \  those  which  are  used  in  familiar  Speech, 
by  which  two  words  are  made  one,  as  can't 
for  cannot,  won't  for  will  not,  and  those 
*From  "  OOOBTJXIX'8  Dl< 


which  are  employed  in  writing  only.  The 
Rabbins  carried  this  practice  to  a  great  ax- 
tent;  thus  for  Rabbi  Levi  ben  Gerson,  they 
took  the  first  letters,  it.  L.  B.  G.  In  the 
middle  as  *  the  practice  of  abbreviating  in- 
many  wrili; 
came  unintelligible,  and  in  matters  of  Law 
and  government  the  difficulties  thus  created 
demanded  prompt  legislative  interposition; 
accordingly,  in  the  fourth  year  of  George 
II..  an  act  was  passed  forbidding  tli^ 
abbreviations  in  legal  documents.  Within 
a  year  or  two  this  act  was  so  far  mod 
allowing  the  use  of  those  of  common  occur- 
rence, but  the  old  practice  was  never  com- 
pletely revived.  The  most  important  are  :  — 

I1TL1  s. 

A.M.  Master  of  Arts.  M.D.  Medicinck  Doctor, 

Abp.  Archbishop.  Doctor  of  .Medicine. 

Bp.  Bishop.  LL.l).    Legum   Doctor, 

Bt.  Baronet.  Doctor  of  Laws. 

B.A.  Bachelor  of  Arts.  Messrs.     Mrssiours, 

Att.  Gen.  (Law)  Attor-  Masters  {Misters)  pi. 

ney  General.  of  Mr. 

Atty.  (Law)  Attorned.  P.M.      (Postal)      Post- 

A.G.   (Military)  Adjut-  master. 

nut  General.  P.M.G.      Post     Master 

A.G.  (Official)  Account-  General. 

ing  General.  Pros.  U.S.  (Executive) 

A.G.     (Law)    Attorney  President  of  the  Uni- 

■  ml.  ted  8 

Aid.  (Civic)  Afdertnan.  Pres.     U.S.S.    Presi- 

D.D.    (University    De-  dent    of    the    Unreel 

trree)         Divinitatia  i- 

JJuc/or,  Doctor  of  Di-  Pres.    (Official)    Presi- 

vinitv.  ident. 

Dr.  (Varimis)  Doctor.  Pro".  (Literary)  Profes- 

Esq.  orEsqre,  Esquire.  sor. 

Gen.  or  Genl.  (Various)  Rt.      Rev.      or    Revd. 

General.  (Episcopal) 

Gov.  or  Govt.  (Official)  Reverend. 

Governor.  Sec.                        retary. 

Lieut.  (Naval   or  Mili-  S.  oi  the  H.  of  i:. 

tary)  Lieutenant  er   of   the  House   of 

M.A.  (r.  A.M.)  Mister  Representatives. 

of  Arts.  B.TJ.S.N.  Secretary  Uni- 

Maj.  (Military)  Major.  ted  States  Navy. 
0OMlir.!:ciAi.. 

Or.  Creditor.  L.-.D.     Pounds,    Shil- 

Dr.  Debtor.  lings,  and   i 

Do.  or  ditto,  the  same.       A.L.i*.    Acres,     itoods, 

No.  X amber.  and  Poles. 

Fo.  Folio.  CwtQr.  I  b.  Os.  Ilun- 

4to.  Quarto. 

8vo.  Octavo.  Pounds,  and  Ounces. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

A.D.  the  year   of  our  2tf.y.   New    Style   (after 

Lord.     "  the  tear  l< 

A.M.  the   year  of  the  O.S.  O.d  Style    (before 

Id.  1762). 

A.M.  before  noon.  Nern.  eon.  without coa« 

!hiist,  tradiction. 

i.e.  thai  is  to  -ay.  P.M.  Afternoon, 

ib.  in  the  same  place.  P.  \  Postscript. 

ult.  the  Inst  month. 

M.C.  (Legislative)  v 

Member  of  Congress.  F.D                       of  the 

MS.  Manuscript,  Faith. 

NJJ.  Observe.  D.G.Bj  tbegraeeoftM. 

i-.i'.tvi  \i  i.. .<o.  '    Dick  6c  Fitzgerald.   Prioel3o*a. 


12 


FACTS. FOR  EVERYBODY: 


EXERCISES,  (IN-DOOR).  Females 
much  confined  within  doors  often  sutler  ill 
health  from  the  want  of  exercise.  Nature 
demands  it,  and  health  cannot  exist  without 
it.  The  skipping-rope,  dumb-bells,  battle- 
door  and  shuttle  cock,  &c.  are  all  aids  to 
the  required  end.  Dancing  is  one  of  the 
best  preservatives  of 
®  health,    when     en- 

Q  joyed      at     proper 

a  hours,  and  not  car- 

■q  ried  to  excess.     But 

this  exercise  can 
only  be  obtained 
upon  particular  oc- 
casions, when  there 
are  many  to  share  it, 
and  glad  music  con- 
tributes to  heighten 
the  enjoyment. 
Really  the  best  in- 
door exercise  for  de- 
veloping a  graceful 
bearing,  and  for  dif- 
fusing its  healthful 
influence  over  the 
whole  frame,  is  that 
of  throwing  balls 
dexterously,  accord- 
ing to  any  of  the  contrivances  of  fancy. 
Persons  who  become  expert  in  this  practice 
may  throw  from  one  to  eight  balls  with 
astonishing  dexterity,  the  exercise  _  being 
sufficiently  stimulating  to  encourage  its  fre- 
quent repetition ;  quickening  the  eye,  and 
imparting  a  healthful  vigour  to  every 
muscle  of  the  system.  A  few  neat  leather 
balls  are  all  that  are  required,  and  a  room 
of  moderate  size  will  afford  sufficient  space. 
Dumb-bells  are  cumbrous,  and  inelegant 
tilings,  and  the  exercise  they  afford  is  mono- 
tonous and  wearisome ;  besides  which,  they 
exercise  but  one  part  of  the  body. 

USEFUL  FACTS.  A  surveyor's  chain  is 
4  poles,  or  17  feet,  divided  into  a  hundred 
links,  or  7i>2  inches.  A  square  chain  is  16 
square  poles,  and  ten  square  chains  is  an  acre. 
Four  roods  are  an  acre,  each  containing  1,240 
*quure  yards,  or  37,7!S7  feet,  or  24  yards,  28 
inches  on  each  side.  A  pole  is  5j  yards  each 
way.  A  square  mile,  1,760  yards  each  way, 
i-  640  acres  ;  half  a  mile,  or  880  yards  each 
way,  is  l(i0  acres;  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  440 
yards  each  way,  is  a  park  or  farm  of  40  acres  ; 
and  a  furlong,  or  220  yards  each  way,  is  10 
acres. 

ARDENT  SPIRITS,  Ten  American  Presi- 
dents, from  Madison  to  Buchanan,  inclusive, 
have  signed  a  paper  declaring  their  convic- 
tion that  ardent  spirits  as  a  drink  are  not 
onlv  needless,  but,  hurtful. 


ETCHING  UPON  IVORY.      Cover  the 

ivory  with  wax,  hard  varnished,  or  an  etch- 
ing ground,  execute  the  required  design, 
border  with  wax,  and  pour  on  sulphuric 
acid,  hydrocloric  acid,  or  a  mixture  OI  equal 
parts  of  both  acids ;  when  etched  sufficiently, 
wash  well,  remove  the  wax,  varnish,  or 
etching  ground  with  oil  of  turpentine,  and 
rub  well  with  old  linen  rag.  Some  persona 
rub  a  black  varnish  into  the  etched  parts  to 
give  a  greater  effect.  The  varnish  is  made 
of  lamp-black  and  common  turpentine  var- 
nish, and  the  surface  is  rubbed  clean  off, 
leaving  only  the  dark  parts  visible. 

Etching* (Upon  Egg-shells).  Cover  the 
shells  with  appropriate  designs  in  tallow, 
or  varnish,  and  immerse  in  strong  acetic 
acid ;  they  wilL  then  come  out  in  strong 
relief. 

HIVES,  (COTTAGE).  There  are  various 
descriptions  of  hives  in  general  use.  With- 
out recommending  any  particular  kind,  we 
give  a  representation  of  one  which  is  simple 
and  effective.  This  is  capped  with  a  bell- 
glaas;  the  small  hive  used  as  a  cover  for 


which  is  raised,  and  has  part  of  the  side  out 
away  to  show  the  bell-glass.  The  dome 
shape  is  preferable  to  a  square  or  cylinder, 
as  affording  more  perfect  ventilation,  ana 
as  being  more  in  accordance  with  the  clus- 
tering position  of  the  bees  themselves,  either 
in  winter  or  during  swarming. 

FUMIGATING  BEE-HIVES.    Fumiga- 
tion  is  a   word  employed  by   bee-keepers 


A  MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL    KNOWLEDGE. 


13 


to  express  the  process  in  which,  by  the  aid 
of  certain  intoxicating  smoke,  the  insects 
become  temporarily  Btupified  in  which  state 

they  are  perfectly  harmless,  and  may  be 
deprived  of  their  honey  with- 
out any  risk  or  trouble.  They 
subsequently  soon  recover 
from  their  stupification,  and 
are  none  the  worse  for  it. 
Rags  steeped  in  a  solution  of 
saltpetre,  or  a  few  tobacco 
leaves  wrapped  in  brown 
paper,  Avill  do.  If,  however, 
tobacco  is  used,  care  is  neces- 
sary, lest  the  fumigation  be 
carried  to  too  great  an  ex- 
tent, so  as  to  cause  the  death 
of  some  of  your  stock.  Per- 
sons not  accustomed  to  deal 
with  bees  should  wear  an 
overall  of  thin  gauze  over 
the  head  and  breast,  and 
gloves  on  their  hands.  With 
this,  and  a  little  bottle  of 
aqua  -  ammonia,  or  aqua- 
potassa?,  to  be  used  i  I  case  of 
their  being  stung,  they  have 
no  cause  for  trepidation.  For 
the  process  of  fumigation, 
you  should  have  a  small  tin 
box,  with  a  tube  extending 
from  each  of  the  two  oppo- 
site ends ;  one  end  of  this 
tube  being  so  fashioned  that  it  can  readily 
be  inserted  into  the  hive,  and  the  other  so 
formed  that  it  can  readily  be  attached  to 
the  tube  of  an  ordinary  bellows,  as  in  the 
annexed  engraving. 

EYE,  (SUBSTANCES  IN  THE).  To  re- 
move fine  particles  of  gravel,  lime,  &c, 
the  eye  should  be  syringed  with  lukewarm 
water  till  free  from  them.  Be  particular 
not  to  worry  the  eye  under  the  impression 
that  the  substance  is  still  there,  which  the 
enlargement  of  some  of  the  minute  vessels 
makes  the  patient  believe  is  actually  the 
case. — Or,  bathe  the  eye  with  a  little  weak 
vinegar  and  water,  and  carefully  remove 
any  little  piece  of  lime  which  may  be  seen, 
with  a  feather.  If  any  lime  has  got  en- 
tangled in  the  eyelashes,  carefully  clear  it 
away  with  a  bit  of  soft  linen  soaked  in 
vinegar  and  water.  Inflammation  is  sure 
to  follow ;  a  smart  purge  must  therefore  be 
adminstered. 

1- 1  HE.  The  following  are  among  the  best 
Precautions  in  Cases  ofFihe.  1.  Should 
a  fire  break  out,  send  off  to  the  nearest  en- 
gine or  police  station.  2.  Fill  buckets  with 
water,  carry  them  as  near  the  tire  as  possible, 
dip  a  mop  into  the  water,  and  throw  it  in 
2 


showers  on  the  fire  until  assistance  arrives. 
3.  If  a  fire  is  violent,  wet  a  blanket  and 
throw  it  on  the  part  in  flames.  4.  Should 
a  lire  break  out  in  a  chimney,  a  blanket 
wetted  should  be  nailed  to  the  upper-end  of 
the  mantel-piece,  so  as  to  cover  the  opening 
entirely,  the  tire  will  then  go  out  of  itself ; 
for  this  purpose,  two  knobs  should  be  per- 
manently fixed  in  the  xqipcr  ends  of  the 
mantel-piece,  upon  which  the  blanket  may 
be  hitched.  5.  Should  the  bed  or  window- 
curtains  be  on  fire,  lay  hold  of  any  woollen 
garment,  and  beat  it  on  to  the  flames  until 
extinguished.  6.  Avoid  as  much  as  possible 
leaving  any  door  or  window  open  in  the 
room  where  the  fire  has  broken  out,  as  'he 
current  of  air  increases  the  force  of  the  fire. 
7.  Should  the  staircase  be  burning  so  as  to 
cut  oft'  all  communication,  endeavour  to  es- 
cape by  means  of  a  trap-door  in  the  roof,  a 
ladder  leading  to  which  should  always  be  at 
hand.  8.  Avoid  hurry  and  confusion.  9. 
In  ca9e  a  lady's  dress  takes  fire,  she' should 
endeavour  to  roll  herself  in  a  rug,  carpet, 
or  the  first  woollen  garment  she  meets  with. 
10.  A  solution  of  pearlash  in  water,  thrown 
upon  a  fire,  extinguishes  it  instantly ;  the 
proportion  is  a  quarter  of  a  pound  dissolved 
in  some  hot  water,  and  then  poured  into  a 
bucket  of  common  water. 

STIFF  NECKS,  (SUPPORT  FOR).  This 
valuable  support  should  be  made  of  black 
moreen  if  it  be  worn  with  a  black  necker- 
chief; and  of  white  ditto,  (or  mohair,)  if 
with  a  light  one.    It  is  formed  of  a  number 


of  pieces,  each  one  being  bound  with  ribbon 
only,  and  being  joined  in  the  middle  of 
each  piece  by  a  few  stitches.  The  binding 
must  be  carried  all  along  the  top  and  bottom 
but  must  be  sufficiently  loose  oetween  the 
segments  to  give  the  neck  a  comfortablo 
freedom. 

SWELLING  IN  THE  NECK.  Fourteen 
or  fifteen  nettle  seeds  ground  into  powder, 
and  taken  daily,  will  cure  the  swelling  in 
the  neck  known  by  the  name  of  goitre,  with- 
out in  any  way  injuring  the  general  habit. 

ABSOLUTION,  a  religious  ceremony  in 
use  in  different  Christian  communities,  by 
which  tht»  priest  declares  an  individual,  on 
repentance  and  submission  to  the  requisite 
penance,  to  be  absolved  from  his  sin. 

SUN -STROKE,  (PROTECTION 
AGAINST.)  A  piece  of  silk,  which  is  a  non- 
conductor, worn  as  the liningof  hat  or  bon  net, 
is  a  very  safe  protection  against  sun-stroke. 


14 


TACTS  FOE  EVERYBODY: 


OIL  PAINTINGS,  (TO  CLEAN).  The 
art  of  cleaning  oil  paintings  has  been  very 
much  neglected,  and  several  valuable  pic- 
tures have  been  destroyed  in  consequence  of 
the  persons  operating  upon  tbem  employing 
the  same  means  for  removing  all  kinds  of 
dirt,  as  they  do  for  dust  and  varnish  com- 
mingled, so  that  frequently  a  valuable 
painting  has  actually  been  scoured  away. 

Most  paintings  are  varnished,  and  as  the 
nature  of  the  varnish  differs,  so  also  must 
the  means  by  which  they  are  removed.  In 
some  cases  it  is  better  to  allow  the  varnish 
to  remain  untouched,  than  to  interfere  with 
it,  as  the  painting  might  be  damaged  in  the 
latter  instance. 

The  materials  required  consist  of  water, 
olive  oil,  pearl-ashes,  soap,  spirits  of  wine, 
oil  of  turpentine ;  sponge,  wollen  and  linen 
rags ;  essence  of  lemons,  and  stale  bread 
crumbs. 

Soluble  Varnishes,  such  as  sugar,  glue, 
honey,  gum  arabic,  isinglass,  white  of  egg, 
and  dirt  generally,  may  be  removed  by  em- 
ploying hot  water.  To  know  when  the 
painting  is  varnished  or  coated  with  such 
materials,  moisten  some  part  with  water, 
which  will  become  clammy  to  the  touch. 
To  clean  the  picture,  lay  it  horizontally 
upon  a  table  or  some  convenient  place,  and 
go  over  the  whole  surface  with  a  sponge 
dipped  in  boiling  water,  which  should  be 
used  freely  until  the  coating  begins  to 
soften ;  then  the  heat  must  be  lowered 
gradually  as  the  varnish  is  removed.  If, 
however,  the  coating  is  not  easily  removed, 
gentle  friction  with  stale  bread  crumbs,  a 
damp  linen  cloth,  or  the  end  of  the  fore- 
finger, will  generally  effect  it,  or  assist  in 
doing  so.  White  of  an  egg  may  be  removed 
(if  not  coagulated  by  heat),  by  using  an 
excess  of  albumen  (white  of  egg),  and  cold 
water;  but  if  coagulated,  by  employing  a 
weak  solution  of  a  caustic  alkali  as  potash. 

Coated  dirt  is  removed  by  washing  with 
warm  water,  then  covering  with  spirit  of 
wine,  renewed  for  ten  minutes,  and  washing 
off  with  water,  but  without  rubbing.  The 
process  is  to  be  repeated  until  the  whole  is 
removed. 

Sjmts  should  be  washed  with  warm  water 
dried  with  soft  linen  rags,  and  covered  with 
olive  oil  warmed ;  after  the  oil  has  re- 
mained on  the  spots  for  twenty  minutes, 
gentle  friction  with  the  finger  should  be 
used,  the  foul  oil  wiped  off'  and  fresh  laid 
on,  until  the  spot  disappears.  Should  this 
fail,  spirits  of  wine,  essence  of  lemons  or 
oil  of  turpentine  may  be  carefully  applied, 
observing  that  only  such  parts  as  are  dirty 
must  be  covered  with  them ;  they  are  to  be 


cleaned  off  first  with  water  and  then  with 
olive  oil.  Sometimes  even  these  means  fail, 
and  then  strong  soup-suds,  applied  directly 
to  the  spots,  and  retained  there  until  they 
soften  or  disappear,  will  prove  effectual. 
The  spots  must  then  be  washed  with  water. 

In  employing  these  means,  as  indeed 
throughout  the  whole  process  of  cleaning, 
the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  in  remov- 
ing any  coating  upon  the  surface  of  a  paint- 
ing, and  it  is  therefore  better  to  employ 
mild  measures  first,  then  if  they  fail,  to  use 
stronger ;  or  in  the  event  of  these  not  suc- 
ceeding, to  very  carefully  apply  the 
strongest.  For  our  own  part,  we  prefer 
leaving  the  painting  in  a  half -cleaned  state, 
as  it  sometimes  happens  that,  with  the  most 
scrupulous  care,  under  experienced  persons, 
some  of  the  fine  touches  or  delicate  tints  of 
a  painting  are  damaged  by  the  process. 
"When  we  state  this,  we  mean  only  such 
pictures  as  are  covered  with  insoluble  var- 
nishes— varnishes  of  gum-resins,  or  old  oil 
varnishes,  which  cannot  well  be  removed 
without  injury  to  the  painting. 

Varnishes  of  long  standing  are  very  diffi- 
cult to  remove,  as  they  generally  consist  of 
linseed  oil  combined  with  gum-resins,  and 
if  not  easily  taken  off  by  the  means  given 
below,  it  is  better  to  leave  them  as  they 
were. 

To  remove  these  varnishes,  use  spirits  of 
wine  in  the  manner  recommended  for  coated 
dirt ;  or,  oil  of  turpentine,  which  requires 
greater  care  than  the  spirits  of  wine;  or, 
warm  olive  oil :  but  if  the  vaniish  is  very 
hard,  the  painting  should  be  washed  by 
means  of  a  sponge,  with  a  warm  solution  of 
pearl-ash  (an  ounce  to  a  pint  of  water), 
until  the  coating  is  removed,  when  the 
surface  must  be  washed  well  with  fresh 
water  frequently. 

THE  WEDGE.  When 
the  compression  of  a  block 
of  wood  is  completed  by 
the  means  of  driving  in  a 
wedge,  it  then  splits,  and  it 
is  on  this  principle  that  the 
action  of  the  wedge  is 
founded.  In  the  annexed 
diagram  the  explanation  of 
the  law  may  be  seen.  The 
point  of  the  engine  has  been 
inserted  by  the  blow  of  a 
hammer  into  a  block  of  wood, 
and  the  wood  by  compression,  has  been  dis- 
placed, and  the  block  is  rending  because  it 
can  suffer  no  more  compression.  All  tne 
various  kinds  of  cutting  and  piercing  tools,  as 
axes,  knives,  scissors,  nails,  pins,  *».wls,  are 
modifications  of  the  wedge.     The  angle,  in 


A  MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


15 


these  cases,  is  more  or  less  acute,  according 
to  the  purpose  to  which  it  is  applied. 

DROWNING  and  SUFFOCATION.  Dr. 
Marshall  Hall,  after  careful  research,  shews 
that  to  induce  the  act  of  breathing  is  the 
first  thing  to  be  attended  to  in  drowning 
or  suffocation.  And  the  reason  is:  the  lungs 
refuse  to  act,  not  so  much  because  the  com- 
mon air  with  its  ox\  gen  cannot  find  entrance, 
but  because  the  carbonic  acid  remains  in 
the  blood.  Let  us  look  at  the  mode  of  treat- 
ment which  Dr.  Marshall  Hall  recommends. 
Suppose  the  body  to  be  taken  from  the 
watwr,  it  is  to  be  at  once  laid  on  the  face, 
not  on  the  back,  and  in  the  open  air,  if 
houses  be  so  far  distant  as  to  cause  long 
delay  in  the  removal.  Every  minute  is  pre- 
cious. Being  laid  on  the  face,  with  the 
head  towards  the  breeze,  the  arms  are  to  be 
placed  under  the  forehead,  so  as  to  keep  the 
face  and  mouth  clear  of  the  ground.  In 
this  position  the  tongue  falls  forward,  draws 
with  it  the  epiglottis,  and  leaves  the  glottis 
open.  In  other  words,  the  windpipe  is 
open,  and  the  throat  is  cleared  by  fluids  or 
mucus  flowing  from  the  mouth. 

The  reason  for  placing  the  body  in  the 
prone  position,  on  the  face,  will  be  better 
understood  by  noticing  what  takes  place 
when  it  is  on  its  back.  The  tongue  then 
falls  backwards,  sinks,  so  to  speak,  into  the 
throat,  and  closes  up  the  windpipe,  so  that 
no  air  can  possibly  find  its  way  to  the  lungs, 
except  by  force. 


The  body,  therefore,  being  laid  on  its  face, 
there  is  a  natural  pressure  of  the  chest  and 
abdomen  which  causes  an  expiration.  This 
may  be  increased  by  some  additional  pres- 
sure. Then  if  the  body  be  lifted  by  an 
attendant  placing  one  hand  under  the 
shoulder,  the  other  under  the  hip,  and  turn- 
ing it  partly  on  its  left  side,  there  will  be 
an  Aspiration.  The  air  will  rush  into  the 
lungs  with  considerable  violence.  Then  the 
expiration  may  be  repeated  by  letting  the 
body  descend,  and  so  on,  up  and  down  alter- 
nately. And  thus,  without  instruments  of 
any  kind,  and  with  the  hands  alone,  if  not 
too  late,  we  accomplish  that  respiration 
which  is  the  sole  effective  means  of  the  eli- 
mination of  blood  poison.  It  is  worthy  of 
notice  that  by  this  means  a  really  dead  body 


man  lie  made  to  breathe  before  it  has  become 
still' — as  experiment  fully  demonstrates. 

About  sixteen  times  a  minute  is  the  rate 
at  which  the  body  should  be  made  to  rise 
and  fall  in  the  endeavour  to  renew  respira- 
tion. The  clothes  in  the  meantime  should 
be  changed  for  others  dry  and  warm.  Or, 
if  in  a  warm  room,  four  persons  si  ion  Id  seizo 
the  limbs  with  their  hands,  and  rub  them 
with  firm  pressure  upwards.  The  warm 
bath  is  not  to  be  compared  with  this  mode 
of  restoring  warmth,  and  not  warmth  only, 
but  the  circulation,  if  it  be  pursued  with 
energy.  The  blood  is  driven  upwards,  and 
though  venous,  may  stimulate  the  heart. 

The  warm  bath  is  on  no  account  to  be 
used  until  breathing  has  been  restored.  Dr. 
Hall  says,  it  is  "injurious;"  and  to  place 
the  patient  in  a  sitting  position  in  warm 
water,  is  "to  renounce  the  onlv  hope."  In 
France  its  use  has  been  foi  bidden  by  au- 
thoritv. 

DROWNING  (PREVENTION  OF).  1.  As 
soon  as  you  find  yourself  at  the  surface, 
whither  you  are  raised  by  your  buoyancy, 
let  your  body  quickly  take  its  level,  when 
the  water  wall  reach  a  little  above  your 
chin.  2.  Place  one  leg  a  little  forward,  and 
the  other  a  little  backward,  and  stretch  out 
your  arms  on  either  side  under  water.  By 
a  slight  paddling  motion,  you  may  regulate 
the  position  of  your  head,  and  keep  the 
mouth  and  nose  above  the  surface.  Make 
no  efforts,  but  wait  tranquilly  until  succour 
arrives.  You  cannot  sink.  3.  Do  not  lay 
hold  of  your  companion  or  assistant,  or  you 
will  infallibly  sink  him  without  benefiting 
yourself.  The  best  swimmer  has  no  more 
natural  buoyancy  than  you,  and  would  he 
sunk  by  the  exertion  of  very  little  force. 

4.  Remain  perfectly  passive  till  your  helper 
seize  you  by  the  hair.  Upon  this,  endea- 
vour to  second  his  efforts  by  throwing  your- 
self upon  your  back.  Hold  tout  neck  stiff, 
and  let  your  hind  head  sink  into  the  water. 
Try  to  propel  yourself  at  this  stage  by  re- 
gularly and  slowly  kicking  against  the  water. 

5.  Be  careful  to  keep  every  part  of  your 
body  except  your  face  under  the  water.  6. 
If  two  or  more  persons  are  immersed  to- 
gether, let  them  keep  near  to  each  oth«\ 
By  this  means  one  boat  may  save  the  whole 
party  at  once ;  but  if  they  are  dispensed,  one 
at  a  time  can  only  be  picked  up. 

Rules  to  Govern  PersonsWho  Attempt 
to  Rescue  the  Drowning.  1.  In  removing 
a  body  from  the  water,  whether  into  a  boat  or 
drawing  it  along  by  your  own  efforts,  always 
keep  the  face  upwards.  2.  Recollect  that  you 
have  no  more  buoyancy  than  the  person  you 
are  attemping  to  rescue.     Therefor"  do  not 


16 


FACTS    FOE  EVERYBODY! 


attempt  to  raise  him  out  of  the  water,  or 
you  will  sink.  By  a  gentle  traction,  you 
may  draw  him  towards  the  boat  or  landing- 
place  without  fatigue  or  danger.  3.  Always 
aim  at  seizing  the  hind  hair  of  the  head, 
and  keep  the  nape  of  the  neck  and  your  own 
arm  under  the  water.  Thus  you  will  insure 
his  face  and  your  own  above  the  surface. 
4.  Keep  your  most  powerful  arm  disengaged 
for  swimming,  and  maintain  the  other  pro- 
jected forward,  having  hold,  as  directed  by 
the  hair  of  the  hind  head.  In  this  way  you 
may  advance  side  by  side,  he  floating  on  his 
back,  and  you  on  your  breast.  5.  As  you 
approach  the  person  distressed,  let  him  know 
hy  your  voice;  the  prospect  of  his  apeady 
succour  will  add  to  his  confidence  and 
strength.  6.  Let  all  your  movements  be 
deliberate,  .firm,  and  gentle.  7.  Hold  the 
hat  reversed  in  both  hands,  the  arms  and 
hands  of  course  under  water.  If  a  person 
has  presence  of  mind  to  accomplish  this,  the 
hat  will  by  ifa  buoyancy  afford  him  great 
assistance,  until  it  becomes  saturated  and 
admits  the  water. 

SWIMMING  (SAFE  AND  EASY 
METHOD  OF).  It  may  be  premised,  that 
corks  of  the  ordinary  form,  and  bladders, 
are  dangerous  and  inconvenient  in  learning 
to  swim.  They  impede  the  action  of  the 
arms,  raise  the  body  too  high,  and  are  apt 
to  slip  too  low  down,  so  as  to  keep  the 
novice's  head  under  water.  By  this  acci- 
dent, many  persons  using  corks  have  been 
drowned.  The  objection  that  it  raises  the 
body  too  high  out  of  the  water  also  applies 
to  swimming-belts,  which  have  the  same 
peculiarity. 

The  following  plan  will  enable  any  one 
to  learn  to  swim,  or  those  who  cannot  swim, 
to  cross  deep  water  safely.  The  directions, 
which  are  simple,  require  care: — 

Take  a  piece  of  cork,  or,  for  want  of  cork, 
light  wood,  such  as  deal,  and  form  it  into 
an  oval  shape,  about  eighteen  inches  in  its 
utmost  width.  Cut  a  hole  in  the  centre 
wide  enough  to  admit  your  neck.  Then 
divide  it  in  two  pieces,  thus.  Then  join  the 
two  parts  on  one 
side  with  a  hinge 
of  gutta  percha, 
or  caouchouc,  or 
leather,  and  on  the 
other  side  of  it  with 
strings.  The  novice  has  only  to  put  the 
two  sides  round  his  neck,  tie  the  strings, 
and  while  he  cannot  sink,  he  has  full  use 
of  his  arms  and  legs  in  an  upright  position, 
which  is  the  best  of  all  for  a  beginner  in  the 
art  of  swimming. 
The  shape  of  the  cork  offers  no  impedi- 


ment  whatever   to   the    progress    of  tho 
swimmer,  in  the  water 

This  instrument  made  in  cork,  light 
wood,  or  bark,  would  be  very  convenient  to 
travellers  crossing  rivers  in  America,  Africa, 
or  Australia,  as  they  could  carry  a  con- 
siderable weight  packed  upon  their  heads, 
thus— 


The  swimmer  carries  his  blankets  and 
clothes  on  his  head,  and  his  gun  over  his 
shoulder,  swimming  with  one  hand  in  the 
greatest  freedom. 

For  learning  to  swim,  an  India-rubber 
ring  cushion,  with  an  opening  and  string, 
answers  well,  but  it  is  liable  to  get  punctured. 

WATER  GLEANINGS.  Hard  water,  if 
habitually  drunk,  is  apt  to  injure  the  diges- 
tive organs,  and  the  glandular  and  abs<  r- 
bent  system.  To  this  are  attributed  the 
goitres'to  which  the  inhabitants  of  moun- 
tainous districts  are  liable.  That  which 
runs  over  gravel  is  always  hard. 

To  Determine  whether.  Water  be 
Hard  or  Soft  ;  that  is,  fit  or  not  fit  for 
domestic  purposes  To  a  glassful  of  the 
water  add  a  few  drops  of  solution  of  soap  in 
alcohol ;  if  the  water  be  pure,  it  will  con- 
tinue limpid;  if  it  be  impure,  white  flakes 
will  be  formed. 

To  Make  Salt- Water  Fresh.  The 
distillation  of  palateable  and  fresh  water  at 
sea  was  effected  by  P.  Nicole,  at  Dieppe,  by 
simply  causing  the  steam  arising  from  boil- 
ing sea- water,  in  a  still,  to  pass  through  a 
stratum  of  coarsely-powdered  charcoal,  in 
its  way  to  the  condenser,  or  worm-tube. 

To  Make  Sea- Water  Fit  for  Washing 
Linen  at  Sea.  Soda  put  into  s^a-water 
renders  it  turbid;  the  lime  and  magnesia 
fall  to  the  bottom.  As  much  soda  must  be 
in  as  not  oily  to  effect  a  complete  precipi- 
tation of  these  earths,  but  to  render  the  sea- 
water  sufficiently  lixivial  or  alkaline.  Soda 
should  always  be  taken  to  sea  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

To  Make  Artificial  Sea- Water.— 
Take  common  sea-salt,  two  pounds ;  bitter 
purging  salt,  two  ounces;  magnesia  earth, 
half  an  ounce ;  dissolve  all  in  six  gallons  of 
river-water.  These,  it  is  said,  are  the 
exact  proportions  and  contents  of  sea-water, 
from  an  accurate  analysation. 


A  MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


17 


HYGROMETERS.  These  are  instru- 
ments to  determine  the  amount  of  moisture 
In  the  air.  One  much  used  is  called  the 
wet  bulb  hygrometer,  and 
consists  of  two  similar  deli- 
cate mercurial  thermome- 
ters, the  bulb  of  one  of  which 
is  covered  with  muslin,  and 
j  is  kept  constantly  wet  by 
water,  led  on  to  it  by  a 
■tring  from  a  tube  in  the 
eentre.  The  evaporation  of 
the  water  from  the  wet  bulb 
reduces  the  temperature  of 
that  thermometer  to  which 
it  is  attached  in  proportion 
to  the  dryness  of  the  air, 
and  consequent  rapidity  of 
evaporation.  The  other 
thermometer  indicates  the 
actual  temperature,  and  the 
difference  being  noted,  a 
mathematical  formula  en- 
ables us  to  determine  the 
dew  point.  But  the  most 
I  complete  and  beautiful  in- 
strument for  this  use  is  that 
of  Mr.  Diiuiell,  which  m 

is  here  represented. 
The  long  limb  ends 
in  a  bulb  which  is 
made  of  black  glass, 
th  t  the  condensed 
vapour  may  be  more 
easily  seen  on  it.  It 
contains  a  portion  of 
ether,  into  which  dips 
the  ball  of  a  small 
and  delicate  ther- 
mometer contained  in 
the  cavity  of  the  tube. 
The  whole  instru- 
ment contains  only 
the  vapour  of  ether,, 
air  having  been  removed.  The  short  limb 
carries  an  empty  bulb,  which  is  covered  with 
muslin.  On  the  support  is  another  ther- 
mometer, by  which  we  can  observe  the 
temperature  of  the  air.  When  an  obser- 
vation is  to  be  made  by  this  instrument,  a 
little  ether  is  poured  on  the  muslin  :  this 
evaporates  rapidly,  and  the  bulb  becomes 
cooled.  After  a  time,  through  the  cooling 
agency,  dew  begins  to  deposit  on  the  black 
gla-;s,  and  the  point  at  which  this  takes 
place  is  determined  by  the  included  ther- 
mometer. 

SUN  -DIALS.  Sun-dials  of  iron  or  brass 
may  be  purchased  at  very  reasonable  prices, 
or  may  be  made  of  marble,  slate,  or  free- 
stone ;  and  when  set  in  an  unshaded  part 


iftt 


of  the  garden,  and  mounted  on  a  column, 

somewhat  similar  to  our  illustration,  and 
around  which  some  flowering  plant  haa 
been  trained  to  climb,  it  will  form  a  very 


pleasing  object.  It  is  worth  mentioning, 
that,  in  England,  the  sun-dial  does  not  give 
the  exact  time  of  our  reckoning,  which  is 
artificial,  except  at  the  equinoxes,  being 
one  portion  of  the  year  too  fast,  and  another 
too  slow,  for  our  clocks.  The  French  al- 
ways regulate  by  the  sun,  and  have,  there- 
fore, to  be  continually  changing  their  time- 
pieces. 

LEECH  BAROMETERS.  1.  If  the 
weather  proves  serene  and  beautiful,  the 
leech  lies  motionless  at  the  bottom  of  the 
glass,  rolled  together  in  a  spiral  form. 

2.  If  it  rains,  either  before  or  after  noon, 
it  is  found  crept  up  to  the  top  of  its  lodgings, 
and  there  it  remains  until  the  weather  is 
settled. 

3.  If  we  are  to  have  wind,  the  poor  prisoner 
gallops  through  its  limpid  habitation  with 
amazing  swiftness,  and  seldom  rests  until  it 
begins  to  blow  hard. 

4.  If  a  remarkable  storm  of  thunder  and 
rain  is  to  succeed,  for  some  days  ^^ 


before  it  lodges  almost  continually 
without  water,  and  discovers  un 
common    uneasiness,    in    violent  ]-- 
throes  and  con  vulsive-like motions. 

5.  In  the  frost,  as  in  the  clear 
summer  weather,  it  lies  constantly 
at  the  bottom  ;  and  in  snow,  as  in  E^ 
rainy  weather,  it  pitches  its  dwell-'  s|= 
ing  upon  the  mouth  of  the  phial," 

The  leech  may  be  kept  in  a  com- 
mon two-ounce  phial,  about  thr  e-fourth 
filled  with  water,  and  covered  with  a  bit  of 
linen  rag.  In  the  summer  the  water  should 
be  changed  once  a  week ;  and  in  the  winter 
once  a  fortnight. 

THORNS  (How  to  Extract  if  the 
Flvsh  has  Closed  AVer  Them).  Apply 
shoemakers'  wax,  and  a  poultice  over  that — 
to  remain  on  for  twelve  hours,  or  till  the 
wax  draws  out  the  end  of  the  thorn. 


IS 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


STING  OF  BEES.  Although  the  poison 
which  a  bee  emits  when  it  inserts  its  sting, 
is  proved  to  be  a  highly  concentrated  acid, 
it  does  not  follow,  that  the  application  of  all 
alkalies  will  neutralise  the  acid.  Ammonia, 
for  example,  we  have  known,  in  several 
instances,  to  produce  distressing  conse- 
quences—such as  excessive  local  inflamma- 
tion, temporary  erysipelas,  and  general  dis- 
tress to  the  constitution.  The  more  gentle 
alkalies— -chalk,  or  the  "blue  bag,"  are 
much  more  likely  to  effect  a  cure,  aud  cannot 
injure.  The  same  person  will  be  variously 
affected  by  the  sting  of  a  bee;  at  one  time, 
scarcely  any  inconvenience  will  attend  it ; 
at  another,  much  swelling ;  again,  but  little 
enlargement,  although  gi-eat  pain,  &c.  The 
eye  suffers  considerably,  though  in  general 
the  uneasiness  is  local ;  but  if  the  back  of 
the  ear  be  stung,  there  is  frequently  a  ge- 
neral affection  of  the  system ;  sickness, 
giddiness,  numbness,  nervous  trembling, 
&c.  &c,  which  will  sometimes  continue  for 
hours.  A  draught  of  camphor  julap,  and 
total  repose,  we  have  known  to  be  beneficial 
in  this  latter  case;  and  would  earnestly  re- 
commend it  to  our  readers,  should  they 
be  placed  in  circumstances  to  require  as- 
sistance. 

Common  whitning  is  an  effectual  remedy 
against  the  effects  of  the  sting  of  a  bee  or 
■wasp.  The  whitning  must  be  moistened 
with  a  little  cold  water  and  immediately 
applied  ;  it  may  be  washed  off  in  a  few  mi- 
nutes, when  neither  pain  or  swelling  will 
ensue. 
BEETLE  TRAPS.  A  very  simple  and 
inexpensive  snare 
may  be  construct- 
ed at  home  in  the 
following  man- 
ner : — Cut  four  or 
five  pieces  of  paste- 
board, or  strips  of  wood,  and  lay  them 
slanting  against  the  sides  of  an  ordinary 
basin,  as  in  the  figure.  Pour  into  the  basin 
(taking  care  not  to  soil  the  sides,  which 
must  be  perfectly  clean  and  bright)  a  mix- 
ture of  treacle  and  water,  or  beer  and  sugar. 
The  cockroaches  will  be  attracted  by  the 
syrup,  and  walking  up  the  roadways  made 
for  them,  fall  headlong  into  the  basin. 
Several  of  these  traps  being  set  night  after 
night  will  ultimately  put  the  whole  of  the 
insects  in  the  housewife's  power.  Another 
plan,  which  may  be  pursued  simultaneously 
with  the  above,  is  to  place  a  few  lumps  cf 
quicklime  where  the  cockroaches  frequent — 
about  the  hearth.  Care  must  be  taken, 
however,  that  children  and  ignorant  persons 
do  not  burn  their  fingers  with  this  sub- 


stance. The  beetle- wafers  sold  in  the  shops 
to  poison  "black-beetles"  are  made  by 
mixing  equal  weights  of  flour,  sugar,  and 
red-lead ;  but  these  wafers  are  liable  to  be 
picked  up  and  sucked  by  children,  and  are 
therefore  objectionable. 

COCKROACHES  (TO  DESTROY).  Cu- 
cumber peelings  are  said  to  destroy  cock- 
roaches. Strew  the  floor  in  that  part  of  the 
house  most  infested  with  the  vermin  with 
the  green  peel  cut  pretty  thick.  Try  it  for 
several  nights,  and  it  will  not  fail  to  rid 
the  house  of  their  not  very  agreeable 
presence. 

ETC  UING  UPON  GLASS.  Procure  se- 
veral thick  pieces  of  clear  crown  glass,  and 
immerse  them  in  melted  wax,  so  that  each 
may  receive  a  perfect  coating.  When  quite 
cold,  draw  on  them  with  a  fine  etching- 
needle  any  designs,  such  as  landscapes, 
crests,  initials,  &c,  taking  care  to  remove 
every  particle  of  wax  from  such  parts  of  the 
designs  as  are  intended  to  be  corroded. 
When  all  the  drawings  are  finished,  the 
pieces  of  glass  should  be  placed  one  by  one 
(G)  in  a  square  leaden  box  (A),  which  has 


one  side  made  of  glass  (C),  carefully  coated 
with  hard  etching  varnish,  or  what  is  better, 
melted  wax,  or  mastic  varnish,  and  luted 
into  the  frame  with  bordering  wax.  The 
glass  side  allows  the  progress  of  the  etching 
to  be  observed.  The  leaden  box  (A)  should 
be  made  to  drop  into  a  leaden  trough  with  a 
perforated  false  bottom  (B),  but  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  edge  may  be  surrounded 
with  water,  and  also  the  bottom  covered 
with  water  to  absorb  the  superabundant  gas. 
To  the  bottom  of  the  receiver  or  box  should 
be  carefully  luted  a  leaden  pipe  (H),  which 
is  attached  to  the  beak  of  a  leaden  retort  (E) 
resting  in  the  stand  (F),  with  a  spirit-lamp 
(D)  under  it.  When  sufficiently  corroded, 
the  glass  plate  may  be  removed,  but  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  have  gloves  on,  and  the  hands 
covered  with  grease,  to  prevent  the  acid 


A   MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


19 


attacking:  the  flesh.  Those  parts  that  an' 
bit  in  enough,  must  be  stopped  out,  as  in 
common  etchings  (the  plate  being previously 
washed  and  dried),  and  the  corrosive  process 
combined  until  the  several  gradations  of 
shade  are  obtained. 

POISONS,  (ACCIDENTS  FROM).  When 
you  have  reason  to  suppose  that  you  have 
swallowed  poison,  and  proper  medical  advice 
is  not  at  hand,  take  an  emetic.  This  may 
be  done  almost  instantaneously  by  swallow- 
:  ig  a  cupful  of  warm  water  mixed  with  a 
teaspoon ful  of  mustard.  As  mustard  may 
thus  prove  of  so  much  use,  it  should  be 
never  wanting  in  any  house;  but  even 
should  there  be  no  mustard  at  hand,  warm 
water  by  itself  forms  a  tolerably  efficacious 
emetic.  The  following  is  a  good  emetic  in 
case  of  Vegetable  Poisons. — Twenty  grains 
of  sulphate  of  zinc  dissolved  in  a  little  water, 
the  whole  to  be  taken  ;  or  sulphate  of  zinc, 
one  scruple,  made  into  a  bolus  with  confec- 
tion of  roses,  and  taken  with  infusion  of 
camomile  flowers. 

Poisonous  Vegetables.  Everybody  who 
has  observed  wild  plants  or  weeds  must  have 
been  struck  with  the  resemblance  many 
bear  to  parsley.  Parents  and  nurses  of  chil- 
dren should  be  careful  not  to  allow  then?  to 
pick  any  parsley-like  wild  plants,  as  they 
are  for  the  most  part  poisonous.  Should  it 
appear  that  a  child  has  swallowed  a  portion 
of  a  plant  of  this  nature,  it  ia  important  to 
know  what  to  give  before  the  arrival  of  a 
medical  man.  Every  ten  minutes,  therefore, 
administer  a  large  dose  of  olive  or  salad  oil, 
with  warm  water,  till  free  sickness  is  pro- 
duced. A  tcaspoonful  or  two  of  vinegar, 
given  after  vomiting  has  been  fully  excited, 
has  been  found  beneficial. 

Antidote  for  Laudanum.  Give  twenty 
grains  of  white  vitriol  dissolved  in  water, 
nud  assist  vomiting  by  irritating  the  fauces 
with  a  leather;  after  the  stomach  is  emptied, 
give  large  draughts  of  vinegar  and  water, 
and  other  vegetable  acids,  with  coffee,  bran- 
dy, &c,  constantly  rousing  the  attention  of 
the  sufferer,  until  the  effects  of  the  poison 
subside.  Recourse  may^be  had  to  this  until 
the  attendance  of  a  medical  man  can  be 
procured. 

Antidote  to  Arsenic.  Magnesia  is  an 
antidote  to  arsenic,  equally  efficacious  with 
peroxide  of  iron,  and  preferable  to  it,  inas- 
much as  it  is  completely  innocuous  in  almost 
any  quantity,  and  can  be  procured  in  any  form. 

Vitriol  Accidi  nts  are  not  uncommon  in 
kitchens,  as  when  oil  cf  vitriol  (improperly 
used  for  cleaning  copper  vessels)  is  let  fall 
upon  thehands,  &c.  Let  a  little  soda  or  potash 
be  dissolved  in  water,  or  some  fresh  soap- 


The  top  should  be 


boilers'  lees,  and  instantly  applied;  no  in- 
jury whatever  will  occur  to  the  person  or 
clothes. 

PIGEON  HOUSES.  Dovecots,  or  pigeon- 
houses,  are  of  several  kinds.  If  it  is  in- 
tended to  keep  a  large  number,  the  upper 
floor  of  a  stable,  or 
other  building  may 
be  removed  from  the 
walls,  and  stepping- 
tiles  fixed.  The  holes 
should  not  be  too 
large,  or  too  numer- 
ous, and  should  al- 
ways have  a  southern 
aspect.  Small  dove- 
cots may  be  made  of 
a  cask,  or  boarded 
box,  placed  upon  a 
pole,  or  against  the 
wall,  taking  care  to 
prevent  the  entrance 
or  approach  of  rats, 
covered  with  thatch,  so  contrived  as  to  shelter 
the  sides  from  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  the 
coldness  of  the  wind.  On  the  sides  and  top 
should  be  resting-boards,  on  which  the 
birds  may  bask  in  the  sun.  The  rearing 
and  training  of  pigeons  require  great  care, 
for  the  domesticated  and  fancy  birds  are 
very  delicate.  Cleanliness,  and  a  plentiful 
supply  of  fresh  water  is,  as  with  other 
tamed  animals,  the  firstn-equisite. 

GNATS.  The  common  gnat  (culex 
pipieusj  is  a  near  relation  to  the  musquito, 
but  is  not  usually  so  troublesome  to  the 
human  species.  They  both  belong  to  the 
section  Nemocera  of  the  Dipterous  insects, 
whose  mouths  are  furnished  with  bristly 
stings,  included  in  flexile  sheaths.  They 
pierce  the  skin  by  means  of  the  proboscis, 
in  order  to  feed  upon  the  blood,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  inject  a  poisonous  fluid,  produc- 
ing considerable  inflammation  and  swelling, 
of  varying  intensity  in  different  persons. 
Their  activity  usually  commences  towards 
evening,  or  after  sunset.  The  Laplanders 
appear  to  be  the  greatest  sufferers  from  their 
attacks  ;  but  all  latitudes  are,  more  or  less, 
troubled  with  the  species.  The  Laplanders 
use  tar-cream  to  prevent  the  insects  biting 
them,  but  that  could  scarcely  be  used  in 
this  country.  The  common  Goulard  water, 
scented  with  Eau  de  Cologne,  is  the  best  ap- 
plication we  know,  and  is  useful  in  allaying 
the  irritation,  as  also  preventing  the  attacks. 
We  have  observed  that  gnats  seldom  or 
never  frequent  rooms  or  houses  where 
chloride  of  lime  has  been  exposed.  We 
recommend  those  who  are  much  troubled 
by  gnats  to  try  this  remedy. 


20 


pAors  for  everybody: 


CORROSIVE  SUBLIMATE,  OR  STONE 
MERCURY".  The  bichloride  of  mercury 
(or  quicksilver)  is  so  called  on  account  of 
its  peculiarly  pernicious  effects  upon  animal 
tissues,  and  the  masses  in  which  it  is  sold. 
It  is  used,  in  small  quantities,  in  lotions 
for  diseases  of  the  skin,  and,  in  a  very 
diluted  state,  in  cosmetics.  Taken  in- 
ternally it  is  powerfully  poisonous.  The 
following  tests  will  be  found  available 
to  discover  this  substance.  1.  If  it 
is  in  a  solid  state  it  may  be  mixed  with 
potash,  and  heated  in  a  test  tube.  If  the 
corrosive  sublimate  is  present,  metallic 
globules  will  be  found  to  condense  on  the 
UDper  part  of  the  tube.  2.  If  it  is  in  solu- 
tion, and  mixed  with  solid  matters,  the 
solution  should  be  filtered  before  any  tests 
are  applied.  If  portions  of  the  suspected 
fluid  be  put  into  test  tubes,  they  will  form 
piecipitates  of  various  colours  with  the  re- 
agents indicated: — lime  water,  brick  red; 
solution  of  caustic  potass,  orange  ;  prussiate 
of  potass,  white.  3.  The  best  aud  readiest 
test  is  the  following,  to  which  the  engrav- 
ing refers,  viz. : — Drop  the  suspected  solu- 
tion on  a  clean  gold  or  copper  coin,  and 
apply  a  bright  key  so  that  it  may  at  the 
same  time  touch  the  edge  of  the  coin  and  the 
globule  of  fluid.     A  galvanic  current  is  thus 


produced,  which  decomposes  the  corrosive 
sublimate,  leaving  a  white  spot  of  reduced 
metallic  mercury  on  the  surface  of  the  coin. 
DIAMONDS.  The  diamond  is  found 
mostly  in  the  East  Indies  and  South 
America.  Its  chief  feature  consists  in  its 
excessive  hardness,  which  far  exceeds  all 
other  bodies,  and  by  which,  and  its  colour 
and  briiliancy,  it  may  be  easily  known  from 
all  other  stones ;  for  whilst  it  possesses  the 
property  of  scratching  or  cutting  all  known 
substances,  there  has  been  none  found  capable 
of  acting  in  a  similar  manner  on  it.  It  is 
rather  more  than  three  times  and  a  half  as 
heavy  as  water ;  it  is  neither  volatile  nor 
fusible,  and  will  not  dissolve  in  any  liquid. 
It  is  generally  devoid  of  colour  ;  but  some- 
times occurs  tinted  of  a  bluish,  yellow,  or 
rose  colour — these  colours  add  to  its  value 
according  to  the  beauty  of  the  tint.  In  its 
rou^h  state,  as  when  found,  it  is  of  a  milky 
or  brownish  colour,   and  of   an  irregular 


rounded  form,  and  sometimes  crystallized. 
The  diamond  has  been  known  from  the 
earliest  ages,  and  held  in  high  estimation, 
not  on  account  of  its  brilliancy  (as  the  an- 
cients were  ignorant  of  the  art  of  uttiug 
them,  and  wore  them  in  the  rough  state), 
but  because  so  few  were  found  in  nature. 
The  art  of  cutting  and  polishing  diamonds 
was  not  discovered  until  1476.  Up  to  thia 
time  no  substance  had  been  found  that 
would  grind  them.  But,  by  accident,  two 
diamonds  having  been  rubbed  together,  it 
was  found  that  they  polished  each  other — 
[this  is  the  origin  of  the  saying,  "  Diamond 
cut  diamond"] — and  upon  this  depends  the 
whole  art  of  cutting  them.  Two  diamonds 
are  secured  in  handles,  and  rubbed  against 
each  other  to  grind  them  to  the  shape  re- 
quired, and  the  dust  that  falls  is  used, 
mixed  with  oil,  to  polish  them.  The 
Romans  used  to  pound  small  diamonds  to 
powder,  to  cut  and  polish  other  stones ;  but 
this  does  not  seem  to  have  suggested  to  them 
its  use  to  polish  itself.  Diamonds  are  often 
called  "  rose  diamonds,"  "  table  diamonds," 
and  "  brilliants  ;  "  but  this  only  refers  to 
the  manner  in  which  they  are  cut,  as  there 
I  is  but  one  kind  of  real  diamond.  When 
two  diamonds  are  rubbed  together,  the  point 
of  contact  forms  a  little  flat  surface  ;  this  is 
called  a  "facet." 
Rose  diamonds 
have  all  these 
facets  tending  to 
a  point  on  the 
sides  and  top  of 
the  stone,  as  in 
Fig.  1,  and  the  under  side  perfectly  plain. 
Table-diamonds  have  a  flat,  oblong  top, 
with  the  sides  cut  in  very  large  facets,  and 
the  under  side  brought  to  a  point,  also, 
with  large  facets.  The  brilliant,  which  is 
the  most  valuable 
form,  is  some- 
what of  the  same 
shape,  but  has 
the  flat  face  on 
top  very  much 
smaller,  and  near- 
ly round;  and  the 
sides  and  bottom  Pis-.  2. 

are  cut  into  a  greater  number  of  smaller 
facets,  which,  also,  are  made  to  reflect  into 
each  other — it  thus  emits  the  greatest  light, 
and  the  most  variegated  colours ;  (see  Figc 
2.)  The  dust  that  comes  from  the  cutting 
of  diamonds  is  used  for  cutting  cameos, 
crests,  and  letters  on  cornelians,  and  other 
stones,  and  for  polishing  the  pebbles  used 
for  spectacles ;  without  it  they  could  not  b» 
worked. 


A  MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


21 


I 


The  finest  diamond  ever  known,  except 
the  gem  recently  brought  to  England,  be- 
longed to  the  king  of  Portugal ;  it  weighed 
1,680  carats,  and  was  valued  at  £224,000,000, 
though  it  was  not  cut  or  polished.  That  in 
the  .Russian  sceptre  weighs  779  carats,  and 
is  valued  at  £4,000,000.  The  Pitt  diamond 
weighed  136  carats,  and  cost  Louis  XIV. 
£130,000.  These  gems  are  brought  from 
Borneo,  Golconda,  Bengal,  the  East  Indies, 
West  Indies,  and  Brazil.     They  are  cut  and 

Soliahed  with  their  own  substance.  The 
liferent  kinds  of  diamonds  are  as  follows  : 
— Rough  diamond  is  the  stone  as  it  comes 
from  the  mine ;  rose  diamond  is  one  which 
is  fiat  at  the^)ase,  terminating  in  a  point 
above  ;  the  table  diamond  has  a  square  face 
at  the  top  encompassed  with  four  lesser 
facets  ;  the  brilliant  is  that  which  is  cut 
into  fiat  faces  at  top  and  bottom,  and  whose 
table,  or  principal  face,  is  parallel  with  a 
line  through  the  broadest  part  of  the  stone. 
The  diamonds  used  by  glaziers  are  usually 
only  fragments  of  badly-coloured  stones. 

ORNAMENTAL  EGGS.  The  ornamen- 
tal eggs,  made  and  sold  by  the  German  pea- 
santry, are  manufactured  as  follows:— 
Take  any  large  egg,  and  after 
puncturing  each  end,  blow  out 
the  contents,  until  the  interior  is 
.  quite  clean.  Then  take  some 
~k  rushes,  and  splitting  open  their 
ih  green  bark,  extract  the  pith  by 
j£5J  running  the  thumb-nail  along 
j.sf  the  rush  ;  a  little  practice  will  be 
^Mii^  required.  Paste  circular,  or  sexa- 
gonal,  octagonal,  or  oval  pieces  of 
coloured  silk,  velvet,  or  paper,  upon  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  egg,  and  then  work  the 
pith  of  the  rushes  around  these,  in  any 
fanciful  design.  All  that  is  required  to 
make  the  pith  adhere,  is  a  little  gum,  or 
thin  paste.  The  eggs  look  very  pretty  and 
supply  neat  household  ornaments.  Boxes, 
&c,  may  be  covered  in  the  same  way. 

CUPS  IN  PIES.  The  cup  which  is 
placed  upside  down  in  meat  and  fruit  pies 
is  only  filled  with  air  when  it  is  put  into 
the  pie.  When  the  heat  of  the  oven  begins 
to  act  this  air  expands,  and  forces  its  way 
ander  the  edge  of  the  cup  at  the  bottom  of 
the  pie.  In  this  action  it  produces  a  some- 
what similar  effect  to  stirring  with  a  spoon. 
Wrhen  the  whole  substance  of  the  pie  has 
attained  the  boiling  heat,  the  air  in  the  cup 
expands  no  more  ;  or  the  contrary,  a3  soon 
as  the  pie  is  removed  from  the  heat,  the  air 
in  its  interior  begins  to  contract,  and  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  without  drives 
the  gravy  into  the  cup.  It  is  a'  mistake  to 
suppose  that  the  cup  prevents  the  syrup  or 
2* 


gravy  boiling  over  while  thf  dish  is  in  the 
oven  ;  but  it  is  useful  in  many  ways — to 
support  the  crust,  &c. 

THE  DEATH-WATCH.  Superstitions 
have  been  associated  with  various  insect* 
from  the  earliest  times,  and  in  all  countries. 
TLe  death's-head  moth  has  been  regarded 
as  an  unwelcome  omen  to  the  homes  visited 
by  it ;  and  the  noise  of  the  death-watch  has 
been  affirmed  to  "click  the  hoar  of  death." 
Swift  ridicules  the  absurd  superstition  in  the 
following  manner : — 

"  A  wood  worm 
That  lies  in  old  wood,  like  a  hare  in  her  form 
With  teeth  or  with  claws  it  wiil  bite,  it   will 

scratch, 
And  chamber-maids  christen  this  worm  a  death- 
watch. — 
Because,  like  a  watch,  it  will  always  cry  click. 
Then  woe  be  to  those  in  the  house  that  are  sick  ! 
For,  sure  as  a  gun,  they  will  give  up  the  ghost 
If  the  maggot  cries  click  when  it  scratches  the 

post. 
But  a  kettle  of  scalding  hot-water  injected, 
Infallibly  cures  the  timber  affected; 
Tin:  omen  is  broken,  the  danger  is  over, 
The  maggot  will  die,  and  the  sick  wiil  reenvpr!" 
The  noise  is  produced  by  a  specie; 
of  small  beetle,  of  thetiniber-borinj: 
genus,    Anobium.    In    the  spring 
these  insects  commence  their  tick- 
ing, as  a  call  to  each  other.    They 
beat  with  their  heads,  and  though  they  are 
very   "  head-strong,"  they  are   less  (in  the 
common  acceptation  of  the  term)  than  the 
people  who  cling  to  the  stupid  belief  that 
their  sound  is  a  token  of  coming  calamity. 

SHAMROCK  (HOW  IT  CAME  TO" BE 
THE  NATIONAL  EMBLEM  OF  IKE- 
LAND).  According  to  tradition,  when  Saint 
Patrick  landed  near  Wicklow,  to  convert 
the  Irish,  in  433,  the  pagan  inhabitants 
were  about  to  stone  him ;  hut  having 
obtained  a  hearing,  he  endeavoured  to  ex- 
plain to  them  the  Trinity  in  Unity ;  but 
they  could  not  understand  him  til),  plucking 
a  shamrock— three- leaved  grass,  or  trefoil — 
from  the  ground,  he  said,  "  Is  it  not  as  pos- 
sible for  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost, 
as  for  three  leaves  to  grow  upon  a  single 
stalk  ?"  Upon  which,  says  the  legend,  the 
Irish  were  immediately  convinced. 

WATERPROOFING  BOOTS  AND 
SHOES.  To  half  a  pint  of  drying  oil  add 
one  ounce  of  turpentine  and  half  an  ounce 
of  Burgundy  pitch  ;  mix  carefully  together 
in  a  glazed  pipkin,  over  a  slow  fire  ;  lay  the 
mixture  over  the  boot  or  shoe  with  a  sponge 
or  soft  brush,  while  yet  warm,  and  when 
dry,  repeat  the  process,  until  the  leather  will 
hold  no  more ;  the  shoes  must  then  be  put 
away,  and  not  worn  till  they  are  perfectly 
dry  and  clastic. 


22 


FACTS   FOE  EYERYBODY: 


BRUISES  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT. 

The  best  application  for  a  bruise,  be  it  large 
or  small,  is  moist  warmth ;  therefore,  a 
warm  b.-ead-and- water  poultice  in  hot  moist 
flannels  should  be  put  on,  as  they  supple  the 
skin  If  the  bruise  be  very  severe,  and  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  a  joint,  it  will  be  well 
to  apply  ten  or  a  dozen  leeches  over  the 
whole  bruised  part,  and  afterwards  a  poul- 
tice. But  leeches  should  not  be  put  on 
young  children.  If  the  bruised  part  be  the 
knee  or  the  ankle,  walking  should  not  be 
attempted  till  it  can  be  performed  without 
pain.  Inattention  to  this  point  often  lays 
the  foundation  for  serious  mischief  in  these 
joints,  especially  in  the  case  of  scrofulous 
persons.  Some  consider  that  Tincture  of 
Arnica  is  the  best  cure  for  bruises  and  con- 
tusions :  a.  few  drops  are  to  be  dropped  into  a 
wineglassf'ul  of  water,  and  the  part  affected 
bathed  often  with  a  piece  of  soft  cambric. 
Caution  is  necessary  not  to  make  the  dilu- 
tion too  strong,  as  in  that  case  an  eruption 
might  arise  on  the  skin,  and  the  prevention 
might  become  worse  than  the  cure. 
'  DOOR  MATS.  One  of  the  most  useful 
mats  for  cottage,  and  other  doors  is  that 
termed  the  "chain  mat,"  which  is  com- 
f-**--->.  „  s<  ■-"^■~-^.  monly  made  of  rope, 
ti  \Wi$(;)  ££)  J1  or  of  cocoa-nut  fibre. 
PSSSSS®;:I  Tnese,matf1  are  found 

"SSZWS^aZ>1'  very  durahle'  and  xt 


m 


^i^jt[  11"  mi     men      e 
ggf  t*»t  they  do 

■"■■«•   comeclogcredv 


is  sufficiently  obvious 
from  their  structure 
not  be- 
come cloggea  with  dirt, 
which  falls  into  the  interstices,  and  may 
easily  be  swept  away  when  the  mat  is  lifted 
up.  We  call  the  attention  of  cottagers  to  the 
fact  that  hay-bands,  or  twisted  or  plaited 
straw,  may  easily  be  converted  into  mats  of 
this  description. 

BARBERS'  POLES  (ORIGIN  OF).  In 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  confirmed 
the  charter  of  the  College  of  Surgeons, 
there  were  few  surgeons — in  fact,  only  ten 
in  r  umber — who  confined  themselves  en- 
tirely to  the  profession  of  surgery,  and 
whose  portraits  have  been  handed  down  to 
us  in  one  of  the  finest  efforts  of  Holbein's 
pencil,  where  these  ten  worthies  are  repre- 
sented on  their  knees  before  the  king.  This 
celebrated  painting  is  now  in  the  possession 
of  the  Barbers'  Company.  Up  to  this  time 
a  co-partnership  existed  between  barbers 
and  surgeons;  and  we  find  a  branch  of  the 
fraternity  at  Newcastle,  in  1742,  ordaining 
that  "no  brother  should  shave  on  a  Sun- 
da}  ;"  and,  moreover,  that  "no  one  should 


shave  John  Robinson  till  he 


pay, 


what  he 


owes  to  John  Shafto."    The  sign,  or  signal, 


announcing  the  residence  of  one  of  this  fra- 
ternity was  a  long  pole  affixed  to  the  door- 
post, as  may  be  seen  in  many  places  in  the 
metropolis  at  this  hour.  According  to  the 
historic  account  of  this  sign,  it  had  its 
origin  in  "ancient  Rome,"  where — 

"  'Twas  ordered  that  a  huire  long  pole, 
With  bason  decked,  should  grace  the  hole, 
To  guide  the  wounded." 

"But  when  they  ended  all  their  wars, 
And  men  grew  out  of  love  with  scars — 
Their  trade  decaying:  to  keep  swimming 
They  joyn'd  the  other  trade  of  trimming; 
And  to  their  poles  to  publish  either, 
Thus  twisted  both  tbeir  trades  together." 

FISH  PONDS.  It  isVcessary,  in 
making  an  artificial  fish-pond,  where  the 
earth  is  of  that  nature  that  it  will  not  hold 
water,  to  take  an  equal  quantity  of  gravel, 
sand,  and  clay ;  let  these  be  spread  over  the 
proposed  pond,  and  tempered  with  water, 
cutting  the  materials  with  a  spade,  and 
treading  it  well  with  the  feet,  in  two  courses 
or  layers,  each  eight  inches  in  thickness; 
after  this  is  done,  cover  the  whole  surface 
with  dry  soil,  four  inches  in  thickness.  The 
pool,  after  this  process,  will  be  perfectly 
retentive,  and  the  water  may  be  turned 
into  it  as  soon  as  it  is  completed.  On  the 
opposite  side  of  the  pool  to  where  the  water 
flows  in,  should  be  made  a.  sort  of  waste 
weir  with  a  few  bricks  level  with  the  sur- 
face water  in  the  pond,  to  take  away  the 
overflow,  and  prevent  the  water  in  the  pool 
becoming  stagnant. 

PLASTER  CASTS.  Take  some  fine  wax, 
and  melt  carefully  in  a  covered  pot.  Next 
dry  your  cast  in  an  oven,  or  on  the  hob ; 
then  take  the  wax,  and  drop  it  with  a 
camel's-hair  pencil  on  the  heated  cast,  until 
it  will  absorb  no  more.  This  will  give  it 
the  appearance  of  alabaster  or  ivory,  espe- 
cially if  you  carefully  burnish  it  with  a 
piece  of  leather.  W"e  have  seen  some  beau- 
tiful plaster  heads  which,  eighteen  years 
ago,  were  prepared  according  to  the*  fol- 
lowing directions.  They  were  mounted  on 
a  black  satin  cushion,  framed  and  glazed; 
and  hung  as  ornaments  in  the  drawing- 
room,  deceiving  the  most  curious  eye. 
Break  the  edge  off  a  plaster  of  Paris  head 
[medallion],  as  near  as  you  can  without 
damaging  the  subject.  Lay  it  in  a  soup 
plate,  well  covered  with  the  very  best  sperm 
oil,  for  twelve  hours.  Take  it  out  and  lay 
it  in  the  sun  till  quite  dry.  The  drying 
will  require  about  two  days.  Then,  with  a 
pen-knife,  cut  it  round  till  the  face  only 
remains.  .Polish  it  with  a  cold,  clean 
hand.  This  must  be  well  done,  but  not  till 
quite  dry. 


A   MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


23 


FOOD  FN  SEASON.  January.  Meats. 
•—Beef,    mutton,    veal,    pork,    house-lamb. 

Poultry. — Pheasants,  partridges,  hares,  rab- 
bits, woodcocks,  snipes,  turkeys,  pullets, 
capons,  fowls,  and  pigeons.  Fish.-  Oysters, 
prawns,  crabs,  lobsters,  crayfish,  whitings, 
smelts,  sturgeon,  skate,  turbot,  plaice, 
thornbaok,  flounders,  perch,  tench,  and 
carp.  Vegetable*.-- Cabbages  and  sprouts, 
sorrel,  endive,  spinach,  beet-root,  celery, 
Bcorzanera,  potatoes,  parsnips,  turnips, 
broccoli,  shalots,  lettuces,  cresses,  salsify, 
cucumbers,  and  asparagus ;  mushrooms  all 
the  year.  Fruit.  —  Pears,  apples,  nuts, 
grapes,  medlars,  and  walnuts. 

February  and  March.  All  meats  and 
game  as  in  tbe  former  month,  with  the 
addition  of  chickens  and  ducklings.  Fish. — 
Exactly  as  last  month,  excepting  cod,  which 
is  not  supposed  to  be  quite  so  good  up  to 
July.  Vegetables. — Just  the  same  as  the 
previous  month,  only  now  you  have  kidney 
beans.  Fruits.  —  Apples  and  pears,  and 
forced  strawberries. 

April,  May,  and  June.  Meats. — Beef, 
mutton,  veal,  lamb,  and  in  June  venison. 
Poultry. — Pullets,  fowls,  chickens,  duck- 
lings, pigeons,  rabbits,  and  leverets.  Vege- 
tables as  before,  only  in  May  early  potatoes, 
peas,  radishes,  French  beans,  early  cab- 
bages, carrots  and  turnips,  cauliflowers,  as- 
paragus, artichokes,  and  all  kinds  of  salad, 
but  this  is  forced.  Fruits. — In  June,  straw- 
berries, cherries,  melons,  green  apricots, 
entrants,  and  gooseberries  for  tarts  only. 
Fish.  —  Carp,  scles,  tench,  smelts,  eels, 
trout,  turbot,  lobsters,  chub,  salmon,  her- 
rincrs,  crayfish,  mackerel,  crabs,  prawns, 
and  shrimps.  * 

July,  August,  and  September.  Meats. 
« — These  are  not  different  from  the  former 
months,  except  pork,  which  commences  in 
September.  Poultry.  —  Pullets,  fowls, 
chickens,  and  rabbits,  pigeons  and  green 
geese,  leverets,  turkeys,  poults,  the  two 
former  months;  wheat-ears  and  geese  in 
September.  Fish, — Cod,  haddocks,  flound- 
ers, skate,  thornback,  mullet,  pike  and  carp, 
eels  and  shell-fish,  but  no  oysters ;  mackerel 
in  July,  it  is  not  so  good  in  August.  Vege- 
tables.— As  all  the  previous  months ;  peas 
and  beans.  Fruits.  — July,  strawberries, 
gooseberries,  pine-apples,  plums  of  all  kinds, 
cherries,  apricots,  raspberries,  melons,  dam- 
sons, white  and  red  currants,  pears,  apples, 
grapes,  nectarines  and  peaches.  In  August 
and  September,  peaches,  plums,  filberts,  figs, 
mulberries,  cherries,  apples  and  pears,  necta- 
rines, grapes, pines  and  meloi  s, strawberries. 
October.  Meat*  do  not  differ;  this  is 
the  season  for  good  doe  venison.    Poultry 


and  Game. — Fowls  of  all  kinds  as  the  former 
quarter,  pheasants  from  the  1st  October, 
partridges,  larks,  hares,  wild  ducks  late  in 
the  month,  teal,  snipes,  widgeon,  and  grouse. 
Fish. — Dories,  smelts,  pike,  perch,  halibuts, 
brills,  carp,  salmon,  trout,  barbel,  gudgeon, 
tench,  all  shell-fish.  Vegetables  are  now 
as  in  January  month.  Fruits  —Peaches, 
pears,  figs,  bullaces,  grapes,  apples,  medlars, 
damsons,   filberts,  walnuts,  nuts,  quinces. 

November.  Meats.  Beef,  mutton,  veal, 
pork,  house-Iamb, '  doe  venison. — Poultry, 
Game,  Fish,  Vegetables,  and  Fruits. — As 
the  last  month. 

December.  Meats  as  the  former  month. 
Poultry. — Geese,  turkevs,  pullets,  pigeons, 
capons,  fowls,  rabbits,  hares,  snipes,  wood- 
cocks, larks,  pheasants,  sea-fowls,  Guinea 
fowls,  wild  ducks,  teal,  widgeon,  grouse, 
and  dunbirds.  Vegetables.-  As  in  the  last 
month.  Fish.  —  Turbot,  gurnets,  soles, 
sturgeon,  carp,  gudgeon,  eels,  codlings, 
doi-ies,  and  shell-fish  of  all  kinds.  [It  is  only 
a  Fact  to  say  that  we  are  indebted  for  this 
information  to  "  Inquire  Within  ;  or,  Over 
3,700  Facts  for  the  People."] 

DANDELION.     The    name    is    derived 
from  the  French  M  Dent  de  lion"  or  "  lion's 
tooth,"  from  the  likeness  supposed  to  be  ob- 
served between  the  canine  tooth  of  the  lord 
of  the  forest,  and  the  strap-shaped  florets  of 
the  dandelion,  or  from  the  tooth-like  mar- 
gins of  the  leaves.     The  flower  is  peculiarly 
sensitive  to  atmospheric  changes.    In  spring 
the  leaves  are  used  as  salad,  and  in  France 
the  blanched  leaves  are  eaten  with  bread  and 
butter.     The  root  dried  and  roasted  makes 
excellent  chicory,  and  much  resembles  coffee, 
METALLIC  TREES.    The  Lead  Tree  is 
produced  as  follows  : — Put  into  a  glass  bottle 
about  half  an  ounce  of  sugar  of  lead,  and 
fill  up  to  the  neck  with  distilled   or  rain 
water ;  then  fasten  to  the  cork 
or  stopper  a  piece  of  zinc  wire, 
so  that  it  may   hang   in  the 
centre;   then  place  the  bottle 
where    it   may  remain  undis- 
turbed.    The  wire  will  soon  be 
covered  with  crystals  of  lead, 
precipitated  from  the  solution, 
and  assuming  a  tree-like  form, 
very  pleasing  to  the  eye.     For 
the  Tin  Tree,  proceed  as  before, 
and  put  in  three  drachms  of  muriate  of  tin, 
and  about  ten  drops  of  nitric  acid.     The  tin 
tree  has  a  more  lustrous  appearance  than 
the  lead  tree.     The  Stiver  Tree  is  prepared 
by  a  solution  of  four  drachms  of  nitrate  of 
silver,  in  distilled  or  rain  water,  as  before; 
to  which  add  about  an  ounce  of  quicksilver. 
These  experiments  are  easy  and  interesting. 


24 


TACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


AN  J^OLIAN  HARP,  (TO  CONSTRUCT.; 

Length  thirty-two  inches  by  six;  depth 
one  and  three-quarter  inches.  The  strings 
are  attached  to  the  small  hooks  at  the  end, 
corresponding  to   the    pegs.      The   strings 


must  be  about  the  thickness  of  the  first 
string  of  the  violin.  These  strings  answer 
well,  but  if  too  expensive,  the  small  gut 
used  by  whip  manufacturers  may  be  used. 
The  bottom  plank  of  the  harp  should  be  oak, 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  length 
three  feet,  breadth  ten  inches.  The  bridges 
may  be  any  sonorous  wood,  (but  steel  will 
give  the  best  sound),  half  an  inch  in  height, 
cut  angular  to  a  blunt  point;  they  must  not 
be  flattened  down,  but  must  be  made  to  fit 
very  flat  to  the  bottom  board,  or  it  will  jar, 
and  never  play  well.  This  is  the  great  de- 
fect in  all  harps  made  by  amateurs.  The 
ends  of  the  harp  should  be  oak,  one  inch 
thick,  and  must  be  fixed  very  firmly  to  the 
bottom  board,  but  not  with  metal  screws  or 
glue;  and  in  these  the  pins  are  fixed  for 
tightening  the  strings.  Use  fiddle-pins, 
half  at  each  end.  The  top  should  be  half 
an  inch  thick,  and  sycamore  wood  is  the 
best,  and  may  be  polished— it  should  be 
very  slightly  fastened  on,  for  it  has  to  be  re- 
moved every  time  to  tune.  Common  catgut 
does  nearly  as  well  as  German.  Get  as 
thick  a  string  as  you  can  for  one  side,  and 
a  thin  one  for  the  other ;  then  graduate 
them  from  the  thick  to  the  thin,  so  as 
not  to  have  two  alike.  They  are  in  ge- 
neral tuned  to  $C,  but  it  is  preferable  to 
tune  to  low  C,  and  then  each  string  an 
octave  higher.  This  is  easily  altered,  if  de- 
sirable. The  instruments  should  be  made 
rery  strong  in  all  respects,  for  the  strings 
exert  almost  incredible  strength.  The  posi- 
tion for  placing  the  harp  at  the  window  to 
be  with  the  upper  surface  inclined  towards 
the  draft  of  air. 

STORM  GLASSES.  The  following  di- 
rections may  serve  for  a  storrn-glass  : — Take 
two  drachms  of  camphor,  half  a  drachm  of 
pure  nitrate  of  potash,  and  half  a  drachm  of 
muriate  of  ammonia.  Triturate  them  toge- 
ther until  they  are  thoroughly  pulverised. 
Put  these  ingredients  into  a  bottle  of  about 
ten  inches  in  length,  and  one  inch  in  diame- 
ter; half  fill  it  with  the  best  alcohol,  and  add 
distilled  water,  until  you  obtain  as  heavy  a 
precipitate  as  you  consider  necessary.  Cork 
the  bottle,    not   cover  it  with  perforated 


bladder,  as  recommended  sometimes.  The 
instrument  should  be  kept  in  the  shade,  as 
solar  light  deranges  it.  The  indications 
given  by  these  glasses  are  as  follow  : — If 
the  weather  promise  to  be  fine,  the  solid 
matter  of  the  composition  will  settle  at  the 
bottom  of  the  glass,  while  the  liquid  will 
remain  transparent ;  but  previous  to  a 
change  for  rain,  the  compound  will  gra- 
dually rise,  the  fiuid  continue  pellucid,  and 
small  stars  will  be  observed  moving  or 
floating  about  within  the  vessel.  Twenty- 
four  hours  before  a  storm,  or  very  high 
wind,  the  substance  will  be  partly  on  the 
surface  of  the  liquid,  apparently  in  the  form 
of  a  leaf;  the  fluid  in  such  case  will  be  in  a 
state  resembling  fermentation. 

PASTILLES.  There  are  various  modes 
of  making  pastilles.  The  following  are  ap- 
proved recipes  :— 1.  Take  of  powdered  gum 
benzoin  16  parts;  balsam  of  tolu,  and 
powdered  sandal  wood,  of  each  4  parts; 
linden  charcoal  48  parts ;  powdered  traga- 
canth,  and  true  labdanum,  of  each  1  part; 
powdered  saltpetre,  and  gum  Arabic,  of 
each  2  parts ;  cinnamon  water  12  parts. 
Beat  into  the  consistence  of  thick  paste,  and 
having  made  into  shape,  dry  in  the  air. — 2. 
Gum  benzoin,  olibanum,  storax,  of  each  12 
oz. ;  saltpetre  9  oz. ;  charcoal  4  lbs. ; 
powder  of  pale  roses  1  lb  ;  essence  of  roses 
1  oz.  Mix  with  2  oz.  of  gum  tragacanth 
dissolved  in  a  quart  of  rose  water. — 3.  The 
same  formula  may  be  varied,  by  the  substi- 
tution of  pure  orange  powder  for  the  roses, 
and  oil  of  neroli  for  the  essence  of  roses. — 
4.  By  adding  a  few  grains  of  camphor  to 
the  first  recipe,  a  pastille  suited  to  an  in- 
valid's chamber  is  prepared.  If  the  scent 
of  the  above  seems  too  powerful,  the  pro- 
portions of  saltpetre  and  charcoal  may  be 
increased.  Never  use  musk  and  civet  in. 
pastilles 

GUTTA  PERCHA  SOLES,  (HOW  TO 
PUT  ON).  Dry  the  old  sole,  and  rough  it 
with  a  rasp ;  after  which,  put  on  a  thin  coat 
of  warm  solution  with  the  finger,  rub  it 
well  in  ;  let  it  dry,  then  hold  it  to  the  fire, 
and,  whilst  warm,  put  on  a  second  coat  of 
solution  thicker  than  the  first,  let  it  dry. 
Then  take  the  gutta-percha  sole,  and  put  it 
in  hot  water  unt'l  it  is  soft;  take  it  out, 
wipe  it,  and  hold  the  sole  in  one  hand  and 
the  shoe  in  the  other  to  the  fire,  and  they 
will  become  sticky  ;  immediately  lay  the  sole 
on,  beginning  at  the  toe,  and  proceed  gra- 
dually. In  half  an  hour,  take  a  knife  and 
pare  it.  The  solution  should  be  warmed  by 
putting  as  much  as  you  want  to  use  in  a  cup", 
and  placing  it  in  hot  water,  taking  care  that 
no  water  mixes  with  the  solution. 


A   MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


25 


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26 


FACTS   FOE  EYEEYBODY: 


CRYOPHOPJTS.  Thecryophorus,  or  frost- 
bearer,  is  a  pleasing  philosophical  toy, 
sometimes  known  as  a  pulse  glass.  This 
instrument  consists  of  two  small  glass  glohes 
■united  by  a  tuhe,  one  of  which  is  partly 
filled  with  water.  The  end  of  the  tube  is 
hermetically  sealed  while  the  water  is  boil- 
ing, and  thus  it  is  constructed  perfectly  free 
from  air.  The  part  of  the  apparatus  (A) 
unoccupied  by  the  water,  though  apparently 
empty,  is,  in  reality,  tilled  with  aqueous 
vapour,  which  checks  evaporation  from  the 
surface  of  the  water  (B).     If  the  pressure 


of  this  vapour  be  removed,  by  plunging  the 
empty  ball  into  a  freezing  mixture  (which 
condenses  the  vapour),  so  rapid  an  evapora- 
tion takes  place,  that  the  Water  in  B  is 
frozen  in  two  or  three  minutes.  The  notion 
that  this  glass  can  indicate  the  actual  state 
of  the  pulse,  is  erroneous  :  it  only  indicates 
the  warmth  of  the  hand,  and  then  acts  as  a 
differential  thermometer,  i.  e.  indicating  the 
difference  between  the  heat  of  the  globes  A 
and  B.  * 

.  SWIMMING-BELTS.  The  largest  por- 
tion of  the  entrail  of  the  ox,  when  nicely 
cleaned,  forms  an  excellent  material  out  of 
which  to  form  a  swimming-belt.  Procure 
two  (if  them  from  the  butcher,  and  having 
washed  them  in  soap  and  water,  turn  them 
inside  out,  and  soak  in  a  strong  solution  of 
alum  water.  Then  tie  up  one  end  tightly 
■with  waxed  string,  blow  full  of  air  and  se- 
cure the  other  end  in  a  similar  manner. 
The  two  guts  having  been  thus  treated 
should  be  hung  up  to  dry,  and  in  a  few  days 
varnished.  The  ends  where  they  are  tied 
should  be  covered  with  a  solution  of  sealing- 
wax  in  spirit.  If,  however,  in  this  form 
the  belt  is  not  considered  sufficiently  port- 
able, the  last  direction  may  be  omitted,  and 
the  air  let  out  after  each  time  of  using. 
It  will  be  liable,  however,  to  get  out  of  re- 
pair upon  this  plan. 

COD  LIVER  OIL.  This  imported  oil  is 
prepared  by  exposing  the  livers  to  the  heat 
of  the  sun   in   tubs  till   putrefaction  takes 

ftlace  ;  drawing  off  the  oil,  and  boiling  the 
ivers  to  obtain  more  oil.  In  this  country 
the  bland  pale  straw-coloured  variety  is  ob- 
tained by  heating  the  livers  over  a  slow  tire, 
and  stirring  till  they  break  down  into  a  pulp. 
When  the  temperature  has  risen  to  159  Fahr., 
the  pulp  is  placed  in  canvas  bags,  and  in  24 
hours  the  oil  which  drains  out  is  separated 
from  the  watery  liquor  which  accompanies 


it.  Obtained  in  this  way,  the  oil  has  been 
found  to  produce  all  the  therapeutic  effects 
ascribed  to  the  more  offensive  kinds,  and  is 
less  liable  to  disagree  with  the  stomach.  It 
is  used  in  scrofula,  consumption,  rheu- 
matism, debility,  &c.  The  dose  is  a  table- 
spoonful  or  two,  three  times  a  day  for  two 
or  three  months.  It  may  be  taken  in  water 
or  with  a  little  salt.  The  Americans  take 
the  nauseous  draught  in  porter.  It  appeai-s 
to  be  highly  nutritive  as  well  as  alterative. 
It  contains  iodine  and  bromine. 

BLEEDING  AT  THE  NOSE.  When 
bleeding  at  the  nose  occurs  otherwise  than 
as'the  result  of  violence,  it  is  usually  in 
consequence  of  the  owr-fulness  of  some  of 
the  vessels  about  the  brain,  and  is  the  con- 
sequence of  an  effort  of  nature  to  relieve 
the  congestion.  "When,  however,  it  is  the 
result  of  violence,  or  is  continued  beyond 
a  few  minutes,  or  takes  place  in  excessive 
quantity,  it  should  be  checked  as  soon  as 
possible.  Of  the  various  methods,  the 
following  is  perhaps  the  most  useful : — Let 
the  patient  sit  and  hold  the  head  back  while 
cold  water  is  dashed  over  the  face.  Let 
him  also  sniff  aromatic  vinegar,  or  smelling 
salts.  May  be  sometimes  checked  by  the 
person  sitting  upright  and  bathing  the  nose 
externally  with  cold  water,  or  vinegar  and 
water,  and  sniffing  it  up  the  nostrils. 
Should  it  continue,  a  moderate  pinch  of 
powdered  alum  may  be  put  into  a  couple  of 
tablespoonfuls  of  water  and  thrown  up  with 
a  squirt,  or  a  plug  of  lint  dipped  in  this 
wash  and  placed  up  the  nostril,  taking 
care  to  fasten  a  strong  thread  securely 
round   it. 

FRUIT,  (THE  BEST  TIME  FOR 
EATING).  The  question  is  of  some  import- 
ance, and  deserves  a  few  remarks.  Fruit 
is  digestible  in  proportion  to  its  perfec- 
tion, and  hence  the  care  to  be  observed 
with  regard  to  ripeness.  The  drier  fruits 
are  adapted  to  cool  and  dry  weather ;  the 
moister  ones  to  the  hotter.  Thus  the  less 
juicy  sorts  of  cherries,  pears,  and  peaches, 
are  not  only  most  grateful  but  most  salutary 
when  the  weather  is  excessively  hot;  while 
the  currant,  and  melon,  and  the  moist 
peach,  are  best  adapted  to  the  hottest 
weather.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  dif- 
ferent hours  of  the  day.  If  fruits  are  eaten 
at  all  late  in  the  day,  especially  after  mid- 
day, they  should  be  the  more  watery,  as  the 
melon.  Fruit  should  generally  be  eaten  in 
the  early  part  of  the  day,  and  seldom  late 
in  the  evening.  The  morning  is,  on  the 
whole,  best,  and  next  to  that,  perhaps,  the 
middle  of  the  day.  The  worst  time  is  the 
;  hour  just  before  going  to  bed. 


A  MISCELLANY    OF    USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


27 


LETTER  PORTAGES.  1.  The  law  re- 
quires the  postage  on  all  letters  to  be  prepaid 

by  -tamps,  or  stamped  envelopes,  except  those 
to  foreign  countries,  and  those  on  official  bus- 
iness to  government  officers  having  the  frank- 
ing privilege.  But  prepayment  on  drop  letters 
(not  to  be  mailed)  is  optional. 

2.  Single  letters  passing  in  the  mails  dis- 
tances not  over  3,000  miles,  between  offices  in 
the  United  States,  are  to  be  charged  three 
cents  ;  and  for  distances  over  3,000  miles,  ten 
cents.  Double  letters  are  charged  double 
these  rates  ;  treble  ones  treble,  and  so  on. 

3.  Letters  passing  from  one  office  to  another 
within  the  United  States  or  Territories,  also 
those  going  between  places  in  the  United 
States  and  the  British  North  American  Prov- 
inces, are  rated  as  single,  if  not  exceeding 
half  an  ounce  in  weight ;  double  if  exceeding 
half  an  ounce  but  not  exceeding  an  ounce  ; 
treble  if  exceeding  an  ounce  but  not  exceed- 
ing an  ounce  and  a  half,  and  so  on. 

4.  Drop  letters  are  charged  one  cent  each. 

5.  Single  letters  to  or  from  any  of  the  Bri- 
tish North  American  Provinces,  are  charged 
ten  cents  for  distances  not  exceeding  3,000 
miles,  and  for  greater  distances  15  cents. 
Double  letters  pay  double,  and  treble  ones 
treble  these  rates. 

6.  It  is  unlawful  to  place  in  a  post-office, 
to  be  transmitted  by  mail  within  the  United 
States,  an  envelope  or  packet  containing  let- 
ters addressed  to  different  persons. 

7.  Handbills,  circulars,  or  other  printed 
matter,  containing  any  manuscript  writing, 
are  subject  to  letter  postage  ;  so  are  all  pack- 
ets so  closely  enveloped  or  sealed  that  their 
contents  cannot  be  known. 

.S.  Advertised  letters  are  charged  one  cent 
additional  to  the  ordinary  postage. 

!).  Letters  brought  by  ships  and  packets  to 
ports  in  the  United  States,  or  passing  from 
one  port  therein  to  another,  are  to  be  rated 
six  cents  each  when  delivered  from  the  office 
at  which  they  were  first  received  ;  when  for- 
warded thence  by  mail  to  other  offices  (in- 
stead of  said  six  cents)  simply,  two  cents  in 
addition  to  the  ordinary  rates  of  postage. 

10.  The  charge  to  the  persons  addressed 
upon  letters  and  packets,  received  at  post- 
offices  from  the  masters,  clerks,  or  other 
employees  of  steamboats,  on  waters  deemed 
post  routes,  is  the  same  as  if  they  had  been 
conveyed  on  land  routes. 

11.  The  act  of  March  3, 1855,  making  no 
provision  for  unpaid  letters  to  places  within 
the  United  States,  on  the  same  or  day  follow- 
ing any  such  unpaid  letter  or  letters  being 
put  into  a  post-office,  the  postmaster  thereof 
is  instructed  to  give  notice,  upon  blanks  fur- 
nished by  the  Post-Offire  Department,  to  all 
persons  within  the  United  States  for  whom 


such  letters  shall  have  been  deposited  within 
their  offices  ;  and  if  not  attended  to  within 
one  month,  they  return  such  letters  to  the 
Dead  Letter  Office. 

12.  Letters  mailed  in  the  cars  can  be  pre- 
paid only  by  using  postage  stamps,  or  stamp- 
ed envelopes;  and  when  not  thus  prepaid  it  is 
the  duty  of  postmasters  to  treat  all  such  let- 
ters as  unpaid, although  marked  "  paid," — no 
route  agent  being  permitted  to  receive  pre- 
payment in  money. 

13.  Letters  part  paid  are  dispatched,  charg- 
ed with  the  additional  postage  due  at  the 
prepaid  rate,  according  to  distance,  establish- 
ed by  said  act,  except  where  the  omission  to 
pay  the  correct  amount  is  known  to  have 
been  intentional,  when  they  are  treated  tho 
same  as  letters  wholly  unpaid. 

POSTAGE  ON  PRINTED  MATTER. 
1.  The  postage  on  each  newspaper,  periodi- 
cal, unsealed  circular,  or  other  article  of 
printed  matter  (except  books),  not  over  three 
ounces  in  weight,  going  by  mail  to  any  place 
in  the  United  States,  is  one  cent,  and  one 
cent  additional  for  each  additional  ounce  or 
fraction  of  an  ounce.  Only  one  half  of  these 
rates  is  charged  when  the  postage  is  paid 
quarterly  or  yearly  in  advance. 

2.  Packages  of  small  newspapers,  publish- 
ed monthly  or  oftener,  and  pamphlets  not 
containing  more  than  sixteen  octavo  pages, 
sent  to  one  address,  and  weighing  at  least 
half  a  pound,  prepaid  by  postage  stamps, 
are  rated  at  half  a  cent  an  ounce. 

3.  All  printed  matter,  chargeable  by  weight, 
is  to  be  weighed  when  dry. 

4.  Books,  bound  or  unbound,  not  weighing 
over  four  pounds,  are  chargeal tie  at  the  rate 
of  one  cent  an  ounce  for  distances  under 
3,000  miles,  and  two  cents  an  ounce  for 
greater  distances. 

5.  Each  newspaper  or  periodical,  not  over 
one  ounce  and  a  half  in  weight,  to  any  place 
in  the  State  of  its  publication,  is  chargeable 
with  half  a  cent  postage. 

6.  Publishers  of  newspapers  and  periodicals 
may  send  to  each  other  from  their  publication 
offices  one  copy  of  the  same,  free  of  postage, 
and  may  inclose  therein  to  actual  subscribers 
bills  and  receipts  for  such  publications,  with- 
out postage  charge. 

7.  The  publishers  of  weekly  newspapers 
may  send  to  each  actual  subscriber  within  the 
county  of  publication,  one  copy  thereof  free 
of  postage. 

8.  Newspapers  and  other  printed  matter 
cannot  be  sent  at  the  foregoing  rates,  unless 
without  covers  or  wrappers,  or  in  covers  or 
wrappers  open  at  the  ends  or  sides,  so  that 
the  character  of  their  ci  mtents  may  be  known  ; 
or  if  any  word  or  communication  be  printed 
on  the  same,  after  their  publication,  or  any 


28 


FACTS    FOR    EVERYBODY 


writing  or  other  marks  be  placed  thereon,  or  1  sent ;   or  if  any  paper  or  other  thing  be  hr 
on  the  covers  or  wrappers,  except  the  names    closed  in  or  with  such  printed  matter, 
and  address  of  the  person  to  whom  they  are  | 

9.  Quarterly  Rates  of  Postage,  when  paid  Quarterly  or  Yearly  in  Advance,  on  Newspapers  and 
Periodicals,  to  actual  Subscribers. 


Weekly  newspapers  (one  copy  only)  sent  by  the 
publishers  to  actual  subscribers  within  the  coun- 
ty where  printed  and  published, 

Newspapers  and  periodicals  not  exceeding  \% 
ounce  in  weight,  when  circulated  in  the  State 
where  published, 

Newspapers  and  periodicals  of  the  weight  of  3 
ounces  and  under,  sent  to  any  part  of  the  United 


Over  3  and  not  over  4  ounces, . 
Over  4  and  not  over  5  ounces,. 
Over  5  and  not  over  6  ounces,. 
Over  6  and  not  over  7  ounces,. 
Over  7  and  not  over  8  ounces,. 


Cents.     Cents, 


22f 


451 
91 
1361 
182 
2271 
273 


1*1 


117 

156 
195 
234 


Cents.    Cents. 


95 


191 
39 
58i 
78 
97i 
117 


Cents. 

Free. 

81 


8* 
13 
92i 
26 
321 


Semi- 
Mo  ly 


M 


Mo'ly. 


10.  If  the  publisher  of  any  newspaper  or 
periodical,  after  being  three  months  previous- 
ly notified  that  his  publication  is  not  taken 
out  of  the  office  to  which  it  is  sent  for  deliv- 
ery, continues  to  forward  such  publication  in 
the  mail,  the  postmaster  to  whose  office  such 
publication  is  sent  is  to  dispose  of  the  same 
for  the  postage,  unless  the  publisher  shall  pay 
it ;  and  whenever  any  printed  matter  of  any 
description,  received  during  one  quarter  of 
the  risen)  year,  shall  have  remained  in  the 
office  without  being  called  for  during  the 
whole  of  any  succeeding  quarter,  the  post- 
master at  such  office  is  to  give  such  notice  to 
the  publisher  ;  and  if  he  fail  to  pay  the  post- 
age thereon  within  a  reasonable  time,  is  to 
sell  the  same  and  credit  the  proceeds  of  such 
sale  in  his  quarterly  accounts  in  the  usual 
manner.  A  similar  course  is  to  be  pursued  in 
reference  to  pamphlets  and  magazines  pub- 
lished periodically. 

11.  Quarterly  payments  in  advance  may  be 
made  either  at  the  mailing  office  or  the  office 
of  delivery.  When  made  at  such  mailing 
office,  at  the  commencement  of  a  year  or  of  a 
quarter  (as  he  may  elect)  the  publisher  must 
prepare  and  hand  to  the  postmaster,  ready 
for  signature,  a  receipt  for  each  post-office  to 
which  the  papers  are  to  be  sent  for  delivery, 
stating  the  number  of  papers  to  be  sent  to 
such  post-office,  and  the  amount  of  postage  to 
be  paid  thereon  ;  also  giving  the  names  of 
each  of  the  subscribers. 

AUTHORS  OP  POPULAR  QUOTA- 
TIONS. "  Entangling  alliances."— George 
Washington. 

"  Where  liberty  dwells,  there  is  my  coun- 
try."— Benjamin  Franklin. 

"  The  po>t  of  honor  is  the  private  station." 
—Thomas  Jefferson. 


"  Ebony  and  topaz." — J.  Q.  Adams. 

"  The  Union  must  and  shall  be  preserved." 
— Andrew  Jackson. 

"  Better  to  be  right  than  to  be  President." 
Henry  Clay. 

"  Union — now  and  forever,  one  and  insepa- 
rable."—Daniel  Webster. 

"  Squatter  sovereignty."— Lewis  Cass. 

"  To  the  victors  belong  the  spoils  of  office." 
— William  L.  Marcy. 

"  Hint-drops." — Thomas  H.  Benton. 

"  The  almighty  dollar." — Wash.  Irving. 

"  Face  the  music."— J.  Fennimore  Cooper. 

"  The  largest  liberty."— Wm.  C.  Bryant. 

"  The  bone  and  sinew  of  the  country." — 
William  Leggett. 

"  Don't  give  up  the  ship."— Captain  Law- 
rence. 

"  He's  got  an  ax  to  grind."— J.K.Paulding. 

"Valuable  water  privileges." — George  P. 
Morris. 

"  Telegram."— National  Intelligencer. 

"  He's  not  worth  a  row  of  pins." — Gorham 
A.  Worth. 

"  He's  as  short  as  a  rabbit's  tail." — Jacob 
Barker. 

"  The  loco  foco  party."— Charles  Davis. 

"  The  whig  party."— Philip  Hone. 

"  All's  fair  in  politics."— M.  M.  Noah. 

"  Happy  as  a  clam  at  high  water." — Wm. 
Mitchell. 

"  Cotton  is  king." — John  Randolph. 

"  Handy  as  a  pocket  in  a  shirt."— Southern 
paper. 

"  Upper  tendom."— N.  P.  Willis. 
-  "  Straws  show  which  way  the  wind  blows.' 
— James  Cheatham. 

"  The  Empire  State."— John  C.  Calhoun. 

"  A  good  man  ;  but  he  can't  keep  a  hotel 
— Negro  minstrels. 


A  MISCELLANY   OP  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


29 


"  All's  not  gold  that  glitters— Portfolio. 

"  Northern  fanatics  aud  southern  flroeat 
ers.'"— Tammany  Hall. 

"  United  we  stand,  divided  we  fall."— 
Watchword  of  the  American  Revolution. 

"  Bleeding  Kansas." — Horace  Greeley. 

"  Holder  ruffians." — J.  G.  Bennett. 

"Fiftv-four-forty,  or  Qght." — Western  paper. 

MECHANICAL  EFFECT  OF  LIGHT- 
KING.  It  has  been  proved  that  a  flash 
of  lightning  must  have  struck  a  church — St. 
George's,  Leicester — with  a  force  equal  to 
more  than  twelve  thousand  horse  power.  A 
single  horse  power  is  equal  to  raising  thirty- 
two  thousand  pounds  one  foot  high  in  one 
minute.  The  force  of  the  lightning,  therefore, 
was  equal  to  three  hundred  and  eighty-four 
million  pounds  raised  one  foot  high  in  one 
minute. 

BITES  (Of  Snakes).  The  bites  of  the 
different  kinds  of  snakes  do  not  all  act 
alike,  but  affect  people  in  different  ways. — 
Treatment  of  the  part  bitten  :  A  pocket 
handkerchief,  a  piece  of  tape  or  cord,  or,  in 
fact,  of  anything  that  is  at  hand,  should  be 
tied  tightly  round  the  part  of  the  body 
bitten  ;  if  it  be  the  leg  or  arm,  immediately 
above  the  bite,  and  between  it  and  the  heart. 
The  bite  should  then  be  sucked  several 
times  by  anyone  who  is  near.  There  is  no 
danger  in  this,  provided  the  person  who 
does  it  has  not  got  the  skin  taken  off  any 
part  of  his  mouth.  What  has  been  sucked 
into  the  mouth  should  be  immediately  spat 
out  again.  But  if  those  who  are  near  have 
sufficient  nerve  for  the  operation,  and  a  suit- 
able instrument,  they  should  cut  out  the 
central  part  bitten,  and  then  bathe  the 
wound  for  some  time  with  warm  water,  to 
make  it  bleed  freely.  The  wound  should 
afterwards  be  rubbed  with  a  stick  of  lunar 
caustic,  or,  what  is  better  a  solution  of  this 
— 60  grains  of  lunar  caustic  dissolved  in  an 
ounce  of  water — should  be  dropped  into  it. 
The  band  should  be  kept  on  the  part  during 
the  whole  of  the  time  that  these  means  are 
being  adopted.  The  wound  should  after- 
wards be  covered  with  lint  dipped  m  cold 
water.  Constitutional  Treatment :  There  is 
mostly  at  first  great  depression  of  strength  in 
these  cases,  and  it  is  therefore  requisite  to 
give  some  stimulant ;  a  glass  of  hot  brandy 
and  water,  or  twenty  drops  of  sal-volatile, 
is  the  best  that  can  be  given.  When  the 
strength  has  returned,  and  if  the  patient 
has  not  already  been  sick,  a  little  mustard 
in  hot  water  should  be  given,  to  make  him 
bo.  If  on  the  other  hand,  as  is  often  the 
case,  the  vomiting  is  excessive,  a  large 
mustard  poultice  should  be  placed  over  the 
Btomach,  and  a  grain  of  solid  opium  swal- 


lowed in  the  form  of  a  pill,  for  the  purpose 
of  stopping  it.  Only  one  of  these  pills, 
should  be  given  by  a  non-professional  pi  raon. 
In  all  cases  of  bites  from  snakes,  send  for  a 
Burgeon  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  act  ac- 
cording to  the  above  directions  until  he 
arrives. 

Bites  of  Dogs.  The  treatment  is  the 
same  as  that  for  snake  bites,  more  especially 
that  of  the  bitten  part.  The  majority  of 
writers  on  the  subject  are  in  favour  of  keep- 
ing the  wound  open  as  long  as  possible. 
This  may  be  done  by  putting  a  few  beans 
on  it,  and  then  by  applying  a  large  linseed- 
meal  poultice  over  them. 

Bites  of  Gnats.  To  cure  the  bite  of 
gnats,  the  best  remedy  is  to  smear  the  part 
with  olive  oil. 

BURNS  AND  SCALDS.  Dissolve  in 
boiling  water  as  much  Epsom  traits  as  they 
will  take  up.  Letitgetcool,  bottleoff,  and  keep 
in  readiness  for  use.  It  will  be  well  to  label 
the  bottle — "  Solution  for  Scalds  and  Bums." 
When  an  accident  of  this  kind  occurs,  wet  a 
cloth  with  this  solution,  and  place  it  on  the 
scalded  (or  burned)  place.  Do  not  remove 
the  cloth  when  the  moisture  is  exhausted, 
but  keep  it  wet  while  still  on.  Continue 
this  treatment  for  four  or  Ave  hours  ;  and  if 
the  accident  is  not  very  severe,  a  cure  will 
then  be  effected.  It  is  of  the  utmost  value, 
however,  in  the  severest  cases. — Or,  mix 
one  part  of  lime-water  with  two  parts  of  oil, 
and  stir  round  quickly  with  the  hand.  Soap 
a  piece  of  linen  thoroughly  in  this,  then 
wring  it  out  lightly  and  wrap  round  the 
part  injured.  No  cold  application  should 
ever  be  applied. — A  little  spirit  of  turpen- 
tine applied  to  recent  burns  will  mitigate 
the  pain,  if  not  wholly  remove  it. — Apply 
black  ink. 

BURNING,  (TO  PROTECT  CHILDREN 
FROM).  Add  one  ounce  of  alum  to  the  last 
water  used  to  rinse  children's  dresses,  ana 
they  will  be  rendered  uninflammable,  or  so 
slightly  combustible  that  they  would  take 
fire  very  slowly,  if  at  all,  and  would  not 
flame.  This  is  a  simple  precaution,  which 
may  be  adopted  in  families  of  children. 
Bed-curtains,  and  linen  in  general,  may 
also  be  treated  in  the  same  way. 

COACH  ACCIDENTS.  Should  the 
horses  run  off,  in  defiance  of  all  restraint, 
while  you  are  in  a  coach,  sit  perfectly  still, 
and,  in  anticipation  of  the  possible  over- 
turn, keep  your  legs  and  arms  from  strag- 
gling Sit  easily  and  compactly,  so  that, 
when  upset,  you  will  gently  roll  over  in  the 
direction  vou  are  thrown.  We  have  seen 
ladies  in  these  circumstances  scream  wildly, 
aud  throw  their  arms  out  of  the  window^ 


30 


FACTS  FOE  everybody; 


thus  exposing  themselves  to  the  chance  of 
broken  limbs.  If  run  away  with  in  a  gig, 
either  sit  still  collectedly,  or  drop  out  at  the 
back,  so  as  to  fall  on  your  hands.  Never 
jump  from  a  rapidly  moving  vehicle. 

SHIP  is  a  general  name  for  all  great 
vessels  with  sails,  fit  for  navigating  the  sea, 
except  galleys,  which  go  with  oars  and 
smack  sails.  The  invention  of  ships  is  very 
ancient,  but  the  time  uncertain.  Some 
look  on  Noah  as  the  first  ship-builder. 
Ships  arc  usually  divided  into  three  classes, 
ships  of  war,  merchants'  ship,  and  an  inter- 
mediate kind,  half  war,  half  merchant; 
being  such  as  though  built  for  merchandize 
yet  take  commissions  for  war.  Ships  of  war 
are  again  divided  into  several  orders,  called 
rates :  thus,  a  three-decked  ship  is  called  a 
first  and  second  rate ;  a  frigate,  or  two- 
decked  ship,  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  rate ; 
a  one-decked  ship,  sixth  rate;  a  bomb- 
vessel,  a  fire  ship,  a  ketch,  a  machine  vessel, 
a  smoker. 

Merchant  Ships  are  estimated  by  their 
burthen,  that  is,  by  the  number  of  tons  they 
bear,  each  ton  reckoned  20  cwt.  The  esti- 
mate is  made  by  gauging  the  hold,  which  is 
the  proper  place  of  loading.  A  vessel  is 
said  to  draw  ten  or  fifteen  feet  of  water, 
■when  it  sinks  so  deep  under  water,  being 
loaded.  A  vessel  is  said  to  be  of  300  or  400 
tons  when  it  will  carry  that  weight,  or 
when  immerged  in  water  it  passes  the  space 
of  300  or  400  tons  of  water. 

A  Man  of  War,  first-rate,  has  its  gun- 
deck  from  159  to  174  feet  in  length,  and 
from  forty-four  to  fifty  feet  broad  ;  contains 
from  1,313  to  1,882  tons;  has  from  706  to 
800  men;  and  carries  from  ninety -six  to 
110  guns. 

A  Frigate  is  a  two-decked  ship,  of  the 
third,  fourth,  and  fifth  rate.  Third  rates 
have  their  gun-decks  from  153  to  165  feet 
long ;  and  from  thirty-seven  to  forty  broad ; 
they  contain  from  871  to  1,262  tons,  carry 
from  389  to  476  men  ;  and  from  sixty-four 
to  eighty  guns.  The  other  rates  are  propor- 
tionally less.  The  sixth  rates  have  their 
gun -decks  from  eighty-seven  to  ninety-five 
feet  long  and  from  twenty-two  to  twenty- 
five  feet  broad;  they  contain  from  152  to 
256  tons,  carry  from  fifty  to  110  men,  and 
from  sixteen  to  twenty-four  guns.  New 
built  ships  are  much  larger  and  better  than 
the  old  ones  of  the  same  rate ;  whence,  in 
the  double  numbers,  the  larger  express  the 
proportions  of  the  new-built  ships,  the  less 
those  of  the  old  ones. 

Yacht,  or  Yatch,  from  the  Dutch,  Iatcht, 
(signifying  hunting,)  a  kind  of  vessel  oom- 
modiously  contrived  and  adorned,  to  suit  it 


to  State  passengers,  &c.  It  U  furnished 
with  masts  and  sails,  has  onedeok,  carrying 
from  four  to  twelve  guns,  with  from  twenty 
to  forty  men;  burthen  from  thirty  to  160 
tons.  They  are  used  for  running  and 
making  short  trips.  The  Dutch  yachts  are 
chiefly  used  on  their  rivers  and  canals. 

Brigantine,  a  small,  flat,  open  vessel, 
goes  with  sails  and  oars ;  and  is  either  for 
fighting  or  giving  chace.  Brigantines  are 
principally  used  by  the  Corsairs,  all  the 
hands  on  board  being  soldiers,  and  each 
having  his  musket  ready  under  his  oar. 
There  are  usually  twelve  or  fifteen  benches 
on  a  side  for  the  rowers,  a  man  and  an  oar 
to  each  bench.  Corsairs  are  pirates,  parti- 
cularly in  the  Mediterranean,  who  plunder 
merchants'  vessels  without  commission  from 
my  prince.  Among  American  seamen  this 
vessel  is  distinguished  by  having  her  main 
sails  set  nearly  in  the  plane  of  her  keel ; 
whereas  the  mainsails  of  larger  ships  are 
hung  athwart,  &c. 

Brig  is  a  vessel  with  two  masts,  chiefly 
used  in  commerce,  and  carrying  from  100 
to  200  or  even  300  tons  burthen. 

Sloops,  or  Shallops,  are  tenders  on  the 
men  of  war,  burthen  about  sixty  tons,  and 
carrying  about  thirty  men.  They  are  light, 
small  vessels,  with  only  a  small  mainmast, 
foremast,  and  lug-sails  to  haul  up  and  let 
down,  on  occasion.  They  are  commonly 
good  sailors. 

Fire-Ships  are  filled  with  artificial  fire- 
works and  sent  in  amongst  the  enemy's 
ships. 

Bomb-Vessels  have  sometimes  three 
masts  and  square  sails,  but  also  often  ketch 
fashion,  with  one  mast  and  mizen. 

Bomb- Ketch  is  for  the  use  of  mortars  at 
sea,  it  is  a  small  vessel  strengthened  with 
large  beams. 

A  Bilander  is  seldom  above  twenty-four 
tons,  and  can  lie  near  the  wind. 

Cutter,  a  small  vessel,  commonly  navi- 
gated on  the  English  Channel,  furnished 
with  one  mast,  and  rigged  as  a  sloop.  Many 
of  these  are  used  in  an  illicit  trade. 

Hulks  are  large  vessels,  having  their 
gun-decks  from  113  to  150  feet  long,  and 
from  thirty  to  forty  feet  broad ;  they  will 
carry  from  400  to  500  tons.  A  hulk  "is  an 
old  ship  cut  dowD  tb  the  gun-deck,  and 
fitted  with  a  large  wheel-  for  careening. 

Hoy  ;  a  small  vessel  or  bark,  whose  yards 
are  not  across,  nor  the  sails  square,  like 
those  of  ships,  but  the  sails  like  a  mizen,  so 
that  she  can  sail  nearer  the  wind  than  a 
vessel  with  cross  sails  can  do. 

Smacks  are  vessels  with  but  one  mast, 
and  sometimes  are  employed  as  tenders  on  a 


A   MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


31 


man  of  war  ;  they  are  also  used  for  fishing 
npcn  the  coasts. 

C  artel,  an  agreement  between  two  States, 
for  the  exchange  of  their  prisoners  of  war 
Cartel-ship  is  one  commissioned  in  time  of 
war  to  exchange  the  prisoners  of  any  two 
hostile  powers,  &c.  The  officer  who  "om- 
mands  her  carries  no  cargo,  ammunition, 
nor  implements  of  war,  except  a  single  gun 
for  firing  signals. 

Galley  is  a  low-built  vessel,  going  with 
oars  and  sails,  chiefly  used  by  the  States 
bordering  on  the  Mediterranean.  Galleys 
have  usually  twenty- five  or  thirty  benches 
of  oars  on  each  side,  and  four  or  five  galley- 
Blaves  on  each  bench.  The  galley  carries  a 
large  gun,  two  bastard  pieces,  and  two  small 
pieces.  It  is  usually  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
two  fathoms  long,  three  broad,  and  one  deep, 
and  ha*  two  masts,  which  may  be  struck  or 
lowered  at  pleasure. 

Convoy  signifies  one  or  more  vessels  of 
war,  appointed  to  conduct  a  fleet  of  mer- 
chants' ships,  serving  as  a  watch  and  shelter 
from  the  insults  of  enemies;  though  some- 
times by  a  convoy  is  implied  the  fleet  of 
merchant  ships  bound  to  any  particular 
part  or  place  of  rendezvous. 

Squadron  of  Ships,  a  division  or  part  of 
a  fleet  commanded  by  a  commodore,  or  by  a 
rear  or  vice-admiral.  The  number  that 
forms  a  squadron  is  not  fixed.  A  small 
number  in  a  body  and  under  one  com- 
mander may  make  a  squadron.  If  the  ships 
are  numerous  they  are  sometimes  divided 
into  three  squadrons,  and  each  squadron 
mav  be  again  divided  into  three  divisions. 

Privateers  are  a  kind  of  private  ships 
of  war  fitted  out  by  private  persons  at  their 
own  expense,  who  have  leave  granted  them 
to  keep  what  they  can  take  from  the  enemy, 
allowing  the  admiral  his  share. 

Barge,  a  kind  of  state  or  pleasure  boat, 
or  for  the  purposes  of  merchandise,  used 
chiefly  in  the  navigation  of  rivers.  Barges 
have  various  names,  according  to  their  par- 
ticular uses;  as  a  company' 8  barge  ;  a  royal 
barge ;  a  Severn  trow ;  and  a  Ware-barge. 
^  ALPHABET.  The  most  important  inven  - 
tion  of  man,  ascribed  to  a  Phoenician,  bv 
means  of  which  sounds  are  represented", 
and  language  made  visible  to  the  eye  by  a 
few  simple  characters.  Previous  to  this  in- 
vention, pictures,  or  hieroglyphics,  were 
used  to  record  events ;  and  letters  were, 
probably,  a  generalization  of  these.  At  this 
day,  the  Chinese  have  no  letters,  but  have 
214  keys  to  classes  of  words,  distinguished 
by  the  number  of  strokes  combined  in  each, 
The  English  language  has  26  letters ;  the 
French   23;   Hebrew  22;    Greek  24;    the 


Latin  22  ;  the  Arabic  28.  The  figures  used 
in  arithmetic  are  an  universal  character, 
and  many  attempts  have  been  made  by  the 
learned  to  introduce  an  universal  character 
into  language,  but  at  present  there  are  200 
or  300  various  alphabets. 

Deaf  and  Dumb  Alphabet.  Persons 
who,  born  deaf,  and  consequently  not  hear- 
ing sounds,  are  incapable  of  imitating  them, 
are  therefore  dumb  also.  This  calamity  has 
been  remedied  by  excellent  institutions  in 
I  he  various  states ;  and  as  the  understand- 
ing of  such  persons  is  generally  good,  so 
they  readily  acquire  many  arts,  and  may  be 
taught  to  read,  write,  &c.  They  also  learn 
to  converse  with  their  fingers,  and  often 
with  great  rapidity ;  and,  as  these  signs  are 
curious,  and  even  useful,  they  are  given 
beneath :— 


82 


FACTS   FOB   EVERYBODY  : 


A  MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL   KNTHVLEDGE. 


33 


DECEMBER.  According  to  the  calendar 
of  Romulus,  this  was  the  tenth  month,  as 
the  word  implies ;  but  by  the  Julian 
calendar  it  was  made  the  twelfth.  Among 
tin-  llomans  this  month  was  devoted  to 
various  festivals.  On  the  5th  they  kept  the 
Faunalia;  on  the  17th  the  Saturnalia;  on 
the  22nd,  the  Lararia;  and  on  the  last, 
the  Juveniles  Ludi.  The  peasants  also  kept 
the  feast  of  the  goddess  Vacuna,  after  having 
got  in  the  fruits  and  sown  their  corn. 
During  this  time  all  orders  of  the  com- 
munity were  devoted  to  mirth  and  festivity. 


Masters  and  slaves  were  all  on  an  equal 
footing.  Friends  sent  presents  to  one  an- 
other, and  feasted  together  at  the  same 
table.  The  schools  kept  a  vacation,  and 
nothing  was  to  be  seen  lnthacity  but  mirth 
and  freedom. 

Our  Saxon  ancestors  called  the  month 
Winter  Monath,  but  after  their  conversion 
to  Christianity  they  called  it  Heligh  Monath, 
or  Holy  month,  in  commemoration  of  the 
Nativity,  which  is  always  celebrated  in  this 
wonth.  It  was  also  called  guil-erra,  or  the 
first  guil;  the  feast  of  Thor,  which  was  held 
at  the  winter  solstice,  being  called  guil  from 
to/,  or  ol,  which  signified  ale.  This  feast 
was  even  continued  into  January,  and  has 
been  corrupted  into  yule. 

Synonymes. — In  Latin,  December  ;  French 
Decembre;  Italian,  Bicembre ;  Spanish, 
Diciembre;  and  in  Portuguese,  Lezembro. 

As  in  our  engraving,  this  month  was  repre- 
sented by  the  ancients  as  an  old  man,  with 
a  severe  and  fearful  countenance,  clothed 
in  a  coarse  frieze  rug,  girt  upon  him  ; 
his  hands  encased  in  fur  gloves,  and  holding 
a  hatchet,  emblematical  of  the  season,  it 
being  the  time  for  felling  timber.  Instead 
of  his  head  being  surrounded  by  a  garland, 
it  appeared  to  be  wrapped  in  three  or  four 
nightcaps,    with    a    Turkish    turban    over 


them ;  his  mouth  and  beard  were  clogged 
with  icicles,  and  at  his  back  was  a  bundle 
of  ivy,  holly  and  mistletoe,  and  at  his  side 
the  sign  of  Capricornus,  the  goat,  svmbolical 
of  the  sun  entering  that  constellation  on 
the  21st. 

The  chronology  of  the  month,  replete 
with  interesting  records  of  past  events,  is 
subjoined. 


1.  Dr.  Warren  died,1835 

2.  Fiaxman  died,  1826. 

3.  Richelieu  died,  1642. 

4.  Galvanism  disco- 
vered, 1790— Mozart 
d.  1792. 

6.  Black  died,  1799. 

6.  Nicholas,  —  General 
Monk  born,  1608. 

7.  Dr.  Aikindied,  1822. 

8.  Zimmerman,  b.,  1728 

9.  Scheele  bom,  1742. 

10.  Royal  Academy  of 
Arts  instituted,  1768 

11.  Grouseshootingends 
-CharlesXlI.k.1718 

12.  Sir  J.  Brunei,  d.  1849 

13.  Lucy.—  Dr.  S.  John- 
son died,  1784. 

14.  Washingtond,l799 

15.  Breraborn,  1772. 

16.  Leopold,  King  of 
Belgium,  born,  1790. 


17.  Sir  H.Davy  b.,  1773. 

18.  Reubens  born,  1577. 

19.  TychoBrahe,b.l588. 

20.  Gray  born,  1716. 

21.  St.  Thomas;  Shortest 
Day. 

22.  Poft  died -1788. 

23.  Sir  R.  Ark wright,  b. 
1732. 

24.  Christmas  Eve. 

25.  Christmas  Dat. 

26.  St.  Stephen*,    Peyer 
born,  i«53. 

27.  St.   John.  —  Munro 
died,  1791. 

28.  Innocents.  -  Peter 
Bnyledied.  1706. 

29.  John  wycliffed.,  1384 

30.  R.  Boyle,  died,  1691. 

31.  St.  Silvester.—  Boer« 
hanve  born,  1068. 

TheEastlndiaCompany 
incorporated,  1600. 


The  Red  Lettish  Days  of  the  month  are 
as  follow : — 

6th. — "St.  Nicholas."  He  was  Arch- 
bishop of  Myra,  in  Greece,  a.d.  302.  and  is 
regarded  as  the  patron  saint  of  children  and 
mariners,  and  consequently  churches  built 
near  to  the  sea  are  generally  dedicated  to 
this  saint. 

13th. — "  St.  Lucia"  was  a  young  lady  of 
Syracuse,  who  died  in  the  year  304.  and  was 
remarkable  for  the  devout  and  charitable 
life  she  led. 

21st. — M  St.  Thomas"  is  said  to  have  tra- 
velled and  promulgated  Christianity  among 
the  Persians,  Medes,  Parthians,  and  Ar- 
menians, and  that  he  met  with  his  death  by 
being  stoned,  and  having  darts  thrown  at 
him  by  the  Brahmins,  who  were  incensea 
at  his  preaching. 

25th. — "  Christmas  Day."  This  is  kept 
as  a  solemn  festival  by  our  Church,  and 
many  curious  customs  prevail,  which  we 
have  neither  time  nor  space  to  describe, 
particularly  as  they  are  generallv  well  known. 

26th.— "  St.  Stephen."  This  feast  is  held, 
according  to  Brady,  "in  consequence  of  St. 
Stephen  having  been  the  first  who  Buffered 
for  his  steady  adherence  to  the  faith  of 
Christ,  so  that  his  anniversary  has  been 
fixed  immediately  following  the  day  held  Yf 
the  Church  in  commemoration  of  *ne 
Nativity  of  our  Saviour." 


34 


FACTS   FOR   EVETiYUDDY 


27th. — "  St.  John  the  Evangelist."  This 
feast  is  observed  in  commemoration  of  this 
evangelist,  because  he  drank  poison  without 
dying  in  consequence. 

28th. — "  Childermas,"  or  "  Holy  Inno- 
cents' Bay"  is  held  in  commemoration  of 
the  slaughter  of  the  innocents  by  Herod, 
and  is  celebrated  by  the  Church  of  Rome 
with  masses.  It  is  considered  unlucky  to 
begin  any  work  upon  this  day. 

3 1st. — "  St.  Silvester"  was  a  pope,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  the  author  of  several 
iites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Romish  Church, 
as  unctions,  palls,  asylums,  &c.  He  died 
in  334. 

BODIES  (REGULAR).  The nameof  five 
solids,  as  the  tetrahedron,  or  pyramid,  with 
four  triangular  faces;  the  hexahedron,  or 
cube,  with  six  square  faces;  the  octahedron, 
with  eight  faces ;  the  dodecahedron,  with 
twelve ;  and  the  icosahedron,  with  twenty 
faces. 


The  Hexahedron 


The  Dodecahedron. 
WILLS.  We  are  favored  by  an  eminent 
legal  functionary  with  the  following  : — I  hold 
that  whenever  two  persons  save  money  by 
their  joint  industry,  the  survivor  is  equitably 
entitled  to  the  benefit  of  survivorship  ;  and 
that  any  man  who  dues  not  take  the  proper 
step  for  securing  this  benefit  to  his  wife,  in 
the  event  of  her  being  the  longest  liver,  is 
guilty  of  fraud  upon  his  nearest  relative  and 
best  friend.  And  the  fact  of  there  being 
children  makes  no  difference — the  woman  be- 
ing as  competent  and  as  likely  to  provide  pro- 
perty for  them  in  case  she  outlives  her  husband 
as  the  man,  if  the  responsibility  should  fall 
upon  him.  Every  married  man  should,  there- 
fore, make  a  will ;  and  I  do  not  know  a  better 
form  than  the  following,  which  is  in  effect  the 
same  as  I  adopted  the  day  after  I  was  married 
—above  thirty  years  ago.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  be  prepared  by  an  attorney,  but  may 
be  copied  by  the  party  himself  upon  a  sheet  of 
foolscap  <  r  letter  paper,  care  being  taken  to 
w:te  the  names  and  dates  correctly,  and  to 
sign  the  name  at  the  fnutjta  the  presence  of 
two  witnesses  who,  in  the  testator's  presence 
must-sign  at  the  places  indicated. 


The  will  of  J B ,  of  S , 

in  the  county  of  Y ,  State  of  New  York 

[grocer].     I  give  all  my  real  and  personal  es- 
tate and  effects,  whatsoever  and  wheresoever, 

to  my  wife.  M B .  her  heirs,  executors, 

administrators,    and     assignees,    absolutely. 
Dated  this day  of ,  185-. 

Signed  and  acknowledged  by  the  1 
testator,  in  the  presence  of  us,  who, 
in  his  presence,  and  the  presence  [  J —  B — . 
of    each  other,  subscribe  as  wit- 
nesses. 

C T) , 

E F 

THE  OLD  CENT.  The  cent  was  proposed 
in  1782  by  Robert  Morris,  the  great  financier 
of  the  revolution,  and  was  named  by  Jefferson 
two  years  later.  It  began  to  make  its  appear- 
ance from  the  mint  in  1792.  It  bore  then  the 
head  of  Washington  on  one  side,  and  a  chain 
of  thirteen  links  on  the  other.  The  French 
revolution  soon  created  a  rage  for  French 
ideas  in  America,  which  put  on  the  cent,  in- 
stead of  the  head  of  Washington,  the  bead  of 
the  goddess  of  liberty — a  French  liberty,  with 
neck  thrust  forward  and  flowing  locks.  The 
chain  on  the  reverse  was  replaced  by  the  olive 
wreath  of  peace.  But  the  French  liberty  was 
short  lived,  and  so  was  her  portrait  on  our 
cent.  The  present  staid  classic  dame,  with  a 
fillet  round  her  hair,  came  into  fashion  about 
thirty  or  forty  years  ago. 
"  LETTERS.  The  etiquette  of  letter- 
writing,  should,  as  much  as  possible,  be  in- 
fluenced by  principles  of  truth.  The  super- 
scription and  the  subscription  should  alike 
be  in  accoi  dance  with  the  tone  of  the  com- 
munication, and  the  domestic  or  social  re- 
lation of  those  between  whom  it  passes. 
Communications  upon  professional  or  busi- 
ness matters,  where  no  acquaintance  exists 
to  modify  the  circumstances,  should  be 
written  thus  . — "  Mr.  Gillot  will  feel  obliged 
by  Mr.  Slack's  sending  by  the  bearer,"  &c. 
It  is  an  absurdity  for  a  man  who  writes  a 
challenge,  or  an  offensive  letter,  to  another, 
to  subscribe  himself  "  Your  obedient  Ser- 
vant." We  dislike  this  form  of  subscription, 
also,  when  employed  by  persons  of  equal 
rank.  It  is  perfectly  becoming  when  ad- 
dressed by  a  servant  to  an  employer.  But 
in  other  cases,  "Yours  truly,"  "Yours 
very  truly,"  "  Your  Friend,"  "  Your 
sincere  Friend,"  "  Your  Well-wisher," 
"  Your  grateful  Friend,"  "  Your  affec- 
tionate Friend,"  &c.  &c,  appear  to  us  to 
be  much  more  truthful,  and  to  be  more  in 
keeping  with  the  legitimate  expression  of 
good  feeling.  It  is  impossible  to  lay  down 
a  set  of  rules  that  shall  govern  all  cases. 
But  as  a  principle,  it  may  be  urged,  that  no 


A   MISCELLANY   01*   FST2FUL   EXO-WLEDaE. 


35 


person  should  address  another  as  "  Dear 
Sir,  or  "Dear  Madam,"  without  feeling! 
aud  relations  that  justify  the  use  of  the  ad- 

iYctive.  These  compliments  are  mockeries. 
■Jo  one  who  entertains  a  desire  to  write 
another  as  "dear,"  need  feel  afraid  of 
riving  offence  by  familiarity;  for  all  man- 
kinl  prize  the  esteem  even  of  their  humblest 
fell  jws  too  orach  to  be  annoyed  by  it.  And 
in  proportion  as  the  integrity  of  the  forms 
of  correspondence  increase,  so  will  these  ex- 
pressions of  good  feeling  be  more  appreciated. 

WORDS.  There  are  in  the  English  lan- 
guage 20,500  mums,  40  pronouns, 9,200  adjec- 
tives, 8,000  verbs,  2,600  adverbs,  (ii)  preposi- 
tions, l!)  conjunctions,  <>s  interjections,  and  2 
articles — in  all  above  40,000  words.  Accord- 
ing to  Webster's  Dictionary,  there  are  100,000 
words. 

CATHERINE  WHEELS.  Infire-works, 
an  arrangement  of  tubes  in  the  periphery  of 
a  circle,  the  re-action  of  the  burning  of 
which,  against  the  air,  occasions  the  wheel 
to  revolve  with  a  pleasing  effect. 


GAS.  Gas  was  tn>i  evolved  from  coal  by 
Dr.  Clayton,  in  1739.  Its  application  to 
purposes  of  illumination  was  first  tried  by 
Mr.  Murdoch,  in  Cornwall,  in  1792.  Sir 
Humphrey  Davy,  also  a  Cornishman,  stated 
his  opinion  before  a  committee  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  that  it  would  be  impracticable 
to  light  London  with  gas.  We  see  his  error. 
The  first  display  of  gas-lights  was  made  at 
Boulton  and  Watt's  foundry,  in  Birming- 
ham, on  the  occasion  of  the  rejoicings  for 
peace,  in  1802.  In  1805,  gas  was  perma- 
nently used,  to  the  exclusion  of  lamps  and 
candles,  at  the  cotton  mills  of  Phillips  and 
Lee,  Manchester,  where  1,000  burners  were 
lighted,  1805.  Gas  lights  were  first  intro- 
duced into  London,  at  Golden  Lane,  August 
16th,  1807;  Pall  Mall,  1809;  and  were 
general  throughout  London  in  1814.  Gas 
lights  were  first  introduced  into  New  York  in 
1824. 

PAINT  (TO  REMOVE  THE  SMELL 
OF).  1.  Take  three  or  four  broad  tubs  (such, 
for  instance,  as  hold  about  eight  gallons), 
fill  them  with  cold  water,  and  put  into  each 
an  ounce  of  vitriolic  acid,  which  you  can 


obtain  from  a  druggist.  Place  those  tubs 
near  the  wainscot,  in  a  newly  painted  room, 
Tins  water  will  absorb  aud  retain  the  efflu- 
vium Of  the  paint.  Next  day  (ill  the  tubs 
with  fresh  water,  and  add  to  each  another 
ounce  of  vitriolic  acid.  Repeat,  this  a  third 
day,  and  on  the  fourth  the  smell  of  the 
paint  will  not  be  perceptible.  2.  Another 
Method: — A  bundle  of  old  dry  hav,  wetted 
and  spread  about,  presents  a*  multifarious 
absorbing  surface  for  this,  especially  if  not 
on  the  floor  only,  but  over  pieces  of  furni- 
ture which  allow  circulation  of  air,  as  chairs 
laid  upon  their  faces,  &c.  Large  vessels  of 
water,  as  travs  and  pans,  are  not  uncom- 
monly used  with  good  effect;  but  the  mul- 
tiplied surfaces  of  the  loose  hay  give  it  great 
advantage.  It  must  be  kept  wet,  however, 
or  at  least  damp,  for  the  oily  vapour  does 
not  seem  to  be  readily  absorbed  unless  the 
air  is  kept  moist  bv  evaporation. 

HANDKERCHIEF  PERFUME.  Grate 
to  fine  powder  half  a  nutmeg ;  crush  one 
quarter  of  an  ounce  of  cloves;  put  these 
together  into  half  a  pint  of  the  best  pale  rum, 
brandy,  or  spirits  of  wine.  After  three  or 
four  days'  maceration,  add  two  drachms  of 
oil  of  lavender,  two  drachms  of  essential  oil 
of  bergamot,  one  drachm  of  essential  oil  of 
lemons,  half  a  drachm  of  otto  of  roses  ;  then 
strain  through  a  small  piece  of  wadding 
placed  in  a  funnel,  or  through  blotting-paper 
folded  to  fit  the  funnel,  and  the  mixture  is 
ready  for  use.  This  "bouquet"  will  cost 
about  four  shillings,  but  is  equal  to  any  pur- 
chased from  the  perfumers  at  three  times 
the  price. 

CASKS  (TO  SWEETEN).  1.  When 
musty  it  is  best  to  unhead  large  casks  aud 
whitewash  them  with  quicklime.  Or  they 
may  be  matched  with  sulphur  mixed  with  a 
little  nitrate  of  potash,  and  afterwards  well 
washed.  Small  casks  may  be  sweetened  by 
washing  them  first  with  sulphuric  acid  anil 
then  with  clean  water  :  afterwards  let  them 
be  well  swilled,  until  the  foul  smell  dis- 
appears. Or,  2.  Having  first  scalded  it 
well  with  boiling  water  (letting  the  water 
stand  in  it  till  cold),  fill  it  with  cold  water, 
and  throw  in  a  large  quantity  of  live  coals 
from  a  wood  fire,  leaving  the  cask  unco- 
vered. By  repeating  this,  the  cask  may  be 
made  perfectly  sweet,  provided  that  it  has 
at  no  time  contained  fish.  A  fish  barrel  cau 
never  be  used  for  any  other  purpose,  as  it  is 
impossible  to  expel  the  taste  and  smell  of 
the  fish.  Scalding  an  old  cask  repeatedly 
in  strong  lye.  and  then  with  clear  water, 
will  generally  sweeten  it;  so  will  boiling 
water  in  which  potash  and  lime  have  been 
dissolved. 


".6 


FACTS    FOR    EVERYBODY  : 


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A    MISCELLANY   OF    USEFTTL   KNOWLEDGE. 


37 


JEFFERSON'S  TEN  RULES.  1.  Never 
mil  off  till  to-morrow  what  you  can  do  to- 
day. 

2.  Never  trouble  another  for  what  you  c?.i< 
do  your-eir. 

3.  Never  spend  your  money  before  you 
have  it. 

4.  Never  buy  what  you  do  not  want  because 
It  is  cheap. 

5.  Pride  costs  more  than  hunger,  thirst  and 
cold. 

6.  We  seldom  repent  of  having  eaten  too 
little. 

7.  Nothing  is  troublesome  that  we  do  wil- 
lingly. 

S.  ll<>w  much  pain  the  evils  have  cost  us 
that  have  never  happened. 

i>.  Take  things  always  by  the  smooth  han- 
dle. 

10.  When  angry,  count  ten  before  you 
speak  ;  if  very,  count  a  hundred. 

SINGULAR  FACT.  Were  the  atmo- 
sphere at  all  times  of  a  uniform  temperature, 
there  never  would  be  hail,  rain,  nor  snow. 
The  water  absorbed  by  it  in  evaporation  from 
the  sea  and  the  earth's  surface  would  descend 
in  an  imperceptible  vapor,  or  cease  to  be  ab- 
sorbed by  the  air  when  it  was  once  fully  satu- 
rated. The  absorbing  power  of  the  "atmo- 
sphere, and  consequently  its  capacity  to  retain 
humidity,  is  proportionally  greater  in  warm 
than  in  cold  air.  The  air  near  the  surface  of 
tiie  earth  is  warmer  than  it  is  in  the  region  of 
the  clouds.  The  higher  the  ascent  from  the 
earth,  1  he  colder  does  the  air  become.  Hence 
the  perpetual  snow  on  very  high  mountains 
in  the  hottest  climate. 

INTERESTING  STATISTICS.  The  Uni- 
ted States  are  composed  of  thirty-one  States 
and  five  Territories.  They  contain  a  popula- 
tion of  27,000,000,  of  whom  23,000,000  are 
white.  The  extent  of  sea-coa-t  is  12,550  miles. 
The  length  of  the  ten  principal  rivers  is  20,000 
miles.  The  surface  of  the  five  great  lakes  is 
90,000:000  square  miles.  The  number  of  miles 
of  railroad  in  operation  is  20,000,  which  cost 
$78,000,000.  The  length  of  canals  is  5,000 
miles.  It  contains  the  longest  railroad  on  the 
globe— the  Illinois  Central— which  is  784 
miles.  The  annual  value  of  its  agricultural 
productions  is  $200,000,000.  Its  most  valuable 
production  is  Indian  corn,  which  yields  an- 
nually 40,000,000  bushels.  The  amount  of 
registered  and  enrolled  tonnage  is  4,407,010. 
The  amount  of  capital  invested  in  manufac- 
tures is  $600,000,000.  The  annual  value  of 
its  products  ot  labor,  other  than  agricultural, 
is  $1,500,000.  Its  mines  of  gold,  copper,  lead 
and  iron  are  among  the  richest  in  the  world. 
The  surface  of  its  coal  fields  amounts  in  the 
aggregate  to  138,131  'square  ac  res,  the  most 
prolific  of  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  State 
of  Pennsylvania.  Within  her  holders  are 
3 


80.000  schools,  5,000  academies,  234  colleges, 
and  3,N11  churches. 

POULTICE  (BREAD  -  AND  -  WATER, 
OR  EVAPORATING).  Scald  out  a  basin, 
for  you  can  never  make  a  good  poultice  un- 
less you  have  perfectly  boiling  water  ;  then 
having  put  some  into  the  basin,  throw  in 
coarsely-crumbled  bread,  and  cover  it  with 
a  plate'  When  the  bread  has  soaked  up  as 
much  of  the  water  as  it  will  imbibe,  drain 
off  the  remaining  water,  and  there  will  be 
left  a  light  pulp.  Spread  it  a  third  of  an 
inch  thick  on  folded  linen,  and  apply  it 
when  of  the  temperature  of  a  warm  bath. 
It  may  be  said  that  this  poultice  will  be 
very  inconvenient  if  there  oe  no  lard  in  it, 
for  'it  will  soon  get  dry ;  ■  but  this  is  the  very 
thing  vou  want,  and  it  can  easily  be  mois- 
tened by  dropping  warm  water  on  it,  whilst 
a  greasy  poultice  will  be  moist,  but  net  wet. 

A  poultice  thus  made  is,  to  the  surgeon, 
what  well  made  stock  is  to  the  cooks,  a 
foundation  to  be  seasoned  or  medicined  with 
laudanum,  or  poppy- water,  with  carrot  or 
horse-radish  juice,  or  with  decoctions  of 
herbs,'  with  which  the  patient  or  the  doctor 
may  be  inclined  to  medicate  it,  instead  of 
loading  an  already  irritable  and  very  sensi- 
tive part  with  a  heap  of  hard  poppy-shells, 
or  scraped  carrots,  or  horse-radish,  called 
poppv,  carrot,  and  horse-raddish  poultices, 
but  which  increase  rather  than  allay  the 
sufferer's  pains. 

When  vegetables  are  used  to  medicate 
poultices,  they  should  be  bruised,  put  into 
a  pot,  covered  with  water,  and  Huamered 
for  about  half  an  hour.  The  liquid  is  then 
to  be  strained  off,  and  mixed  with  bread- 
and- water  or  linseed  to  the  consistence  of  a 
poultice. 

M1SHROOMS,  (TO  DISTINGUISH 
FBOM  POISONOUS  FUNGI).  1.  Sprinkle 
,a  little  salt  on  the  spongy  part  or  gills  of 
'the  sample  to  be  tried.  If  they  turn  yellow, 
they  are  poisonous, — if  black,  they  are 
wholesome.  Allow  the  salt  to  act  before 
vou  decide  on  the  question.  2.  Fake 
"Mushrooms  have  a  warty  cap,  or  else  frag- 
ments of  membrane,  adhering  to  the  upper 
surface,  are  heavy,  and  emerge  from  a  vulva 
or  bag  :  they  grow  in  tufts  or  clusters  in 
woods,  on  the  stumps  of  trees,  &c,  whereas 
the  true  mushrooms  grow  in  pastures.  3. 
False  mushrooms  have  .m  astringent, 
styptic,  and  disagreeable  taste.  4.  When 
out  they  turn  blue.  5  They  are  moist  on 
the  surface,  and  generally— 6.  Of  a  rose  or 
orange  colour.  7.  The  gills  of  the  true 
mushroom  arc  of  a  pinky  red,  changing  to 
a  liver  colour.  8.  The  flesh  is  white.  9. 
The  stem  is  white,  solid,  and  cylindrical. 


33 


PACTS  foe  everybody: 


DIVIDING,  POWDERING,  GRIND- 
ING. The  operations  of  chopping,  pow- 
dering, grinding,  &c,  are  so  frequently 
required  in  cooking,  and  the  other  branches 
of  domestic  economy,  as  to  render  any  de- 
scription of  their  utility  wholly  unnecessary  ; 
and  we  may  therefore  confine  ourselves  to 
describing  the  best  means  of  accomplishing 
the  object  desired.  Powdering  is  usually 
performed  by  the  aid  of  the  pestle  and  mortar. 
By  far  the  best  material  for  the  purpose  is 
the  Wedge  wood  ware;  mortars  made  of  it 
are  cheaper,  cleaner  in  use,  and  stronger  than 
those  of  marble,  and  are  not  corroded  by 
acids  or  alkalies — their  pre-eminence  is  so 
great,  that  they  are  invariably  used  by 
druggists. 

The  act  of  powdering  requires  great  tact 
and  practice  to  perform  it  neatly  and  rapidly. 
After  the  object  has  been  broken  into  small 
pieces  by  blows  from  the  pestle,  a  grinding 
action  is  required  ;  this  should  at  first  be 
given  by  striking  the  fragments,  not  in  the 
centre  of  the  mortar,  but  towards  the  side 
furthest  from  the  operator ;  the  pestle,  by 
this  means,  grinds  over  them  in  its  descent 
to  the  centre,  and  much  more  rapidly  accom- 
plishes their  division  than  if  mere  blows  are 
given.  After  the  object  has  been  divided 
to  a  certain  extent,  blows  are  entirely  use- 
less, and  a  grinding  in  circles  becomes  re- 
quisite ;  if  the  circle  is  confined  to  one  part 
of  the  mortar,  the  same  portions  get  rubbed 
over  and  over  again,  the  others  escaping ; 
this  is  avoided  by  constantly  and  regularly 
altering  the  size  of  the  circles.  If  they  are 
commenced  in  the  centre,  they  should  gra- 
dually increase  in  size  until  the  sides  are 
reached,  and  then  contract  again,  and  so  on. 
J3y  this  means,  the  whole  of  the  powder  is 

I ^         brought  under  the  action 

1  I        of  the  pestle,   and   tbe 

operation  is  thus  much 

/quicker     than    if    per- 
formed at  random.    One 
I   i  \\  fill     \.    £reat  foult  usually  com- 
/  \  mitted  in  powdering,  is 

the  endeavour  to  operate 
on  too  large  a  quantity 
of  material  at  one  time. 
The  operation  is  much 
more  rapidly  conducted 
if  smail  portions  are 
taken ;  and  if  the  ma- 
terial is  tough,  and  con- 
tains much  fibrous  mat- 
ter, the  process  may  be  very  much  shortened 
bv  removing  those  parts  whic'a  are  suffi- 
ciently powdered,  by  sifting  from  time  to 
time  through  a  sieve.  This  may  be  objec- 
tionable, however,  from  the  fine    powder 


escaping  into  the  air.  In  this  case,  the  fol- 
lowing contrivance  will  be  found  useful : — 
A  cylindrical  tea-canister  of  the  requisite 
size  is  taken,  with  a  loosely-fitting  lid  (or  if 
tight,  the  lid  may  be  enlarged  by  four  slits 
being  made  partly  up  the  sides)  ;  a  bag  of 
lawn  is  dropped  into  the  canister,  the  top 
being  turned  over  the  edge  ;  the  powder  to 
be  sifted  is  put  in  the  bag,  the  lid  put  on, 
and,  by  tapping  and  shaking,  the  finest  por- 
tions pass  into  the  canister  without  any 
escaping  into  the  air. 

Chopping  is  usually  performed  in  the 
kitchen,  with  a  large  common  knife ;  but  is 
more  speedily  done  by  some  of  the  improved 
contrivances  similar  to  the  following: — The 
chopping-board  should  be  made  of  hard 
wood,  with  the  grain  at  right  angles  to  the 
surface  of  the  board,  by  which  it  is  rendered 
much  more  durable  than  if  they  are  parallel 
to  it.  The  chopping-knives  should  be  fixed 
at  right  angles  to  the  handles,  and  may  be 
either  of  the  following  patterns.    If  a  large 

quantity  of  material 

has  Jto  be  acted  on, 

we    would    recom- 
mend   a    board    as 

above,  not  less  than 

three  inches  thick, 

and  smooth  on  both 

sides,  so  that  either 

may  be  used,  of  tin 

requisite  size — say. 

eighteen  inches  01 

two  feet  in  diameter. 

On  this  should  stand 
a  loose  bottomless  tub,  to  confine  the  ma- 
terials, and  the  whole  resting  on  the  floor, 
should  be  used  with  a  knife,  sufficiently  long 
in  the  handle  to  be  employed  by  a  person 
standing  erect,  and  it  should  have  a  small 
cross-bar  for  the  hands,  as  shown  in  the 
figure  below. 


A  MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


Small  chopping-knives  are  sold,  consisting 
of  throe  blades  rivetted  together,  and  a  very 
convenient  one  is  made  hv  fastening,  at  con- 
venient distance!  a  number  of  flat  circular 
discs,  sharpened  at  the  edges,  on  to  a  central 
axis  with  a  handle  at  eat  h  end. 

Many  substances,  such  as  stale  bread, 
dried  herbs,  &c,  may  be  very  conveniently 
powdered  by  rubbing  them  through  a  wire 
sieve,  of  the  requisite  degree  of  fineness. 
Herbs  intended  for  use  in  this  way,  should 
be  dried  as  rapidly  as  possible,  without  being 
scorched,  in  small  heaps,  before  the  fire ; 
paisley  and  others  done  this  wav,  may  be 
powdered,  retaining  their  bright  green 
colour,  and  flavour,  both  of  which  are  pre- 
served, if  they  are  corked  tightly  in  bottles, 
and  kept  in  a  dry  dark  cupboard.  The  use 
of  waxed  paper  to  preserve  dried  powders  in, 
or  for  tying  them  down  in  jars,  or  generally 
as  a  very  good  substitute  for  bladder,  will 
often  be  found  convenient.  It  is  readily 
made  by  laying  a  sheet  of  smooth  stout  paper 
on  s  warm  iron  plate,  as  the  top  of  a  kitchen 
oven  ;  on  this  place  the  thin  tissue  or  other 
paper  to  be  waxed  ;  put  a  piece  of  wax  on  it, 
and  as  it  melts  rub  it  over,  spreading  it 
evenly.  One  end  of  a  cork,  covered  with 
two  thicknesses  of  linen,  answers  very  well 
for  a  rubber.  If  a  hot  plate  is  not  at  hand, 
the  sheet  of  paper  may  be  held  before  the 
fire,  and  rubbed  over,  as  it  warms,  with  the 
cut  edge  of  a  cake  of  white  wax  ;  but  this 
requires  the  co-operation  of  two  persons. 

FOOLS'  DAY.  The  1st  of  April  is  termed 
All  Fools'  Day  in  consequence  of  the  almost 
universally  prevalent  custom  of  people 
trying  to  make  fools  of  each  other  on  that 
day.  This  ridiculous  custom  prevails,  not 
only  in  America,  but  also  in  Scotland, 
Germany,  Sweden,  and  France :  in  the 
latter  country  the  "fools"  are  called  pois- 
sons  d'Avril,  or  April  fishes.  No  satisfac- 
tory origin  has  been  assigned  for  this  ancient 
custom,  although  many  conjectures  have 
been  offered ;  such  as,  that  it  alludes  to  the 
mockery  of  the  Saviour  by  the  Jews :  that 
it  arose  from  the  stratagem  practised  by  the 
Romans  to  obtain  wives  from  the  Sabines, 
when  Romulus  invited  the  latter  to  the 
celebration  of  certain  games  in  honour  of 
Neptune,  at  the  beginning  of  April,  and  the 
Romans  seized  and  carried  off  the  Sabine 
damsels,  who  had  been  imposed  upon  by 
being  invited  with  a  mere  pretence :  that 
the  ancient  feast  of  the  vernal  equinox,  the 
1st  of  April,  was  formerly  celebrated,  equally 
in  India  and  Britain,  as  a  high  festival  in 
which  unbounded  mirth  prevailed :  that  as 
great  festivals  were  wont  to  continue  eight 
days,  the  1st  of  April,  being  the  octave  of 


the  Feast  of  the  Annunciation,  may  be  sup- 
posed to  have  been  employed  in  fool-making, 
all  other  sports  having  been  exhausted  in 
the  preceding  seven  days:  and  that  it  is 
derived  u  from  the  mistake  of  Noah  sending 
the  dove  out  of  the  ark  before  the  water  had 
abated,  on  the  first  of  the  month  among  the 
Hebrew!  answering  to  our  1st  of  April ;  and 
to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  this  deliver- 
ance, it  was  thought  proper,  whoever  forgot 
so  remarkable  a  circumstance,  to  punish 
them  by  sending  them  upon  some  sleeveless 
errand  similar  to  that  iuneftectual  message 
upon  which  the  bird  was  sent  by  that 
patriach." 

BALLOON.  A  globe  made  of  silk,  and 
rendered  air-tight  by  gum,  which,  when 
filled  with  hydrogen 
gas,  from  10  to  13 
times  lighter  than 
atmospherical  air, 
ascends  into  the  at- 
mosphere, and  will 
convey  heavy  bodies 
suspended  to  it.  The 
ascent  in  a  balloon  is 
a  magnificent  spec- 
tacle; but,  owing  to 
mismanagement,  they 
have  often  produced 
fatal  accidents.  The 
first  balloon  ascended 
at  Paris,  in  1782  :  and 
in  London,  in  1784. 

AZURE.  In  heraldry  the  blue  colour 
used  in  coats  of  arms,  expressed  in  engraving 
by  horizontal  lines. 

MEDICINE,  (THE  NAUSEOUS 
TASl'EOF,  PREVENTED).  By  chewing 
aromatic  substances,  such  as  orange  or 
lemon  peel,  cloves  or  other  spice,  before 
taking  medicine,  little  or  no  taste  will  be 
perceived.  The  mouth  can  also  be  thus 
prepared  beforehand  by  a  peppermint 
lozenge,  or  even  a  lump  of  sugar.  2.  Dr. 
Polii  recommends  a  means,  founded  on  the 
physiological  fact  that  a  strong  impression 
on  the  nerves  (whether  of  vision,  hearing, 
or  taste),  .  renders  that  which  follows  less 
perceptible.  Instead  of  applying  to  the 
mouth,  therefore,  agreeable  substances  after 
swallowing  nauseous  medicines,  we  should 
prepare  it  before,  in  order  that  the  taste  of 
the  medicine  may  not  be  perceived. — Aro- 
matic substances,  chewed  just  before,  or 
orange  or  lemon  peel,  effectually  prevent 
castor  oil  from  being  tasted.  In  preparing 
the  mouth  for  bitters,  liquorice  is  the  only 
sweet  that  should  be  used,  the  others 
creating  a  peculiarly  disagreeable  compound 
taste. 


iO 


FACTS  FOB.  EVEEY130DY: 


ANATOMY.  The  art  of  dissecting  a  body, 
and  examining  the  parts  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed. It  is  generally  applied  to  the  exami- 
nation of  animals,  and  it  has  discovered  the 
following  circumstances  of  their  structure. 
1st.  A  system  of  bones, 
displayed  in  the  engrav- 
ing, which  in  the  human 
subject  amount  to  240  ; 
2.  Cartilages  or  gristles, 
which  unite  the  bones, 
and  contribute  to  their 
motion,  assisted  by  liga- 
ments, membranes,  and 
bundles  of  muscles, 
called  flesh,  all  relating 
to  the  strength  and 
motion  of  the  animal. 
Anatomy  also  discovers 
nerves,  or  white  threads, 
.which  extend  from  the 
brain  and  the  »pmal  marrow  through  all  the 
organs,  and  are  the  means  of  sensation,  and 
instruments  of  the  will.  It  appears,  also, 
that  the  hody  is  sustained  and  warmed  by 
means  of  blood  flowing  from  the  heart 
through  the  arteries,  to  every  part  of  the 
body,  and  brought  back  by  vein3.  There  is 
also  a  stomach  for  digestion,  and  glands  for 
separating  and  assimilating  the  element ; 
and  intestines  to  carry  off  what  is  not  appro- 
priated. The  whole  is  a  wonderful  system, 
ami  a  most  interesting  object  of  study. 

1.  The  cranium.  17.  The         trochantes 

2.  The  os  frontis.  major. 

3    The  orbits  of  the  eyes.    18.  The  patella  or  knee- 
4.  The  superior  maxilla. 
6.  The  inferior  ditto. 
6.  The  true  ribs. 
7.-  The  false  ribs. 

8.  The  sternum. 

9.  Tie    unciform  carti- 

lage. 

10.  The  lumbar  vertebrae. 

11.  The  ilium. 

12.  The  os  pubis. 

13.  The  os  sacrum. 

14.  The  symphysis  pubis. 

15.  The  femur. 

16.  The  head  of  the  femur. 

ATMOSPHERE.  The  fluid  or  gas  which 
we  feel  on  passing  our  hand  through  it,  and 
whose  force  is  visible  in  a  high  wind.  It  is 
820  times  less  dense  than  water,  but  its 
elastic  pressure  or  reaction  is  equal  to  15  lbs. 
to  the  square  inch,  which  is  also  the  weight 
or  action  downward  ;  and  it  is  composed  of 
about  one  part  oxygen,  and  four  parts 
nitrogen  or  azote.  All  space  is  filled  with 
gas,  but  the  passage  of  the  earth  through  it, 
and  its  rotation  at  the  same  time,  condenses 
the  rare  gas  of  space  into  an  atmosphere, 
which  *t  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  such  as 


pan. 

19.  The  condyles  of  the 
femur. 

20.  The  tibia. 

21.  Theiibula. 

22.  The  tanas. 

23.  The  metatarsus. 

24.  The  toot. 

25.  The  clavicle. 

26.  The  scapula. 

27.  The  humerus. 

28.  The  radius. 

29.  The  ulnus. 

30.  The  carpus. 


we  find  it,  but  is  rarer  and  rarer  as  we 
ascend,  till  at  the  height  of  forty-five  miles, 
it  no  longer  reflects  light;  nor  is  it  capable 
of  keeping  clouds  in  suspension  above  two 
or  three  miles.  The  eneigy  of  the  oxygen- 
ous part  of  the  atmosphere  transferred  is 
the  cause  of  fire,  combustion,  animal  heat, 
and  life.  In  volume  the  atmosphere  con- 
sists of  79  parts  of  azote  or  nitrogen  ;  of  21 
of  oxygen,  of  1.33  of  aqueous  vapour,  and  of 
0.1  of,  carbonic  acid.  In  weight,  766  of 
azote;  233  of  oxygen;  083  of  aqueous 
vapour  ;  and  015  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 

ARCHITECTURE.  The  art  of  propor- 
tionally erecting  buildings  according  to  plans 
and  models  supplied  by  rules  of  science, 
uniting  outward  ornaments  with  inteiior 
conveniences.  It  embraces  erections  for 
civil,  military,  and  naval  purposes.  Civil 
architecture  has  various  modes  of  decoration, 
derived  from  the  practice  of  various  nations 
and  different  ages,  called  styles  of  archi- 
tecture. Of  these  the  Roman  or  Italian  has 
been  reduced  to  a  system  of  decoration  by 
columns,  called  orders. 

1.  The  Tuscan,  (from  Tuscany,)  or  most 
simple. 

2.  The  Doric,  (from  Dorians,  Greece,) 
durable  and  noble. 

3.  The  Ionic,  (from  Ionia,)  a  mean  be- 
tween the  plainness  of  the  Doric  and  the 
elegance  of  the  Corinthian. 

4.  The  Corinthian,  (from  Corinth,)  most 
noble,  rich,  and  delicate. 

5.  The  Composite,  (compounded  of  parts 
of  the  other,)  is  much  like  the  Corinthian. 

The  style  called  Gothic  was  most  exten- 
sively used  after  the  decline  of  the  Romans, 
and  first  adopted  in  the  erection  of  churches 
about  the  tenth  or  twelfth  century,  and  dis- 
tinguished by  its  pointed  arch. 

BLOOD.  The  blood  takes  its  origin  from 
the  chyle,  which  is  produced  by  the  diges- 
tion of  food  in  the  stomach.  It  may  take 
from  three  to  seven  hours  to  convert  elemen- 
tary substances  into  blood.  As  the  blood 
circulates,  it  deposits  nourishing  particles 
in  its  course,  and  thus  repairs  the  tissues  to 
which  it  is  supplied  It  also  removes  those 
matters  resulting  from  decomposition  con- 
sequent upon  vital  action.  Every  particle 
of  the  body  has  a  life  and  death  independent 
of  the  life  and  death  of  the  general  system. 
And  the  body  of  man  really  lives  and  dies 
many  times  in  the  course  of  what  is  termed 
a  life.  Such  is  the  rapidity  of  the  circu- 
lation, that  if  the  blood  flowed  at  an  equal 
rate  in  a  straight  line,  it  would  run  through 
one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  one  minute. 

ATHWART.  A  sea  phrase,  signifying 
across  a  ship  or  the  line  of  her  course. 


A   MTSCETXANY  OP  TTS15PUL  !TNT>vrLEnnE. 


41 


GALVANIC  COILS.  A  cheap  and  effec- 
tive galvanic  coil  for  invalids  may  be  con- 
structed as  follows. — All  is  a  rectangular 
p  MM  of  board,  upon  which  is  fixed  vertically 
a  hollow  cylinder  of  wood,  CD,  wider  at  the 
bottom,  like  a  nil,  but  not  quite  so  wide  at 
the  top.  inside  this  cylinder  is  dropped  a 
piece  of  bar  iron,  E,  which  rises  slightly 
above  its  surface.  On  one  side  is  a  brass 
Upright,  F,  from  which  proceeds  a  piece  of 
Watch-spring,  If,  having  at  its  end  a  small 
cone  of  iron  which  nearly  touches  the  bar, 
E.  On  the  opposite  side  is  an  upright  of 
brass,  G,  from  which  proceeds  a  flat  piece  of 
brass,  I,  through  which  passes  a  brass  screw, 
J,  having  at  its  extremity  a  small  piece  of 
platinum,  which  comes  in  contact  with  ano- 
ther small  piece  of  platinum  fixed  on  the 
watch  -  spring,  H.  Kound  the  wooden 
cylinder,  CD,  is  wound  some  covered  copper 
wire  (No.  12  or  14)  nine  times  (more  or 
less  as  the  number  of  powers  required)  at 
right  angles  to  its  axis,  so  as  to  constitute 
nine  helices,  which  are  connected,  and  toge- 
ther form  one  helix  continued  within  itself. 
The  interior  is  the  first,  the  exterior  the  last 
helix.  The  winding  of  the  wire  should  pro- 
ceed from  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  leaving  a 
niece  about  one  foot  in  length,  which,  pass- 
ing down  laterally  between  the  interior  of 


5 


the  first  helix  and  the  wooden  cylinder,  and 
emerging  at  bottom,  is  pushed  through  a 
hole  at  K,  passed  under  the  board,  and  con- 
nected with  the  bottom  of  a  binding  screw, 
L.  The  last  coil  of  the  first  helix  is  then 
laid  bare,  by  removing  the  covering  away  a 
little  at  each  side;  and  to  this  is  fixed  a. 
piece  of  uncovered  copper  wire,  which  is 


pushed  through  a  hole  at «,  end  con? 
under  the  board  with  an  upright  piece  ••( 
brass  wire,  1.  The  top  of  the  second  helix 
is  next  laid  bare,  and  connected  in  a  similar 
manner  with  the  upright  piece  of  br 
power,  2,  by  a  piece  of  copper  wire  passing 
downwards  between  its  interior  and  the  ex- 
terior of  the  first  helix,  and  through  a  Hole 
at  b.  Aud  so  from  top  and  bottom  alter- 
nately, are  the  remaining  helices  connected 
with  the  other  powers ;  thus,  the  bottom  of 
the  third  helix  through  the  hole  at  <?,  with 
the  3rd  power;  the  top  of  the  fourth,  &c. ; 
until  the  top  of  the  eighth  is  connected  with 
the  8th  power.  Then  the  exterior  end  of 
the  continued  helix,  which  is  the  bottom 
coil  of  the  ninth  helix,  is  passed  through  a 
hole  at  i,  and  connected  with  the  bottom  of 
power  9  ;  which  power  is  also  connected,  by 
a  wire  passed  upwards  through  a  hole  at,/, 
then  along  the  outside  of  the  helix  and 
through  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  with  the 
bottom  of  the  upright  G.  The  binding 
screw  N  is  similarly  connected,  through  a 
hole  at  M,  with  the  upright  F.  The  wire 
which  passes  under  the  board  from  N  to  M. 
is  joined  in  the  middle  to  another  piece  of 
wire  connected  with  the  bottom  of  the  bind- 
ing screw  S.  Between  the  cylinder  and  the 
powers  is  fixed  a  piece  of  brass  wire,  OP, 
bent  twice  at  right  angles,  the  bottom  of 
which  is  connected  with  the  binding  screw 
Q.  This  brass  wire  has  a  moveable  piece  of 
brass,  R,  which  may  glide  along  it,  end  rest 
on  either  of  the  powers  required.  The  coil 
should  be  covered  with  leather,  the  bottom 
of  the  board  with  baize.  Care  should  be 
taken  that  th-jre  be  no  metallic  contact  any- 
where, except  in  the  parts  mentioned.  The 
coil  is  then  complete;  its  expense  is  16s. 
L  and  N  are  screws  for  battery,  S  and  Q  for 
patients.  In  galvanizing  invalids  it  is  a 
matter  of  primary  importance  that  the  cro?3 
current  should  have  the  same  direction  as 
the  nervous  fluid.  It  is  a  forgetfulne>s  of 
this  which  renders  futile  the  attempts  of 
many  galvanists.  Again,  the  instruments 
sold  by  philosophical  instrument  makers 
have  generally  two  continued  helices,  in  one 
of  which  the  voltaic  circuit  is  completed,  in 
the  other  a  current  is  induced,  which  is 
utterly  useless  as  a  remedial  agent. 

DAMP  WALLS.  When  damp  walls  pro- 
ceed fromdiliqueseencein  the  case  of  muriate 
of  soda  in  intimate  combination  with  the 
sand  used  for  the  mortar,  it  is  merely  neces- 
sarv  to  wash  the  wall  with  a  strong  solution 
of  alum.  This  converts  the  diliqueseent 
salt  into  an  efflorescent  one,  and  the  cure  is 
complete ;  or  alum  may  be  added  to  the 
plaster  in  the  first  instance. 


42 


facts  fou  everybody: 


SICK  ROOMS  (TO  FUMIGATE).  The 
chlorine  fumigation  is  generally  considered 
the  best  for  fumigating  the  apartments  of 
the  sick.  To  prepare  it,  mix  together  equal 
parts  of  powdered  oxide  of  manganese  and 
common  salt ;  put  one  ounce  of  this  powder 
into  a  basin,  and  pour  on  it  a  large  tea- 
spoonful  of  water ;  then  drop  into  the  vessel 
about  thirty  or  forty  drops  of  oil  of  vitriol, 
which  may  be  repeated  at  intervals  for 
about  three  or  four  times.  This  will  be 
sufficient  for  the  perfect  exhaustion  of  the 
powder. 

DYEING  (ART  OF).  The  discovery  of 
it  is  attributed  to  the  Tyrians.  In  dyeing 
and  dipping  their  own  clothes,  the  English 
■were  so  little  skilled,  that  their  manufac- 
tures were  usually  sent  white  to  Holland, 
and  returned  to  England  for  sale.  The  art 
of  dyeing  woollens  was  brought  from  the 
Low"  Countries  in  1608.  "  Two  dyers  of 
Exeter  were  flogged  for  teaching  their  art 
in  the  north"  (of  England)  1628.  A  statute 
against  abuses  and  dyeing  was  passed  in 
1783. 

HEAT  AND  COLD.  Cold  is  the  absence 
of  heat ;  and  heat  is  a  peculiar  influence  of 
■which  we  can  only  judge  by  its  effect. 

There  are  two  states  in  which  we  find 
heat.  In  the  one  case-we  recognize  it  by 
the  touch,  in  the  other  we  cannot  find  it 
out  by  such  means.  The  air  has  a  very 
large  quantity  of  heat  hidden  in  it,  even 
when  it  seems  coolest  to  you.  It  contains 
so  muob  heat,  even  in  the  depth  of  winter, 
that  the  quantity  contained  in  a  few  square 
inches,  if  squeezed  out,  is  sufficient  to  light 
a  piece  of  tinder.  AVe  have 
drawn  here  a  figure  of  a  solid 
square,  or  cube,  that  we  may- 
be fully  understood  Each 
face  has  four  edges,  as  in  fig.  1, 
and  there  are  six  faces  to  the 
solid  square,  as  in  fig.  2. 
Now  if  you  had  a  vessel  which 
would  "  hold  about  twelve 
square  inches  or  cubes  of  air,  and  could  so 
manage  as  to  squeeze  it  into  the  size  of  one 
square  inch,  so  much  heat  would  be  given 
out  that  a  piece  of  tinder  would  be  set  on 
fire  by  it. 

If  you  procure  a  piece  of  thick  iron  wire, 
and  hammer  the  end  of  it  on  an  anvil  or 
hard  stone,  you  will  find  that  after  a  few 
blows  it  has  become  very  hot.  You  have 
compressed  the  particles  of  the  iron,  and 
the  latent,  or  hidden,  heat,  has  become 
sensible  to  the  touch.  The  heat  kept  the 
particles  or  atoms  of  iron  apart  from  each 
other ;  but  when  you  have  hammered  them 
close,    your    hammering  will    produce  no 


rs 


more  heat.  There  is  only  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  juice  to  be  squeezed' out  of  an  orange, 
and  so  the  quantity  of  heat  in  the  iron  ia 
limited.  You  have  learned  by  this  experi- 
ment, which  any  one  may  perform  with  a 
piece  of  soft  iron  wire,  that  heat  has  a 
tendency  to  separate  the  particles  of  which 
bodies  are  composed,  and  make  them  larger. 
This  separation  is  called  expansion.  A  bar 
of  iron,  when  heated,  becomes  longer ;  and 
hence,  if  the  iron  pieces  or  plates  upon 
which  the  wheels  of  the  railway  engines  run 
were  to  be  placed  in  winter 
with  their  ends  close  against 
each  other,  they  would  be  so 
expanded  by  the  warmth  of 
the  sun  in  summer,  that  they 
would  become  crooked,  and  the 
line  would  be  unsafe  to  travel 
upon.  This  expansion  of 
bodies  by  heat  is  taken  advan- 
tage of  by  persons  who  wish  to 
measure  sensible  heat.  Ther- 
mometers are  constructed  of 
bodies  which  are  readily  ex- 
pansible by  heat.  Those  com- 
monly in  use  are  made  of 
quicksilver  shut  up  in  glass. 
The  glass  tube  is  mounted  on  a 
piece  of  bone  or  ivory,  which 
bears  the  marks  of  degrees,  so 
that  the  amount  of  expansion 
or  contraction  of  the  quick- 
silver can  be  stated  or  regis- 
tered. There  are  various  forms 
of  heat  measurers  or  thermo- 
meters, and  I  will  explain  to 
you  how  to  construct  a  simple 
one.  Take  a  wide-mouthed  bottle,  pour 
into  it  a  teaspoonful  of  ink,  and  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  water,  and  set  it  upon  the 
table.  Having  procured  a  glass  tube,  which 
has  been  blown  into  a  bulb 


'■A 


t  I 


O 


Sh 


at  one  end,  warm  it  tho- 
roughly before  the  fire,  and 
then  rapidly  place  it  in  the 
bottle,  so  that  the  open  end 
is  plunged  into  the  ink  and 
Avater  at  the  bottom.  In  a 
second  cr  two  the  air  in  the 
round  bulb  of  the  tube  will 
begin  to  contract,  and  the  __ 
inky  water  will  ascend  the  §s 
tube,  and  perhaps  rush  into  *JS 
the  bulb.  When  all  up- 
ward motion  in  the  water 
has  ceased,  place  your  hand  upon  the  bulb, 
and  you  will  then,  by  warming  the  air  in- 
side, cause  it  to  expand,  and  the  water  in 
the  tube  will  again  descend.  Pure  water 
would  answer  as  well  as  the  mixture  of  ink, 


A   MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


43 


but  the  latter  is   more  easily  seen  as  it 
ascends  and  descends  the  tube. 
If  \<>u  place  the  bulb  and  bottle  near  the 

tire  the  air  in  the  bulb  will  be  expended 
still  further.  Your  thermometer  just  shows 
that  heat  has  been  taken  from  the  tire  and 
combined  with  the  air  in  the  bulb.  But 
how  was  the  heat  conveyed  from  the  fire  to 
the  bulb?  By  what  means  was  it  commu- 
nicated? 

Heat  is  conveyed  in  two  different  man- 
ners. A  heated  globe  of  iron,  if  suspended 
in  the  air,  would  send  out  rays,  or  straight 
lines  of  heat,  in  every 
direction,  as  in  this 
diagram.  When  heat 
is  given  off  and  con- 
veyed to  another  body 
by  rays  in  this  manner, 
it  is  said  to  be  by  radi- 
ation. To  illustrate 
the  other  mode  in 
which  heat  travels, 
hold  the  end  of  a  piece 
of  iron  wire,  of  three 
inches  in  length,  in  the  flame  of  a  small 
taper.  The  radiated  heat  from  the  flame 
you  will  scarcely  feel,  but  the  heat  will  be 
speedily  conducted  to  your  fingers  along  the 
wire,  which  will  become  so  hot  that  you 
will  scarcely  be  able  to  hold  it.  When  heat 
is  thus  conveyed  by  a  metal  or  other  solid 


body  from  a  fire  or  flame  to  any  other  body, 
it  is  said  to  be  by  conduction.  Metals  con- 
duct heat  rapidly,  and  hence  metal  tools 
which  require  to"  be  "used  while  hot  have 
the  handles  covered  with  wood,  which  does 
not  allow  the  warmth  to  pass  from  the  iron 
to  the  hand  of  the  workman.  You  could 
hold  a  piece  of  wood  of  much  shorter  length 
than  the  wire,  in  the  taper's  flame,  and  feel 
no  inconvenience.  These  circumstances 
prove  that  wood  does  not  conduct  or  convey 
heat  as  rapidly  as  iron  ;  it  is  therefore  said 
to  be  a  bad  conductor  ;  in  other  words,  its 
power  of  transmitting  warmth  is  small. 
Woollen  cloth  is  a  still  worse  conductor; 
and  for  that  reason,  when  the  flat  iron  is 
used  by  the  laundress,  she  protects  her 
fingers  with  a  piece  of  folded  flannel,  which 
does  not  allow  the  heat  from  the  handle  of 
the  iron  to  burn  her  hand. 

You  have  seen  how  the  air  is  expanded 
by  heat,  and  contracted  by  cold  ;  it  is  im- 


portant, morever,  to  understand,  that  in  a 
cubic  inch  of  cold  air  there  are  more  par- 
ticles than  in  a  cubic  inch  of  heated  air. 
The  figure  A  represents  a  cold  cubic  inch 
li 


of  air,  which  we  will  suppose  contains  six- 
teen atoms  or  particles,  or  air.  If  to  this  be 
applied  a  very  small  quantity  of  heat,  it 
would  expand  to  the  size  of  B,  without  any 
increase  of  the  number  of  particles,  or  in  its 
weight.  A  cubic  inch  (as  indicated  by  the 
dotted  lines  C  and  D),  would  then  only  con- 
tain nine  atoms  or  particles  of  air. 

If  the  cold  cubic  inch  weighed  sixteen 
grains,  the  hot  cubic  inch  would  only  weigh 
nine.  If  bodies  are  expanded  by  heat,  they 
contain  fewer  particles  in  a  given  space ;  if 
they  are  contracted  by  the  removal  of  that 
heat,  they  contain  more  particles  in  the 
same  space.  Some  of  these  particles  would 
be  oxygen  and  some  nitrogen,  always  bear- 
ing the  same  proportion. 

CENTRE  OF  GRAVITY.  As  the  re- 
action of  every  body  to  every  force  is  directed 
from  the  centre  of  the  masses,  so  bodies  sub- 
ject to  centripetal  force  re-act  from  their 
centres,  and,  if  these  are  not  supported,  the 
body  yields  or  falls.  Hence,  as  "in  the  en- 
graving, when  the  centre  of  the  mass  is 
within  the  perpendicular  of  the  wheels,  it 
does  not  yield ;  but  if  so  inclined  as  that  the 
perpendicular  from  the  centre  falls  beyond 
the  wheels,  then  tjbe  centre  falls,  and  the 
carriage  is  oversee.  In  cases  of  danger, 
therefore',  as  in  a  boat  or  carriage,  the  object 
should  be  to  lower  the  centre  of  the  mass  by 
lying  down. 


44 


FACTS  FOIt  EVEHYBODY. 


CARDINAL  VIRTUES.  Industry,  Per- 
severance, Benevolence,  Temperance. 

CARDS.  Toys  with  which  many  games  of 
chance  are  played,  there  being  four  kinds, 
and  13  of  each  kind,  so  as  to  cause  by  shuf- 
fling and  dealing,  an  infinite  variety  of  com- 
binations, and  afford  inexhaustible  amuse- 
ment ;  which,  if  not  abused  by  large  stakes, 
is,  at  least,  an  innocent  mode  of  passing  time 
among  idle  persons,  and  of  relaxation  among 
others  of  serious  pursuits.  They  were  in- 
vented in  the  age  of  Edward  III.  and  their 
costume  and  mode  of  manufacturing  by 
block-printing  are  continued  to  this  day. 
In  truth,  the  making  of  them  must  have 
suggested  the  art  of  block-printing  to  the 
first  printers,  the  one  being  but  a  slight 
variation  of  the  other. 

CHAPLAIN.  A  person  in  holy  oi'ders 
who  does  the  duty  of  a  chapel ;  for  his  own 
chapels,  the  king  has  72  chaplains,  and  by 
law,  an  archbishop  may  have  8 ;  duke  or 
bishop  6  ;  a  marquis  or  earl  5 ;  a  viscount 
4;  a  baron  3;  and  a  peeress  2;  each  of 
•whom,  as  such,  enjoys  certain  clerical 
privileges. 

STILL.  An  apparatus  for  vaporising 
compound  fluids,  and  re-condensing  the 
vapours  of  each  of  the  component  parts  as 


they  are  successively  raised  by  heat ;  it  con- 
sists of  an  alembic,"  a  worm,  a  refrigerator, 
and  a  receiver. 


Worm  of  a  Still. 
CINQUE  PORTS.    Five  ancient  ports  of 
England  endowed  with  privileges,  as  Dover, 
Hastings,  Romney,  Hythe,  and  Sandwich 
with  Winchelsea  and  Rye. 


BEEF-EATERS.  The  term  "Beef- 
eaters" is  a  corruption  of  the  French  buffe- 
tiers,  (from  buffet,  meaning  sideboard.)  The 
French  buffetiers  were  guards  who  stood 
around  the  sovereign  at  dinner;  and  the 
word  has  been  corrupted  gradually  to  "Berff- 
-eaters,"  which  is  now  applied  to  the  yeo- 
men of  the  guard  of  the  Queen  of  Great 
Britain.  They  are  stationed  by  the  side- 
board at  great  royal  dinners,  and  are  dressed 
after  the  fashion  of  the  time  of  Henry  VIII. 
BOUTS-RIMES.  This  is  a  species  of 
amusement  generally  known  in  France.  It 
is  pronounced  '-boo-rema."  A  number  of 
words  that  rhyme  are  given  to  a  composer, 
who  is  to  fill  up  the  verse,  producing  good 
sense,  and  keeping  the  words  in  their  stated 
order.    Thus : — 

dark.  where. 

around.  strife. 

hark.  drear. 

sound.  life. 

shrill.  bri-rlvt. 

still.  night. 

Now,  it  would  require  considerable  skill  for 
any  one  to  take  the  above  and  present  them, 
in  their  present  order,  in  a  perfect  compo- 
sition.    Yet  it  may  be  done : — 

"lis  nisrht ;  the  mourning  vest  of  nature — dark 
And  gloomy  is  the  starless  sky;  around 

A  melancholy  stillness  reigi  s;  but  hark  ! 
"lis  but  the  hooting  owl.    A  sound 

Again  breaks  on  the  silence :  'tis  a  shrill 

Cry  from  some  churchyard ;  all  again  is  still. 

Where  now  the  grandeur  of  creation !    Where 
The  crowds  that  mingle  in  the  busy  strife? 

All's  now  a  dismal  chaos,  lone  and  drear, 

Eayless  and  black.     And  thus  it  is  with  life— 

Awhile  the  scene  is  beautiful  and  bright ; 

Then  comes  one  deep,  and  dark,  and  cheerless 
night. 

KNIVES  AND  FORKS.  Handles  of 
ebony  should  be  cleaned  with  a  soft  cloth 
dipped  in  a  little  sweet  oil ;  and  after  rest- 
ing awhile  with  the  oil  on  them,  let  them 
be  well  wiped  with  a  clean  towel.  Ivory 
or  bone  handles  ought  to  be  washed  with  a 
soaped  flannel  and  lukewarm  water,  and 
then  wiped  with  a  dry  towel.  To  preserve 
or  restore  their  whiteness,  soak  them  occa- 
sionally in  alum-water  that  has  been  boiled 
and  then  grown  cold.  Let  them  lie  for  an 
hour  in  a  vessel  of  this  alum-water.  Then 
take  them  out,  and  brush  them  well  with  a 
small  brush  (a  tooth-brush  will  do),  and 
afterwards  take  a  clean  linen  towel,  dip  it 
in  cold  water,  squeeze  it  out,  and  while  wet 
wrap  it  round  the  handles,  leaving  them  in 
it  to  dry  gradually, — as,  if  dried  too  fast  out 
of  the  alum -water,  they  will  be  injured. 
If  properly  managed,  this  process  will  make 
|  them  very  white. 


A   WTSCELLAtfY   OP  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


45 


CALISTHENIC  EXERCISES.  Use  of 
Calisthenics.  It  is  an  admitted  physio- 
logical fact,  that  imperfections  in  the  female 
form  originate,  for  the  most  part,  in  de- 
fective or  irregular  muscular  action.  The 
calistlienic  exercises  are  calculated  to  cure 
deformities  of  the  figure,  especially  of  the 
chest,  to  invigorate  the  system,  and.  con- 
duce to  elegant  deportment  and  symmetry 
of  form. 

Preliminary  Cautions.  1st,  that  they 
should  not  be  performed  after  a  full  meal ; 
2nd,  that  there  should  not  be  any  ligatures 
or  tight  strings,  straps,  &c.,  on  any  part  of 
the  body,  but  that  the  clothes  should  fit 
easily  and  loosely;  3rd,  that  the  body 
should  not  be  too  warmly  elothed  during 
the  exercises,  but  that  an  additional  wrap- 
per should  be  provided,  to  cover  the  body  as 
soon  as  they  are  finished ;  by  this  means 
cold  will  bo  avoided  ;  4th,  that  the  exercises 
should  generally  be  performed  in  a  room,  in 
preference  to  the  open  air;  5th,  that  due 
regard  must  be  paid  to  the  health,  age,  and 
strength  of  the  pupils  exercised. 

Necessary  Apparatus.  The  first  things 
to  he  attended  to  are  the  cautions  we  have 
given  above;  and  then  the  necessary  appa- 
ratus, consisting  of  dumb-beils,  back-board, 
clubs,  wands  or  poles,  triangles,  and  elastic- 
cord,  must  be  procured. 

The  Dumb-Bells  we  advise  are  con- 
structed as  follows.  To  the  staff  a  (which 
is  made  of  oak  or  ash,  six  inches  long,  and 


Fig.  1. 

OTieand  a  quarter  inches  in  diameter),  is  fixed 
a  hemisphere  (/;),  with  a  male  screw  (e)\ 
ami  to  this  part  is  attached  at  both  ends 
another  hemisphere  (c),  fitted  with  a  female, 
screw,  so  that  when  these  hemispheres  are 
screwed  together  they  form  a  complete 
sphere  as  represented  by  d,  in  fig.  1. 

Back-Boards  should  be  fitted  to  the  per- 
son requiring  them,  unless  they  are  used 
for  the  hack-board  exercise,  in  which  case 
they  will  be  as  represented  in  fig.  2.  When 
not  used  for  this  exercise,  they  are  fastened 
to  the  back  and  shoulders  bv  means  of  straps 
(a  £,  c  d,)  which  pass  round  the  shoulders 
and  are  made  to  buckle  in  front.  These 
straps  can  be  lengthened  or  shortened  by 
passing  them  through  holes  in  the  board 
(^»  ff>  9>  9) j  kft  *"°r  that  purpose.  The 
3* 


lower  part  of  the  board  is  fastened  round 
the  waist  by  a  strap  (e  /),  winch  bueklei 
in  front. 


Fig.  2. 

The  dimensions  of  the  short  back-board 
are  as  follow,  for  a  krge  size:  length: 
twelve  or  thirteen  inches,  breadth  ten 
inches,  lower  part  five  inches,  and  upper 
part  four  inches.  These  measurements  can 
be  reduced  according  to  circumstances, 
age,  &c. 

The  Long  Back-Board  should  be  broad 
in  the  centre,  as  in  fig.  3,  so  that  the  flat 
part   may  reach  across  the    back    of   tho 


Fig.  3. 
shoulders,  and  the  handles  (a  b)  be  long 
enough  to  hold  in  the  hands  when  the  arms 
are  extended.  Some  of  these  baek-boarda 
vary  from  six  feet  in  length  to  only  three 
feet  eight  inches. 

The  Clubs  for  calisthenics  should  be 
made  hollow,  as  in  the  annexed  figure  (fig. 4) 
varying  from  twenty  to  twenty-  ^-v 

eight  inches  in  length,  and  be  of 


a  proportionate  width.  The  top 
is  made  to  screw  on,  so  that  the 
inside  may  be  loaded  as  recom-  (j 
winded  for  the  dumb-bells.  By 
this  means,  the  weight  to  be 
forced  through  the  air  can  be 
proportioned  to  the  strength  or 
ower  of  the  individual  to  pro- 
pel it. 

The  "Wands,  or  Poles,  should 
be  light,  smooth,  and  sufficiently 
thick  not  to  bend.  They  vary  in 
length  according  to  the  person's 

height  that  is  to  use  them,  the      (V j 

rule  being,  that  the  poles  i-hall  be    FigTX 
of  the  same  length  as  the  height 
of  the  person  requiring  them. 


46 

The  Triangle  is  a  bar  of  wood  attached 
to  a  cord  at  each  end ;  the  two  cords  meet 
above,  as  shown  in  fie.  5,  so  as  to  form  two 


TS  FOE  everybody: 


Fig.  5. 
sides  of  a  triangle,  of  which  the  bar  forms 
the  third.  A  cord  is  attached  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  triangle,  and  this,  passing  over  a 
pulley,  enables  the  teacher  to  lower  or  raise 
the  bar  so  as  to  suit  the  height  of  the  pupil. 
THfc  Elastic  Cord  is  one  of  the  latest 
improvements  in  calisthenie  exercises. 


of  it  may  be  principally  on  the  fore-part 
of  the  feet  ;  the  head  erect,  and  the  eyes 
looking  straight  to  the  front,  as  in  fig.  7. 


It  consists  of  two  handles  (a  b),  of  a  tri- 
angular form,  to  which  is  attached  an  elastic 
cord,  made  of  vulcanized  india-rubber. 
They  may  be  obtained  at  most  toy-shops, 
and  vary  in  price  from  two  to  five  shillings, 
according  to  the  size. 

The  pupil  should  commence  the  exercises 
with  the  dumb-bell  practice. 

The  Dumb-Bell  Practice.  The  dumb- 
bells are  not  to  be  used  at  first ;  but  when 
the  pupil  has  become  proficient  in  the 
following  exercises,  then  the  dumb-bells  are 
to  be  held  firmly  in  the  hands,  which  are 
to  perform  the  same  motions  directed  below. 
Position  of  Attention.  When  the  word 
attention  is  given  by  the  teacher,  the  pupil 
is  to  draw  back  the  shoulders,  so  as  to  make 
them  square  ;  the  heels  arc  to  be  placed  in 
a  line,  and  closed  ;  the  knees  straight,  the 
toes  turned  out  an  angle  of  60  degrees,  the 
arms  hanging  close  to  the  body,  the  elbows 
turned  in  close  to  the  side,  the  hands  open 
to  the  front,  the  little  finger  lightly  touching 
the  dress,  and  the  thumb  close  to  the  fore- 
finger. The  abdomen  is  to  be  slightly 
drawn  in,  and  the  chest  advanced,  but 
without  constraint;  the  body  upright,  in- 
clining a  little  forward,  so  that  the  weight 


Fig.  7.  Fig.  8. 

First  Practice.  One.  —  At  the  word 
one,  raise  the  hands  and  bring  the  tips  of 
the  fingers  in  a  line  with,  and  pointing 
towards  the  shoulders,  the  body  inclining 
forward,  the  head  erect,  and  shoulders  kept 
well  back,  with  the  elbows  close  to  the  side, 
as  in  fig.  8. 

Two.  —  Dart  the 
hands  straight  to  the 
front,  with  straight 
arms,  the  palms  of  the 
hands  close  together, 
the  thumbs  close  to 
the  fore-finger,  nearly 
in  a  line  with  the  chin, 
as  in  fig.  9. 

These  two  motions 
are  to  be  repeated 
from  two  to  one,  and 
again  from  one  to  two, 
several  times  before 
commencing  three. 

Three. —  The  hands 
are  thrown  back  with 
straight  arms  in  a  line  with  the  shoulders 
the  palms  of  the  hands  to  the  front,  the 
thumbs  close  to  the  fore-fingers,  the  head 
erect,  and  shoulders  kept  well  back,  the 
body  inclining  forward,  the  heels  raised  off 
the  ground,  so  that  the  weight  of  the  body 
rests  on  the  fore-part  of  the  feet,  as  in  fig.  10. 

These  motions  are  to  be  repeated  from 
three  to  two,  and  from  two  to  three  several 
times  before  commencing /0?</\ 

Four. — The  arms  are  to  be  brought  gra- 
dually by  the  side  to  the  first  position, 
(ng.  7). 

Second  Practice.  One.  —  The  hands 
are  to  be  brought  smartly  up  with  the  palms 
of  the  hands  to  the  front,  the  tips  of  the 


A   MrSCELLANT  OP  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


fingers  in  a  line  with  the  shoulder,  pointing 
Upwards,  tho  elbows  to  be  kept  close  {<■>  the 
side  :itu1  well  back,  so  as  to  square  the 
■boulder* ;  the  head  is  to  be  held  erect,  and 
the  body  slightly  inclined  forward,  as  in 
fig.  11. 


Fig.  10. 
Two.—  Raise  the  elbows  a  little  so  as  to 
draw  them  upwards  and  backwards ;  then 
bring  the  hands  smartly  down  to  the  side, 
as  in  fig.  12,  and  assume  the  position  of 
attention  (fig.  7). 


Fig.  11.  Fig.  12. 

Long  Back-Board  Exercises.  The 
long  back-boards  (fig.  3.),  are  to  be  held 
by  the  handle  with  the  left  hand,  and  the 
right  hand  is  to  be  placed  on  the  top  of  the 
back-board,  while  the  other  end  rests  upon 
the  ground  between  the  feet,  as  in  fig.  13. 

Attention.  When  this  word  is  given  the 
heels  are  to  be  brought  in  a  line,  and  the 
back-board  brought  across  in  front  of  the 
thighs  at  the  full  extent  of  the  arms,  hold- 
ing it  by  the  handles  with  both  hands  (the 
backs  of  the  hands  to  the  front),  as  in 
fig.  U. 

One. — The  back-hoard  is  to  be  gradually 
raised  from  the  position  of  attention,  with 


the  arms  straight,  until  the  flat  part  of  it 
is  horizontal  and  over  the  head,  the  tfpi 
of  the  fingers    in  front,  and  the   knuckles 


Fig.  13.        -  Fig.  U. 

behind ;  the  body  is  to  be  kept  well  forward 
on  the  fore-part  of  the  feet,  and  the  head 
erect,  as  will  be  seen  in  fig.  15. 


Fig.  15.  Fig.  16. 

Two. — At  this  word  the  back-board  is  to 
be  lowered  from  position  one  (the  arms 
being  contracted),  and  it  is  to  be  brought 
across  the  back  part  of  the  shoulders  (as 
in  fig.  16),  still  keeping  the  body  well  for- 
ward, and  the  head  erect. 

In  the  last  position,  the  pupil  will  then 
be  required  to  walk  slowly  round  the  room, 
quickly,  and  to  practise  the  balance-step 
without  gaining  ground. 

When  the  various  exercises  have  been 
frequently  repeated,  the  word  "  steady " 
will  be  given,  when  the  position  of  atten- 
tion (fig.  14)  is  to  be  resumed,  and  at  the 
command  "  stand  at  ease,"  that  position 
(fig.  13),  with  the  back-board,  is  at  once  to 
be  taken. 


48 


FACTS    FOR    EVERYBODY  '. 


*  MOVING  THE  KNIGHT  OVER  ALL 
THE  SQUARES  ALTERNATELY.  The 
problem  respecting  the  placing  the  knight 
on  any  given  square,  and  moving  him  from 
that/Square  to  any  house  on  the  board,  has 
not  been  thought  unworthy  the  attention  of 
the  first  mathematicians.  Euler,  Ozanarn, 
De  Montmart.  De  Moivre,  De  Majron,  and 
others,  have  all  given  methods  by  which  this 
feat  might  be  accomplished.  It  was  reserved, 
however,  for  the  present  century  to  lay  this 
down  on  a  general  plan  ;  and  the  only  Eng- 
lish writer  who  has  noticed  this  is  Mr.  George 
Walker,  in  his  "  Treatise  on  Chess."  The 
plan  is  this  :  Let  the  knight  be  placed  on  any 
square,  and  move  him  from  square  to  square, 
on  the  principle  of  always  playing  him  to  that 
point,  from  which,  in  actual  play,  he  would 
command  the  fewest  other  squares ;  observ- 
ing, that  in  reckoning  the  squares  commanded 
by  him  you  must  omit  such  as  he  has  already 
covered.  If,  too,  there  are  two  squares,  on 
both  of  which  his  powers  would  be  equal,  you 
may  move  him  to  either.    Try  this  on  the 


board,  with  some  counters  or  wafers,  placing 
one  on  every  square  ;  and,  when  you  clearly 
understand  it,  you  may  astonish  your  friends 
by  inviting  them  to  station  the  knight  on  any 
square  they  like,  and  engaging  to  play  him, 
from  that  square  over  the  remaining  sixty- 
three  in  sixty-three  moves.  When  the  auto- 
maton chess-player  was  last  exhibited  in  Eng- 
land, this  was  made  part  of  the  wonders  he 
accomplished,  though  as  the  above  plan  was 
not  then  known  here,  he  could  not  adopt  it, 
but  used  something  like  the  method  laid  down 
by  Euler,  and  which  we  subjoin. 

Our  young  chess-players  must  remember 
that  it  'does  not  matter  on  which  square  the 
knight  is  placed  at  starting  ;  as,  by  acquiring 
the  plan  by  heart,  which  is  soon  done,  he  can 
play  him  over  all  the  squares  from  any  given 
point,  his  last  square  being  at  the  distance  of 
a  knight's  move  from  his  first.  It  is  obvious 
that  this  route  may  be  varied  many  ways,  and 
we  have  often  amused  ourselves  by  trying  to 
work  it  on  a  slate. 


EULEK/S  METHOD. 


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WEIGHTS  OP  MEASURES.  The  follow- 
ing table  of  the  number  of  pounds  of  various 
articles  to  a  bushe.,  may  be  of  interest  to  our 
readers : 

Of  wheat,  sixty  pounds  ;  of  shelled  corn, 
fifty-six  pounds;  of  corn,  on  the  cob, 
seventy  pounds  ;  of  rye,  fifty-six  pounds ; 
of  oats,  thirty-six  pounds ;  of  barley,  forty 
pounds  ;  of  potatoes,  sixty  pounds  ;  of  bran, 


twenty  pounds ;  df  clover-seed,  sixty  pounds; 
of  timothy-seed,  forty-five  pounds ;  of  flax- 
seed, forty-five  pounds;  of  hemp-seed,  forty- 
four  pounds  ;  of  buckwheat,  fifty-two  pounds; 
of  blue  grass-seed,  fourteen  pounds  ;  of  castor 
beans,  forty-six  pounds ;  of  dried  peaches, 
thirty-three  pounds  ;  of  dried  apples,  twenty- 
four  pounds  ;  of  onions,  fifty-seven  pounds  5 
of  salt,  fifty  pounds. 


♦From  "The  Magician's  Own  Book;  or.  Over  One  Thousand  Tricks."    Illustrated  with  over 
500  wood  engravings.    Dick  &  Fitzgerald.  -  Price  $1  00. 


A.  MISCELLANY  OP  USEFUL   KNOWLEDCE. 


49 


MILE  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  NATIONS.! 
Bnglilh  yards..  English  yards. 

Arabian  mile 8148  Irish 3038 

Bohemian 10137  Italian 2025 

Chinese  illis 628! Poland  (short) G093 

Danish  milo 8244  Poland  (loin;) 81081 

English 1700  Portuguese  leaguos  6765 

English  (geo)..  ..  o0:;,  |>nisslrm  m;|0 84C1 ' 

Flemish 6809  Roman  (ancient  —  1610J 

French  art.  league  4860  Roman  (modern)..  2035! 
French  legal     do    4203  Russian  vers  to...  1167! 

Frenoh  limine  do    007o  Saxon  mile 9905 

German  mile  (geo)  Moo  Scotch 1984 

German  (long) — 10126  Spanish  leagnaa..  4630 

German  Cshort)...  6859  Sweedtoh 11704 

Dutch 6"95  Swiss 9166 

Hungarian 9113  Turkey  berries 1821 

WHEAT."  The  valuable  species  of  grain 
•which,  in  Europe  is  what  rice  is  in  Southern 
Asia.  Its  nutritious  quality  arises  from  the 
quantity  of  gluten,  or  glue-like  substance 
"Which  it  contains.  Its  flour,  mixed  with 
water,  and  excited  by 
yeast  (a  substance  al- 
ready fermenting)  fer- 
ments, and  baked  in  an 
oven,  constitutes  bread, 
a  wholesome  food,  if  not 
whitened  by  alum,  one- 
third  of  which  is  sulphu- 
ric acid,  which  destroys 
'the  stomach.  A  bushel 
weighs  56  lbs.  and  every 
pound  vields  1£  lbs.  of  bread  ;  a  sack  of 
flour  of  280  lbs.  producing  348  lbs.  of  bread. 
One  pound  of  wheat  yields  lOozs.  of  starch, 
*  oz.  gluten  and  sugar,  and  3  ozs.  bran; 
but  other  analyses  give  the  proportion  of 
the  starch  to  the  gluten,  as  3  or  4  to  1. 
The  cut  represents  a  wheat-sheaf  as  set  up 
and  tied  together  alter  reaping.  It  is  then 
lodged  in  a  barn,  threshed,  winnowed,  and 
ground  into  flour. 

CHILBLAINS.  Get  a  saucer  half  full 
of  good  vinegar,  with  a  handful  of  salt  in  it ; 
cover  the  saucer  and  let  it  stand  till  hot 
over  a  saucepan  of  water  on  the  fire ;  the 
steam  rising  from  the  boiling  water  will 
soon  heat  the  vinegar  and  salt ;  when  hot 
lift  the  whole  off  the  fire  and  fix  it  so  that 
spots  of  chilblain  can  be  dipped  into  the 
saucer.  This  must  be  usedr*as  hot  as  can  be 
borne,  even  to  smai-ting,  and  when  the 
liquid  cools  a  little^  the  toe  or  other  part 
affected  must  be  kept  immersed  for  a  few 
minutes,  then  wipe  gently  with  a  soft  towel. 
Keep  the  feet  always  warm.  If  the  chil- 
blains are  broken,  the  best  cure  is  tincture 
of  myrrh  (the  best  and  strongest),  which 
entirely  heals  the  spot  in  three  days.  "Wrap 
the  sore  in  soft  old  linen  doubled,"  which  tie 
on  with  a  worsted  thread,  not  to  be  removed 
till  the  chilblain  is  healed;   saturate  this 


linen  by  dropping  the  tincture  of  myrrh 
over  the  sore  till  it  smarts  violently  ,  this 
will  subside  in  about  half  a  minute;  then 
bandage  it  up,  and  repeat  morning  and 
evening. 

CHAMELEON.  An  animal  about  ten 
Inches  long,  which  feeds  on  insects,  and 
which,  from  the  capacity  of  its  lungs,  is 
enabled  to  expand  its  skin,  and  thereby 
varying  the  angle  of  reflected  light,  changes 
its  colour  to  a  spectator,  whose  eyes  are 
fixed. 


^Sr^ZZZ 


HEADACHE  (CURE  FOR  THE).    Mr. 

Thompson,  a  traveller  in  Mexico,  describes 
an  efficacious  remedy  used  there  for  the 
headache,  and  also  for  the  toothache.  The 
head  must  be  bent  down  on  the  side  from 
which  the  pain  proceeds,  whilst  a  spoonful 
of  rum,  or  any  other  spirit,  is  introduced 
into  the  opposite  ear.  The  patient  should 
then  remain  quiet  till  the  pain  subsides, 
which  is  usually  in  three  or  four  minutes. 
The  sensation  is  said  not  to  be  disagreeable, 
resembling  the  stunning  produced  by  plung- 
ing the  head  in  water.  The  relief  thus 
experienced  is  caused  by  evaporation,  which 
produces  cold  and  checks  the  circulation  in 
the  afflicted  part. 

SORE  THROATS.  For  the  habitual  sore 
throat  or  quinsy,  which  is  the  torment  of 
many  people  half  their  lives,  and  is  gene- 
rally mistaken  for  a  violent  cold  because  it 
occasions  a  tickling  in  the  throat,  the  con- 
sequence of  which  is  coughing — take  of 
powdered  galls,  three  drachms;  of  boiling 
ro3e-water,  three  ounces.  Infuse  for  three 
hours.  Then  filter  and  pour  off  the  liquor, 
and  add  of  alum  thr<  e  drachms;  of  spirits 
of  nutmeg  or  any  other  spirit,  three  ounces. 
Hold  a  "little  of 'this  frequently  against  the 
verv  bottom  of  vour  mouth. 

ATll  EN  JVX  M .  A  literary  school  at  Rone, 
said  to  be  founded  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian; 
now  generally  applied  to  institutions  for  the 
encouragement  oi  letters. 


50 


PACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY! 


AZOTE.  The  gas  of  which  the  atmosphere 
contains  nearly  four-fifths  in  bulk,  and 
three-fourths  in  weight ;  the  other  fifth 
and  fourth  being  oxygen,  without  which 
the  air  will  support  neither  life  nor  combus- 
tion. It  is  also  called  nitrogen,  and  is 
generally  considered  as  a  compound.  It 
converts  blues  into  greens,  and  in  the 
atmosphere  may  be  regarded  as  a  diluter  of 
oxygen. 

TELESCOPE.  An  optical  instrument, 
which  enables  us  to  dispose  of  the  rays 
■which  proceed  from  distant  objects,  that  we 
may  see  the  image  or  spectrum  formed  in 
the  focus  of  the  object-glass,  very  near,  or 
under  an  increased  angle.  The  angle  of  the 
image  is  as  the  focal  length,  or  the  distance 
from  the  object-glass  to  the  image,  and  the 
angle  at  the  eye-glass  is  as  its  distance  from, 
the  image ;  the  magnifying  power  is,  there- 
fore, in  the  proportion  of  those  angles.  The 
glass  nearest  the  object  makes  an  image  or 
picture  by  crossing  and  subsequently  di- 
verging rays,  which  a  convex  eye-glass  of 
short  focus  renders  parallel  for  vision ;  or 
which  a  concave  eye-glass  intercepts  while 
converging,  and  the  image  then  proceeds 
directly  to  the  eye  with  parallel  rays.  In 
the  figure  annexed  the  arrow  is  the"  object, 
the  rays  of  which  cross  at  the  object-glass, 
and  form  an  image  which  is  viewed  through 
a  convex  glass  by  the  eye. 


<C3>S 


In  the  following  figure  0  R  is  the  object, 
rays  from  which  cross  at  G,  in  the  object- 
glass  A  D,  forming  an  image,  which  is 
viewed  bv  E  Y,  the  eye-glass,  by  the  eye  at 
H. 


D  object-glass,  E  concave  eye-glass,  carry- 
ing parallel  rays  to  the  eye. 


The  following  represents  a  mounted  tele- 
scope with  rack-work  for  vertical  and  hori- 
zontal motions. 


The  first  and  second  are  the  common 
telescope  and  microscope,  the  eye-glass 
being  usually  compounded  of  three  eye- 
glasses to  set  the  object  erect ;  and  the  third 
is  the  Galilean  or  primitive  telescope,  and 
also  the  opera- glass. 


The  following  is  a  section  of  the  tubes 
with  the  position  of  the  object  and  eye- 
glasses. 


TIME.  The  measure  of  motion,  and  of  the 
succession  of  thoughts,  determined  on  our 
globe  by  the  phenomena  of  light  and  dark- 
ness, and  returning  seasons  of  heat  and  cold; 
the  earth's  motion  round  its  axis  being  a 
day,  and  its  motion  round  the  sun  a  year ; 
while  the  period  from  new  moon  to  new 
moon  determines  the  month.  Longer 
periods  are  the  moon's  cycle  of  recurring 
phenomena  in  nineteen  years;  the  earth's 
cycle,  or  the  retrocession  rf  the  equinoctial 
points  round  the  ecliptic  in  25,600  years; 
or  the  revolution  of  the  line  of  apsides  m 
20,900  years.  These  are  periods  of  duration 
relative  to  our  globe  and  to  us ;  but  different 
to  different  systems,  and  even  to  different 
animals  and  states  on  the  same  planet;  yet- 
all  are  included  in  a  totality  of  simple  dura- 
tion, common  to  the  whole  universe,  and 
which  totality  is  necessarily  without  mea- 
sure, parts,  begin- 
ing,  or  ending.  Time 
is,  therefore,  an  ac- 
quired plan  or  mode 
of  considering  mo- 
tions or  events,  and 
our  views  can  have 
no  exact  relation  to 
its  absolute  proper- 
ties as  an  universal 
totality.  Everything 
is  relative  which  is 
not  infinite;  and  all 
are  evolved  and, absorbed  by  the  totalities  of 
infinite  time  and  space.  Time  in  the  ancient 
mythology  was  drawn  as  an  old  man,  with 
a  scythe  and  hour-glass. 


A   MTSCELLAKY  OP  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


51 


CAGE  BIRDS  (DISEASES  OF).  Like 
all  taine  animals,  birds  that  are  kept  in 
Confinement  arc  exposed  to  more  maladies 


than  those  that  live  at  large ;  and  especially 
as  they  are  frequently  so  closely  confined  in 
cages  that  they  have  scarcely  room  to  move. 
These  maladies  are,  however,  considerably 
increased  by  their  having  all  kinds  of  deli- 
eaeies,  and  pastry,  sugar,  &c,  given  them, 
which  spoils  their  stomachs,  and  usually 
produce!  a  slow  consumption. 

The  following  are  tbe  chief  maladies 
vhieh  affect  birds,  and  their  remedies,  the 
efficiency  of  which  we  have  proved  upon 
our  own.  Indeed  the  variety  of  birds,  as 
well  as  the  variety  of  their  food,  require 
also  a  difference  of  treatment  in  their  mala- 
dies ;  and  in  speaking  of  each  species,  we 
shall  have  occasion  to  imtice  how  their  pe- 
culiar diseases  may  be  cured,  when  the  ge- 
neral remedies  are  not  suitable  to  their 
nature. 

1.  The  Pip.  This  is  properly  a  cold,  in 
which  the  upper  skin  of  the  tongue  be- 
comes hardened  by  fever,  and  the  orifices 
of  the  nose  are  stopped.  In  large  birds, 
therefore,  this  skin  is  separated  from  the 
tongue,  and  in  doing  this,  it  must  be  com- 
menced beneath  and  behind.  Thus  the  pores 
of  the  tongue  are  re-opened,  and  the  secre- 
tion requisite  for  digestion  can  be  repro- 
duced, and  taste  ami  appetite  made  to  re- 
turn. A  pill,  consisting  of  butter,  pepper, 
and  garlic,  generally  frees  them  from  this 
complaint.  They  may  also  be  made  to  drink 
pectoral  tea  made  of  "speedwell.     To  remove 


the  stoppage  of  the  orifices  of  the  nose,  a 
small  feather  is  drawn  through  them. 

TLiS  malady  may  be  detected  by  the 
yellow  colour  at  the  root  of  the  beak,  the 
raffled  feathers  of  the  head,  the  frequent 
opening  of  the  beak,  and  the  dryness  of  the 
tongue. 

2.  1-or  Rheum,  which  is  indicated  by 
frequent  sneezing  and  shaking  the  head,  we 
have  found  no  better  remedy,  especially 
when  the  bird  has  been  valuable  to  us,  and 
we  have  not  desired  nature  to  work  alone, 
than  giving  it  some  drops  of  pectoral  elixir 
in  pectoral  tea;  or,  when  it  would  not  drink 
of  its  own  accord,  to  drench  it  with  it.  To 
a  sick  chicken  we  have  given  twenty  drops 
in  half  a  pint  of  tea. 

3.  Consumption.  It  is  usually  the  result 
of  unnatural  food  which  interrupts  the 
functions  of  digestion,  and  it  is  recognised 
by  the  bird  inflating  and  distending  itself. 
The  feathers  are  ruffled,  and  their  flesh 
dwindles.  As  yet  we  know  no  better  re- 
medy than  to  give  to  such  birds  a  common 
spider,  which  purges  them,  and  to  lay  in 
their  water  a  rusted  nail,  which  strengthens 
the  stomach.  They  must,  at  the  same  time, 
be  fed  with  the  best  description  of  their  ap- 
propriate food.  In  birds  which  will  eat 
vegetables,  we  have  always  found  this,  and 
especially  water-cresses,  the  surest  remedy 
against  consumption,  or  waste.  Usually, 
birds  suffering  from  this  malady  have  a  vo- 
racious appetite  for  green  food.  We  fed  a 
Siskin,  which  had  already  wasted,  for  three 
successive  days  with  nothing  but  water- 
cresses,  and  on  the  fourth  it  recommenced 
singing. 

4.  Constipation.  This  malady  is  de- 
tected by  observing  the  birds  every  moment 
bending  the  venter  to  evacuate,  and  being 
unable  to  do  so.  If  a  spider  does  not  cure, 
the  smooth  head  of  a  pin  must  be  dipped  in 
linseed  oil,  and  gently  thrust  into  the 
rectum  ;  such  a  clyster  is  usually  effective 
In  birds  which  eat  meal  worms,  constipa- 
tion is  removed  by  squeezing  the  inside 
of  a  meal  worm  and  filling  it  with  linseed 
oil  and  saffron;  the  bird  thus  willingly 
swallows  the  laxative,  and  the  effect  is  cer- 
tain. 

5.  Dysentery.  Birds  frequently  suffer 
from  this  before  they  become  accustomed  to 
the  food  of  the  aviary,  and  then  generally 
die.  They  evacuate  every  instant  a  chalky 
substance,  which  usually  hangs  about  tho 
feathers  of  the  vent,  and  is  so  acrid  that  it 
intlames  the  rectum  and  anus.  In  such. 
cases,  occasionally,  the  internal  application 
6f  the  rust  of  iron,  by  placing  it  in  tho 
drinking  vessel,   and  a' liusced-orl  clyster, 


£2 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


have  been  serviceable.  But  we  know  no 
positive  remedy  vet,  and  have  only  found 
that  ailing  birds  may  sometimes  be  saved 
when  food  is  supplied  them  which  is  most 
appropriate  to  their  nature.  Many  persons 
pluck  away  the  feathers  of  the  tail  and  vent, 
and  rub  their  hinder  parts  with  fresh  butter, 
and  mix  the  hard  boiled  yolk  of  eggs  with 
their  food.  But  this  remedy  we  have  found 
rarely  followed  by  a  successful  result. 

6.  "The  Stoppage  of  the  Fat-glands, 
OR  the  Pimples.  Every  bird  has  above 
the  rump  a  gland,  which  secretes  the  oil 
required  by  the  bird  to  smear  its  plumage, 
to  retain  them  supple,  and  to  prevent  mois- 
ture passing  through.  In  confinement, 
birds  neglect  the  frequent  pressure  of  this 
gland,  as  they  are  more  rarely  exposed  to 
getting  wet  than  when  at  liberty,  and  it 
consequently  becomes  hardened  or  inflamed. 
If  the  bird  is  seen  sitting  and  drooping,  the 
tail  bending  downwards,  or  if  the  feathers 
upon  the  rump  are  observed  to  be  ruffled, 
and  that  the  bird  frequently  pecks  at  it,  it 
must  be  examined  to  see  if  the  swollen 
gland  be  not  the  cause.  This  may  fre- 
quently be  softened  by  the  application  of 
very  fresh  butter,  mixed  up  with  a  good 
deal  of  sugar,  the  aperture  being  enlarged 
by  gently  distending  it  with  a  needle,  or  a 
small  knife ;  but  a  lead  salve,  or  rather  a 
salve  of  litharge  of  silver,  Avhite  lead,  wax, 
and  olive  oil,  which  must  be  ordered  at  the 
apothecary's,  opens  it  best.  The  usual  re- 
medy is  to  pierce  it  with  a  needle,  or  to  cut 
off  the  hardened  gland  But  this  process, 
whilst  it  removes  the  stoppage,  destroys  the 
gland,  and  birds  thus  "healed  usually  die  at 
moulting,  from  wanting  the  oil  requisite  to 
smear  their  feathers.  Tscheiner  has  the 
following  observations  upon  this  malady  : — 
"If  this  evil  have  not  yet  too  severely 
affected  the  health  of  the  bird,  it  may  be 
sought  to  be  remedied  by  puncturing  the 
gland,  compressing  it  frequently,  bathing 
the  bird  with  a  syringe,  and  plucking  out 
some  of  the  feathers  of  the  tail*.  The  accu- 
mulated fat  is  absorbed  in  the  renewal  of 
the  feathers,  when  the  gland  resumes  its 
natural  functions." 

7.  Epilepsy.  A  very  usual  malady  of 
birds.  The  abundance  and  goodness  of  food, 
and  the  want  of  exercise,  whereby  much 
and  thick  blood  is  produced,  are  the  chief 
causes  of  this.  "We  have  found  no  better 
remedy  than  to  dip  birds,  when  thus  suffer- 
ing, frequently  into  ice-cold  water,  and  to 
pare  their  nails  so  closely  that  some  drops 
of  blood  start.  Also  a  few  drops  of  olive- 
oil  given  internally  have  been  serviceable. 
Large  birds  may  be  bled  in  the  veins  at  the 


side  of  the  feet.     But  usually  birds  which 
suffer  from  this  sickness  die  eventually  of  it. 

8.  Moulting  is  also  a  malady.  At  this 
period  it  is  requisite  to  attend  to  thern  very 
carefully,  and  to  change  their  diet  without 
giving  them  delicacies. 

9.  Birds  in  confinement  also  suffer  much 
in  their  feet.  These  must  be  constantly  so 
carefully  cleansed  that  the  skin  is  not  at  all 
ruptured.  The  large  thick  scales  in  front  of 
the  legs  must  also  be  removed  once  a-year, 
but  with  great  precaution. 

10.  Tympany.  At  one  part  of  the  body, 
or  frequently  all  over  it,  the  skin  is  puffed 
up  as  tense  often  as  a  drum.  A  small  punc- 
ture must  be  made  with  a  needle,  whereby 
the  air  escapes,  and  the  bird  usually  becomes 
sound  again.  We  have  had  Skylarks  which 
suffered  from  this  malady,  and  in  the  next 
quarter  of  an  hour,  when  freed  from  the 
air,  resumed  singing,  although  previously 
they  had  been  sick  to  death. 

11.  Twirling.  This  is  properly  no 
sickness,  but  yet  a  very  general  evil,  and  a 
habit  acquired  by  seed-eating  birds  in 
cages,  where  they  turn  and  twist  their  head 
and  neck  so  far  back  as  to  overbalance 
themselves.  There  is  no  better  mode  of 
breaking  them  of  this  evil  habit  than,  as 
soon  as  it  is  detected,  to  put  a  cover  over  the 
cage,  and  so  prevent  their  seeing  anything 
above  them ;  as  this  is  the  cause  of  their 
twirling  themselves. 

12.  Parasites.  If  birds  are  sometimes 
restless,  especially  of  a  night,  and  if  they 
are  observed  to  be  frequently  feeling  with 
their  beak  about  the  abdomen,  back,  or 
wings,  they  must  be  examined  to  see  if  no 
small  yellow  insects  (lice  or  mites)  may  be 
discovered  upon  the  body,  or  between  the 
feathers.  If  this  be  the  case,  they  must  be 
sprinkled  by  means  of  a  small  syringe  with 
water,  in  which  quicksilver  has  been 
steeped,  or  with  a  greatly  d  luted  infusion 
of  tobacco,  for  several  successive  days, 
whereby  the  vermin  are  destroyed,  or 
chased  away.  Another  mode  of  getting  rid 
of  the  lice  is  to  bathe  the  birds  frequently, 
and  to  give  them  daily  fresh  or  dry  sand, 
and  to  be  very  particular  in  keeping  them 
exceedingly  clean. 

13  If  it  be  found  that  the  birds  become 
unnaturally  fat,  which  is  often  the  ease, 
especially  during  autumn,  in  some  species 
of  warblers,  their  too  nutritious  food  must 
be  changed,  and  Swedish  turnips  be  mixed 
in  it,  and  dry  ants'  eggs  put  into  their 
drink,  which  much  checks  their  corpulency. 

14.  Birds  in  confinement  are  subject  to 
another  malady  which  we  may  call  the 
amatory  fever.     It    occurs  usually  in  the 


A   MISCELLANY  OP  TTSEFTTL   KNOWLEDGE. 


53 


month  of  May,  -when  the  sexual  impulse  is 
Strongest,  Birds  that  an.1  attacked  by  it 
usually  oetae  to  sing  about  this  time,  droop, 
raise  their  feathers,  waste  away,  and  die. 
Birds  that  are  confined  iv  cages  are  tirst 
attacked  by  this  malady.  The  cause  ap- 
pears to  us  to  be  the  uniformity  and  tedioua- 
ness  of  confinement,  as  well  as  their  desire 
for  a  tenia le.  We  cured  several  suffering 
thus,  merely  by  hanging  them  frequently 
at  the  window.  They  were  almost  imme- 
diately cheered,  and  seemed  to  forget  their 
sorrow,  as  well  as  their  desire  for  freedom 
ami  pairing,  in  the  general  hilarity  peculiar 
to  singing  birds. 

CANNON.  An  arrangement  ofiron  or  brass, 
with  a  hollow  tube,  at  the  bottom  of  which 
gun-powder  is  lodged,  and  exploded  by  hot 
iron  at  a  touch-hole;  and  the  explosion  being 
directed  by  the  tube,  balls  and  missiles  are 
carried  to  great  distances  with  destructive 
force.  According  to  the  sized  ball  which 
they  will  explode,  they  are  called  6,  12,  and 
48  pounders.     In  a  field  of  battle  they  are 


dragged  by  hortws  on  light  carriages,  called 
field  or  living  artillery;  and,  in  other  ways, 
called  heavy  ordnance. 

SUNFLOWER  (THE).  The  value  of  this 
plant,  which  is  easily  cultivated,  and  orna- 
mental to  the  garden,  is  scarcely  known  in 
most  parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  seed  forms 
a  most  excellent  and  convenient  food  for 
poultry,  and  it  is  only  necessary  to  cut  off 
the  heads  of  the  plant  when  ripe,  tie  them 
in  bunches,  and  hang  them  up  in  a  dry 
situation,  to  be  used  as-  wanted.  They  not 
only  fatten  every  kind  of  poultry  but  greatly 
increase  the  quantity  of  eggs  they  lay. 
When  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent, 
they  are  also  capital  food  for  sheep  and 
pigs,  and  for  pheasants.  The  leaves  when 
dried  form  a  good  powder  for  cattle ;  the 
dry  stalks  burn  well,  and  form  an  abundance 
of  alkali ;  and  when  in  bloom,  the  flower  is 
most  attractive  to  bees. 

POUNDS,  SHILLINGS,  AND  PENCE. 
The  etymology  of  these  very  necessary 
articles  of  exchange  may  be  thus  stated  : — 
"Pound"  is  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
yund  or  pond,  which  was  generally  a  weight; 
it  was  then  applied  to  a  specific  weight, 
consisting  of  a  certain  number  of  equal 
parts;    to  a  certain  number  of  pieces  of 


money  amounting  to  such  a  weight ;  nnd  to 
a  coin  equalling  such  number  of  nieces  in 
value.  "Shilling"  is  of  doubtful  etymo- 
logy ;  but  derived  probably  from  snh'it/f/, 
the  appellation  for  a  piece  of  money  amongst 
our  Anglo-Saxon  predecessors.  "Penny" 
is  also  of  doubtful  origin  ;  but  the  name*  as 
applied  to  a  coin  is  of  great  antiquitv. 

PORCELAIN.  Forcelaine,  said  to  be 
derived  from  Pour  cent  annecs,  it  being 
formerly  believed  that  the  materials  of 
porcelain  were  matured  under  ground  one 
hundred  years.  It  is  not  known  who  first 
discovered  the  art  of  making  porcelain,  nor 
is  the  date  recorded  ;  but  the  manufacture 
has  been  carried  on  in  China,  at  King-te- 
ching,  at  least  since  A.l>.  442,  and  here  still 
the  finest  porcelain  is  made.  It  is  first  men- 
tioned in  Europe  in  1581,  shortly  after 
which  time  it  was  known  in  England.  The 
fine  porcelain  ware  known  as  Dresden  china 
was  discovered  by  M.  Boeticher,  who  was 
at  the  time  only  an  apothecary's  boy,  1700. 
Services  of  this  ware  have  cost  many 
thousands  of  pounds  each.  A  costly  service, 
each  piece  exquisitely  painted,  and  tie 
battles  represented,  and  subjects  a  11  different, 
was  presented  to  the  duke  of  Wellington,  by 
the  king  of  Prussia,  in  181G,  and  is  the  finest 
in  England. 

AMAZONS.  The  Amazons  are  said  to 
have  been  the  descendants  of  Scythians  in- 
habiting Cappadocia,  when  their  husbands, 
having  made  incursions,  were  all  slain, 
being  surprised  in  ambuscade  by  their  ene- 
mies. Their  widows,  excited  to  action  by 
the  sorrows  they  underwent  on  account  of 
their  husbands,  resolved  to  form  a  female 
state,  and  having  firmly  established  them- 
selves, they  decreed  that  matrimony  was  a 
shameful  servitude.  They  were  constantly 
engaged  in  wars.  They  were  conquered  by 
Theseus,  about  1231,  B.C. 

DAY  (DIVISION  OF  THE,  INTO 
HOURS) .  The  day  began  to  be  divided  into 
hours  from  the  year  293  B.C.,  when  L. 
Papirius  Cursor  erected  a  sun-dial  in  the 
temple  of  Quirirus  at  Rome.  Previous  tc 
the  invention  of  water-clocks,  168  B.C.,  the 
time  was  called  at  Rome  by  public  criers. 
The  Chinese  divide  the  difv'  into  twelve 
parts  of  two  hours  each.  The  Italians  reckon 
twenty-four  hours  round,  instead  of  two  di- 
visions of  twelve  hours  each  as  we  do.  In 
England,  the  measurement  of  time  was  alike 
uncertain  and  difficult ;  one  expedient  was 
by  wax  candles,  three  inches  burning  an 
hour,  and  six  wax  candles  burning  twenty- 
four  hours :  these  candles  were  invented  by 
Alfred,  (docks  and  hour-glasses  not  being 
then  known  in  England, -a.d.  886. 


54 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY! 


ASHLAR,  A  description  of  masonry 
where  the  stones  are  built  in  parallel  beds 
with  square  joints,  and  dressed  smooth  upon 
the  surfa  e. 

ASIDE.  A  term  used  in  plays  to  mark 
sentences  which  do  not  form  a  part  of  the 
dialogue,  being  supposed  to  be  inaudible  to 
all  but  the  speaker. 

ANIMALS    (NAMES   OE  THE  VARI- 
OUS PARTS  IN). 
1.— Beef. 


10. 


-OR? 
Hind  Quarter. 
Sirloin. 
Rump. 
Aitch-Bone. 
Buttock. 
Mouse- Buttock. 
Veiny  Piece. 
Thick  Flank. 
Thin  Flank. 
Leg. 
Fore-Ribs  (5  ribs) 

2. — Mutton 


Fore  Quarter. 

11.  Middle- Rib  (4  ribs) 

12.  Chuck  (3  ribs). 

13.  Shoulder,  or  Leg  of 

Mutton  Piece. 

14.  Brisket. 

15.  Clod. 

16.  Neck  or   Sticking 

Piece. 

17.  Shin. 

18.  Cheek, 
on  Lamb. 


1.  Leg. 

2.  Loin  (best  end). 

8.  Loin  (chump  end). 
4.  Neck  (best  end). 
6.  Neck  (scrag  end). 


6.  Shoulder. 

7.  Breast. 

8.  Head. 

A  Chine  is  two  Necks. 
A  Saddle  i3  two  Loins. 

Pork. 


1.  The  Spare-Rib.  I  5.  Hind-Loin. 

2.  The  Hand.                |  6.  Ley. 
8.  The  Belly  or  Spring.  7.  Head, 
4.  Fore-Loin. 


4.— VSAL. 


1.  Loin  (best  end). 

2.  Loin  (chump  end). 

3.  Fillet. 

4.  Hind-Knuckle. 

5.  Fore-Knuckle. 

6.  Neck  (best  end). 


7.  Neck  (scrag  end). 

8.  Blade- Bone. 

9.  Breast  (best  end). 

10.  Breast  (brisket  end). 

11.  Head. 


5.— Venison. 


3.  Shoulder. 

4.  Breast. 

ENAMELS.  White  enamels  are  com- 
posed by  melting  the  oxide  of  tin  with  glass, 
and  adding  a  small  quantity  of  manganese, 
to  increase  the  brilliancy  of  the  colour.  The 
addition  of  oxide  of  lead  or  antimony  pro- 
duces a  yellow  enamel ;  but  a  more  beautiful 
yellow  may  be  obtained  from  the  oxide  of 
silver.  Reds  are  formed  by  an  intermixture 
of  the  oxides  of  gold  and  iron,  that  composed 
of  the  former  being  the  most  beautiful  and 
permanent.  Greens,  violets,  and  blues,  are 
formed  from  the  oxides  of  copper,  cobalt, 
and  iron;  and  these,  when  intermixed  in 
different  proportions,  afford  a  great  variety 
of  intenncdiate  colours. 

PIN  MONE1  (ORIGIN  OE).  This 
term  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  an 
ancient  tax  in  France  for  providing  the 
Queen  with  pins,  whence  it  has  been  ap- 
plied by  us  to  that  provision  for  married 
women,  with  which  the  husband  is  not  to 
interfere. 


A  MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


55 


HERALDRY.  For  ourselves  we  look 
upon  heraldry  as  simply  one  of  those 
branches  of  knowledge  which  is  useful  in 
its  proper  place.  Tlie  origin  of  the  science 
— il  it  may  properly  he  called  a  science — is 
intimate] v  interwoven  in  the  origin  of 
history.  When  men  became  distinguished, 
and  felt  themselves  animated  by  those 
natural  feelings  of  pride  and  ambition 
which  distinction  generates,  they  sought 
some  method  of  marking  to  the  eye  their 
position ;  and,  as  the  first  means  of  dis- 
tinction were  military  talents  and  courage, 
no  readier  method  presented  itself  than  that 
of  placing  a  distinguishing  sign  or  symbol 
on  the  shield,  as  the  most  conspicuous  of 
the  warrior's  accoutrements.  During  long 
and  glorious  ages  of  the  history  of  the 
world,  such  symbols  were  adopted  amongst 
almost  all  peoples,  and  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  they  constituted  heraldry  in  the 
simplest  acceptation  of  the  word.  But  each 
armorial  bearing  was  the  badge  of  the  in- 
dividual, and  spoke  of  himself  but  not  of 
his  family.  It  was  under  the  feudalism  of 
the  middle  ages  only  that  heraldry  was,  or 
perhaps  could  be,  reduced  to  a  system  such 
as  it  presents  in  our  days.  As  far  as  we  can 
trace  it,  the  adoption  of  armorial  bearings 
as  family  badges  began  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  twelfth  century.  This  is  a  fact  which 
we  believe  is  generally  acknowledged,  but 
we  doubt  much  whether,  as  some  suppose, 
the  Crusades  had  anything  to  do  with  it,  or 
whether  it  was  anything  more  than  a  natu- 
ral accompaniment  of  the  peculiar  progress 
of  society  in  that  age. 

BLACK-LEAD  ^PENCILS.  The  easiest 
way  of  producing,  not  only  blank-lead,  but 
all  sorts  of  pencils,  is  by  the  following  pro- 
cess, which  combines  simplicity,  cheapness, 
and  quality.  Take  white  or  pipe-clay ;  put 
it  into  a  tub  of  clean  water,  to  soak  for 
twelve  hours,  then  agitate  the  whole,  until 
it  resembles  milk  ;  let  it  rest  two  or  three 
minutes,  and  pour  off  the  supernatant  milky 
liquor  into  a  second  vessel ;  allow  it  to 
settle,  pour  oft"  the  clear  and  dry  the  residue 
on  a  filter.  Then  add  black-lead  any  quan- 
tity. Powder  it  and  calcine  it  at  a  white 
heat  in  a  loosely-covered  crucible  ;  cool  and 
carefully  re-pulvcrke,  then  add  prepared 
clay,  prepared  plumbago,  equal  parts. 
"Water  to  mix.  Make  them  into  a  paste, 
and  put  it  into  oiled  moulds  of  the  size 
required;  dry  very  gradually,  and  apply 
Sufficient  heat  to  give  the  required  degree 
of  hardness;  lastly,  the  pieces  should  be 
taken  carefully  from  the  moulds  and  placed 
in  the  grooves  of  the  cedar.  The  more  clay 
and  heat  employed,  the  harder  the  crayon ; 


less  clay  and  heat  of  course  produces  a  con- 
trary eflfect.  The  shade  of  black  may  also 
be  varied  in  the  same  way.  Each  mould 
must  be  made  of  four  pieces  of  wood  nicely 
fitted  together. 

COLOSSUS  OF  RHODES  (THE).  This 
celebrated  statue  was  considered  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  world,  and  was  erected  in 
honour  of  Apollo.  It  was  made  of  brass, 
and  was  70  cubits,  or  about  105  feet  in 
height,  being  proportion  ably  big  in  every 
part.  It  stood'  astride  over  the  haven,  so 
that  ships  could  sail  in  and  out  between  the 
legs.  In  one  hand  it  held  a  light-house, 
in  the  other  a  sceptre  ;  and  its  head  repre- 
sented a  golden  sun.  The  distance  between 
the  two  feet  was  1,000  yards,  and  two  men 
could  scarcely  embrace  its  thumb,  when 
their  arms  were  extended.  This  extra- 
ordinary statue  was  made  by  Chares,  a 
Rhodian,  who  was  engaged  12  years  in  its 
perfection.  After  it  had  stood  for  66  years, 
an  earthquake  displaced  it,  and  the  money 
collected  by  the  Rhodians  from  the  various 
Grecian  states  being  embezzled,  the  statue 
was  never  replaced  or  repaired,  as  intended  ; 
but  the  image  was  allowed  to  remain  804 
years  upon  the  ground,  when  the  Saracens 
having  taken  the  city,  sold  the  °  world's 
wonder,"  to  a  Jew  as  old  brass;  its  weight 
being  720,000  lbs.  avoirdupois.  The  Jew 
broke  it  into  pieces,  and  loaded  900  camels 
with  them.  At  the  present  time  there  is 
a  castle  erected  on  one  side,  and  a  town  on 
the  other,  to  mark  the  places  were  the  feet 
of  the  far-famed  Colossus  were  placed. 

RAIN.  Rain  falls  in  drops,  because  the 
vapoury  particles  attract  each  other  in  their 
descent,  and  those  which  are  sufficiently 
near  unite  and  form  into  drops.  These 
drops  are  sometimes  larger  than  at  other 
times,  because  the  rain-cloud  is  floating 
nearer  the  earth ;  when  this  is  the  case  the 
drops  are  large,  because  such  a  cloud  is  more 
dense  than  one  more  elevated.  The  size  of 
the  drop  is  also  increased  according  to  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  vapours  are  con- 
densed. Wind  may  sometimes  increase  the 
size  of  the  drops  by  blowing  two  into  one. 

DUN.  Some  persons  imagine  this  word 
to  be  derived  from  the  French  donnez—give 
me,  implying  a  demand  for  something  new; 
but  the  true  origin  of  this  expression  is  sup- 
posed to  be  due  to  one  John  Dun,  a  famous 
bailiff  of  the  town  of  Lincoln,  so  extremely 
active  in  his  business,  that  it  became  a  pro- 
verb when  a  man  refused  to  pay  his  debts, 
to  say,  "  Why  don't  you  Dun  him  ?  "  that 
is,  "Why  don't  ;»u  send  Dun  to  arrest 
him  ?  "  Hence  it  "grew  into  a  custom,  and 
is  as  old  as  the  days  of  Henry  VII. 


56 


tacts  for  everybody: 


ASPEN.  A  kind  of  poplar  tree,  the  leaves 
of  which  have  a  tremulous  motion  which 
seems  incessant,  and  has  become  proverbial. 
ANTHRACITE.  A  variety  of  coal  con- 
sisting of  vegetable  carbon,  and  difficult  to 
burn  on  account  of  the  want  of  the  bitumen 
found  in  the  common  sorts  of  coal.  It  is 
found  in  Wales  and  in  America. 

PULLEYS.  The  pulley  is  a  wheel, 
round  the  rim  of  which  a  groove  is  cut,  in 
■which  a  cord  can  work,  and  the  centre  of 
which  moves  on  pivots  in  a  block.  The 
wheel  sometimes  passes  under  the  name  of 
a  sheave. 

By  a  fixed  pulley,  we  mean  one  which 
merely  revolves  on  its  axis,  but  does  not 
change  its  place.  The  power  is  applied  to 
one  end  of  the  cord  and  the  weight  to  the 
other. 

The  action  of  the  pulley  may  be  readily 
understood  from  that  of  the  lever.     Let  c, 

j. fig.  1  be  the   axis 

-*»'  .'  f  of  the  pulley,  b  the 

point  to  which  the 
weight  is  attached ; 
a  the  point  of  ap- 
plication    of     the 
—  power;     draw    the 
■^  lines,  c  b,  c  a — they 
represent  the  arms 
of  a  lever — and  the 
law  of  the  equili- 
brium  of  a  lever, 
therefore,     applies 
Fi»-  L  in  this  case  also ; 

and  as  these  are  necessarily  equal  to  each 
other,  the  pulley  will  be  in  equilibrio  when 
the  weight  and  power  are  equal. 

If  the  direction  in  which  the  power  is 
applied,  instead  of  being  P  a,  is  P'  a,  the 
same  reasoning  holds  good.  For,  on-  draw- 
ing C  a,  as  before,  it  is  obvious  that  b  c  a 
represent  a  bent  lever  of  equal  arms.  The 
condition  of  equilibrium  is,  therefore,  the 
same. 

The  fixed  pulley  does  not  increase  the 
power,  but  it  renders  it  more  available,  by 
permitting  us  to  apply  it  in  any  desired 
direction. 

To  prove  the  properties  of  the  pulley  ex- 
perimentally, hang  to  the  ends  of  its  cord 
equal  weights;  they  will  remain  in  equi- 
Tibrio.  Or,  if  the  power  be  increased,  so  a3 
to  make  the  weight  ascend,  the  vertical 
distances  passed  over  are  equal. 

The  moveable  pulley  is  represented  at 
fig.  2.  Its  peculiarity  is  that,  besides 
the  motion  on  its  own  axis,  it  also  has 
a  progressive  one.  Let  b  be  the  axis  of 
the  pulley,  and  to  it  the  weight,  W,  is 
attached  the  power  as  applied  at  a.    Draw 


the  diameter,  a  c> 
then  c  is  the  fulcrum 
of  a  c,  which  is  in 
reality  a  lever  of  the 
third  order  in  which 
distance,  a  c,  of  the 
power  is  twice  that, 
o  c,  of  the  weight. 
Consequently  "  the 
moveable  pulley 
doubles  the  effect 
of  the  power,"  and 
the  distance  traversed 
by  the  power  is  twice 
that  traversed  by  the 
weight. 

A  moveable  pulley 

is  sometimes    called 

"a  runner;"  and  as 

it  would  be  often  in- 

> 


7convenient  to  apply 
"the  power  in  the 
upward  direction, as 
at  a,  there  is  com- 
monly associated 
with  the  runner  a 
fixed  pulley,  which 
without  changing 
the  value  of  the 
power,  enables  us  to 
vary  the  direction 
of  its  action. 

Systems  of  pulleys 
are  arrangements 
of  sheaves,  move- 
able and  fixed. 
When  one  fixed 
pulley  acts  on  a 
number  cf  move- 
able ones,  equili- 
brium is  maintain- 
ed, when  the  power 
and  weight  are  to 
each  other  as  1  to 
that  power  of  2 
which  equals  the 
number  of  themove- 
able  pulleys.  Thus, 
if  there  be,  as  in 
fig.  3,  three  move- 
Fi.ar.  3.  able     pulleys,    the 

power  is  to  the  weight  as  1:2'  that  is  1 :  8 ; 
consequently,  on  such  a  system,  a  given 
power  will  support  an  eightfold  weight. 

When  several  moveable  and  fixed  pulleys 
are  employed,  as  in  fig.  4,  equilibrium  is 
obtained  when  the  power  equals  the  weight 
divided  by  twice  the  number  of  moveable 
pulleys.  The  weight  being1  equally  divided 
uetween  the  six  lines,  it  follows  that  each 
is  drawn  by  one -sixth  of  the  weight,  W. 


A  MISCELLANY   OF    USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


.07 


w 

Fig.  5. 


consequently,  ii 
sixty  pounds  weigh 
is  suspended  to  tin 
bottom,  each  lin< 
would  be  drawn 
upnnbyaforceof  l( 
pounds.  If  we  wis], 
U>  keep  this  maobini 
in  a  state  of  equili- 
brium, we  must  at- 
tach a  weight,  P,  of 
ten  pounds  to  the 
end  of  the  line. 

In  such  systems 
of  pulleys  there  is 
a  groat  loss  of  power 
arising  from  the 
friction  of  the 
sheaves  against  the 
sides  of  the  blocks, 
and  on  their  axles. 
In  White's  pulley 
this  is  to  a  consi- 
derable extent  a- 
voided.  This  con- 
trivance is  repre- 
sented in  fig.  5. 
It  consists  of  seve- 
ral sheaves  of  une- 
qual diameters,  all 
turned  on  one  com- 
mon mas3,  and 
■working  on  one 
common  axis.  The 
diameters  of  these, 
in  the  upper  blocks, 
are  as  the  numbers 
2,  4,  6,  &c,  and 
in  the  lower  1,  3,  5,  &c. ; 
consequently,  they  all  re- 
volve in  equal  times  and 
the  rope  passes  without 
sliding  or  scraping  upon 
the  grooves. 

WHEELS  AND  AXLES. 

The  wheel  and  axle 
consists  of  a  cylinder  re- 
volving upon  an  axis,  and 
having  a  wheel  of  larger 
diameter  immcveably  af- 
fixed to  it.  The  power  is 
applied  to  the  circum- 
ference of  the  wheel,  the 
weight  to  that  of  the  axle. 

[Let  a  b,  be  a  wheel,  c  d, 
fig.  6,  its  axle,  and  sup- 
pose the  circumference  of 
the  wheel  to  be  eight 
times  as  great  as  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  axle; 
then  a  power,  P,  equal  to 
one  pound,  hanging  by  the 


Fig.  6. 


cord  I,  which  goes  round  the  wheel,  will 
balance  a  weight,  "W,  of  eight  pounds, 
tanging  by  the  rope  K,  which  goes  round 
the  axle;  ami  as 
the  friction  on  the 
pivots,  E  F,  or 
gudgeons  of  the 
axle  is  but  small, 
a  small  addition 
k  to  the  power,  will 
F  cause  it  to  descend, 
and  raise  the 
weight ;  but  the 
weight  will  rise 
with  only  an 
eighth  part  of  t lie 
velocity  wherewith 
the  power  descends, 
and,  consequently, 
through  no  more  than  an  eighth  part  of  an 
equal  space  in  the  same  time.  If  the  wheel 
he  pulled  round  by  the  handles,  S  S,  the 
power  will  be  increased  in  prouortion  to 
their  length.  G,  is  a  ratchet-wheel  on  one 
end  of  the  axle,  with  a  catch  II,  to  fall  in 
its  teeth. 

The  law  of  equilibrium  is,  that  "the 
power  must  be  to  the  weight  as  the  radius 
of  the  axle  is  to  that  of  the  wheel." 

This  instrument  is,  evidently,  nothing 
but  a  modification  of  the  lever ;  it  may  he 
regarded  as  a  continuously  acting  lever,  in 
fact,  it  is  sometimes  called  "  the  perpetual 
lever."  In  its  mode  of  aotion,  the  common 
lever  operates  in  an  intermitting  way,  and, 
as  it  were,  by  small  steps  at  a  time.  A 
mass  which  is  forced  up  by  a  lever  a  short 
distance  must  be  temporarily  propped,  and 
the  lever  re-adjusted  before  it  can  be  brought 
into  action  again  ;  but  the  wheel  and  axle 
continues  its  operation  constantly  in  the 
same  direction. 

The  inconvenience  of  having  a  large 
wheel  and  very  slender  axle  may  be  avoided, 
without  lessening  the  mechanical  advantage, 
by  employing  a  machine  called  the  °  Chinese 


Fig.  7. 
wheel  and  axle,"    which  consume  of  two 


58 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


cylinders,  one  larger  than  the  other,  turn- 
ing about  the  same  axis.  The  weight  is 
attached  to  a  pulley,  which  plays  on  a  long 
cord,  which  is  coiled  round  both  axles  in 
contrary  directions.  When  the  winch  is 
turned,  one  end  of  the  cord  uncoils  from 
the  smaller  cylinder,  and  is  wound  round 
the  larger ;  thus  the  weight  is  elevated  at 
each  turn,  through  a  space  equal  to  half  of 
the  difference  between  the  circumference  of 
the  tsvo  cylinders.  Therefore  the  advantage 
of  this  machine,  with  its  pulley,  is  in  the 
ratio  of  the  diameter  of  the  larger  cylinder 
to  half  its  excess  above  that  of  the  lesser 
one.     (Fig.  7.) 

That  this  is  its  mode  of  action  may  be 
understood  from  considering  fig.  8,  in 
which  let  c  be  the  common  centre  of  the 
axle,  c  b,  and  of  the  wheel  c  a,  a  the  point 


see  that  the  weight,  W,  corresponds  to  ths 
counteracting  force,  P,  in  an  inverse  ratio 
to  the  arms  of  the  lever  ;  that  is,  inversely 
to  the  radii,  a  b,  and  d  c,  of  the  wheel.  Let 
us  suppose  that  the  radius,  a  b,  of  the  axle, 
is  four  times  less  than  the  radius,  d  c,  of 
the  wheel,  we  may  equipoise  a  weight  of 
eighty  pounds  by  a  force  of  twenty  pounds. 
Sometimes  the  wheel  is  replaced  by  a 
winch,  as  in  fig.  10 ;  it  is  then  called  a 
"  windlass,"  if  the  motion  is  vertical ;  but 


rP  — w# 

Fig.  8. 
of  application  of  the  power  P,  and  b  dat 
of  the  weight,  W.  Draw  the  line  a  c  b  ;  it 
evidently  represents  a  lever  of  the  first  order, 
of  which  the  fulcrum  is  c,  and  from  the 
principles  of  the  lever,  it  is  easy  to  demon- 
strate the  law  of  equilibrium  of  this  machine, 
as  just  given.  Further,  it  is  immaterial  in 
what  direction  the  power  be  applied,  as  P'  at 
the  point  a'  for  a  c  b  still  forms  a  bent 
lever,  and  the  same  principle  still  holds  good. « 
The  effect  of  the  wheel  depends  upon  the 
superiority  of  the  radius,  or  diameter  of  the 
wheel,  to  that  of  the  axle.     In  fig.  9  we 


Fig.  10.  Fig.  11. 

if  it  be  horizontal,  as  in  fig.  11,  the  ma- 
chine is  called  a  "  capstan,"  which  differs 
from  the  windlass  in  having  its  re- 
volving axis  placed  vertically.  The  cir- 
cumference is  pierced  with  holes  which 
receive  long  levers,  called  capstan-bars,  by 
which  it  is  worked  by  men,  who  walk 
round  the  capstan  and  make  it  revolve  by 
pressing  the  ends  of  the  levers  forward. 

The  tread-mill  is  another  variety.  In  this 
case  the  weight  of  several  people  treading 
on  the  circumference  of  a  long  wheel  causes 
it  to  revolve.  The  paddle-wheel  of  a  steam- 
boat acts  on  the  same  principle  ;  the  water, 
which  offers  a  resistance  to  the  motion  of 
the  paddle- boards,  is  the  power. 


Wheels  and  axles  are  often  made  to  act 
upon  one  another  by  the  aid  of  cogs,  as  in 
clocKWork  and  mill  machinery.  In  these 
cases  the  cogs  on  the  periphery  of  the  wheel 
take  the  name  of  teeth,  those  on  the  axh? 
the  name  of  leaves,  and  the  axle  itself  is 
called  a  pinion. 

The  law  of  equilibrium  of  such  machines 
may  be  easily  demonstrated  to  be,  that  the 
power  multiplied  by  the  product  of  the 
number  of  teeth,  in  all  the  wheels,  is  equal 
to  the  weight  multiplied  by  the  product  of 
the  number  of  leaves  in  all  the  pinions. 
A  system  of  wheel  and  pinion  work  is  re- 
presented at  fig. 
12.  It  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  ob- 
serve, that  in  it, 
as  in  all  other  cases, 
the  law  of  virtual 
velocities  holds 
good  —  the  power 
multiplied  by  the 
velocity      of      the 


A  MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


59 


power  is  equal  to  the  weight  multiplied  by 
the  velocity  of  the  Weight 

1m  the  construction  of  such  machinery, 
attention  has  to  be  paid  to  the  form  of  the 
teeth,  so  that  they  may  not  scrape  or  jolt 
upon  one  another.  Several  of  them  should 
be  in  contact  at  once,  to  diminish  the  risk 
of  fracture  and  the  wear. 

If  the  teeth  of  a  wheel  be  in  the  direction 
of  radii  from  its  centre  it  is  called  a  spur- 
wheel. 

If  the  teeth  are  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the 
wheel  it  is  called  a  crown-wheel. 

If  the  teeth  are  oblique  to  the  axis  of  the 
wheel  it  is  called  a  beveled  wheel. 

By  combining  these  different  forms  of 
wheels  suitably  together,  the  resulting  mo- 
tion can  be  transferred  to  any  required  plane. 
Thus,  by  a  pair  of  beveled- wheels  motion 
round  a  vertical  axis  may  be  transferred  to 
a  horizontal  one,  or,  indeed,  one  in  any 
other  direction. 

When  a  pinion  is  made  to  work  on  a 
toothed-bar,  it  constitutes  a  rack.  This 
contrivance  is  under  the  same  law  as  the 
wheel  and  axle. 

GLOVES.  "With  regard  to  the  period  in 
which  the  use  of  gloves  was  tirst  introduced, 
we  have,  perhaps*  no  better  authority 
than  that  of  Xenophon,  who,  in  speaking  of 
the  Persians,  mentions  as  a  proof  of  their 
effeminacy,  that  not  content  with  covering 
their  head  and  feet,  they  also  wore  thick 
gloves  to  guard  their  hands  from  the  effect 
of  cold ;  but  some  ascribe  to  them  a  much 
earlier  origin,  even  as  far  back  as  the  time 
of  Ruth,  as  in  the  4th  chapter  and  7th  verse 
we  read,  that  it  was  the  custom  for  a  man 
to  take  off  his  shoe  and  give  it  to  his  neigh- 
bour, as  a  token  of  redeeming  anything. 
The  word,  they  say,  which  is  translated 
shoe,  is  by  tin;  Chaldean  Paraphrast  ren- 
dered glove.  The  royal  Psalmist  also  uses 
the  same  word  in  the  108th  Psalm,  where  it 
is  likewise  rendered  shoe ;  but  for  the  same 
reason  as  above  it  should  have  been  glove  : 
"I  will  cast  my  shoe  over  Edoni."  Yet 
there  is  good  reason  to  suppose  that  the 
Chaldean  Paraphrast  has  taken  an  unwar- 
rantable liberty  in  his  version  of  the  text. 
Casaubon  also  conjectures  that  gloves 
were  in  use  among  the  Chaldeans,  because, 
in  the  Talmud  Lexicon,  the  meaning 
given  to  the  word  here  mentioned,  is 
"Clothing  of  the  hands."  Varro,  an 
ancient  writer  of  repute,  fully  proves  their 
antiquity  among  the  Romans,  observing 
in  the  2nd  book,  55th  chapter  "De 
Re  Rustica,"  that  olives  gathered  with  the 
naked  hand  are  preferable  to  those 
gathered  with   gloves.    Ilo-ner  represents 


Laertes  working  in  his  garden  with  gloves 
on,  to  secure  his  hands  from  the  thorns. 
A  famous  glutton  is  mentioned  by  Athe- 
naui  as  coming  to  table  with  gloves  on, 
that,  being  thereby  enabled  to  handle  tl.o 
meat  while  hot,  ho  might  devour  more 
than  any  one  else.  But  though  these 
examples  show  that  the  use  of  gloves  was 
not  unknown  to  the  ancients,  yet  we  can- 
not for  a  moment  suppose  that  they  were 
at  all  so  commonly  worn  as  now ;  and  we 
may,  moreover,  infer  that  their  U6e  met 
with  some  opposition  even  a  century  after 
the  establishment  of  Christianity ;  for 
Mu8onius,  the  philosopher,  in  attacking  the 
corruption  of  the  age,  says  that  it  is  a  shame 
for  persons  in  health  to  clothe  their  hands 
and  feet  in  soft  and  hairy  coverings.  We 
may,  however,  conclude  that  their  conve- 
nience soon  rendered  their  use  pretty  general, 
for  Pliny  tbe  younger,  in  his  account  of  his 
uncle's  journey  to  Vesu\ius,  states  that  his 
secretary,  who  sat  by  him  ready  to  write 
down  whatever  occurred  remarkable,  had 
gloves  on  his  hands,  that  the  coldness  of  the 
weather  might  not  impede  his  employment. 
We  then  find  them  gradually  become  more 
common ;  and  in  the  ninth  century  their 
use  was  so  universal,  that  the  Church  thought 
it  necessary  to  make  some  regulations  with 
regard  to  that  part  of  dress. 

LOTTERIES.  The  first  lottery  in  England 
was  drawn  in  the  year  1569.  It  consisted 
of  40,000  lots,  at  10*.  a  lot ;  the  prizes  were 
plate,  and  the  profits  were  to  go  towards  re- 
pairing the  havens  of  the  kingdom.  It  wa3 
drawn  at  the  west  door  of  St.  Paul's  cathe- 
dral. The  drawing  began  on  the  llth  of 
January,  and  continued  night  and  day  till 
the  6th  of  May  following. 

ASP.  A  small  kind  of  poisonous  serpent 
found  in  Africa,  whose  venom  is  said  to 
be  fatal ;  celebrated  in  history  as  the  means 
taken  by  Cleopatra  to  commit  suicide. 

ASPECT.  An  astronomical  term  denoting 
the  situations  of  the  heavenly  bodies  with 
regard  to  each  other. 

AUSPICES.  Among  the  Romans  a  mode 
by  which  the  Augurs  sought  to  ascertain 
future  events,  principally  by  the  inspection 
of  tbe  entrails  of  animals  slain  for  sacrifice. 

AVE  MARIA.  The  name  given  to  the 
angel  Gabriel's  salutation  to  the  Virgin 
Mary  at  the  incarnation  of  Jesus  :  the  chap- 
lets  and  rosaries  of  the  Romish  church  are 
divided  into  ave-marias  and  pater-no 

ATIIANASIAN  CREED.  Ascribed  to 
Athanasius,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  and  also 
to  Hilary,  bishop  of  Aries.  It  was  used  in 
France  about  the  year  850,  and  first  sung  in 
our  churches  about  950., 


60 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


ACRE.  A  port-town  of  Syria,  famous  for 
Several  destructive  sieges. 

ACRE.  Four  square  roods,  or  160  square 
poles,  of  5h  yards,  or  4,840  square  yards,  i.  e. 
69.6  yards  by  69.6  yards.  The  French  acre 
is  to  the  English,  as  54  to  43  ;  and  the  Irish 
acre  is  U  English. 

MISTLETOE  is  a  parasitic  plant,  found 
wild  in  England,  very  rarely  in  Scotland, 
and  nowhere  in  Ireland';  and  is  a  production 
of  great  interest  to  the  phytologist.  The 
seeds  in  germination  offer  an  exception  to  a 
general  law,  that  the  radicle  of  the  embryo 
shoots  downwards,  and  the  plumula  up- 
wards. Thus,  if  a  cannon-ball,  to  which 
mistletoe-seeds  are  glued  on  all  sides,  be 
suspended  by  a  cord  some  distance  from  the 
earth,  both  the  upper  and  under  seeds,  as 
well  as  those  at  the  sides,  all  direct  their 
radicle  to  the  surface  of  the  ball.  This 
property  ensures  their  growing  upon  the 
branches  of  trees,  to. whatever  side  they 
happen  to  stick. 

The  fruit,  which  is  covered  with  a  viscid 
pulp,  is  made  by  the  Italians,  and  even  in 
Herefordshire,  into  a  kind  of  birdlime ;  and, 
as  it  is  a  favourite  food  of  the  large  or  missel 
thrush,  it  is  thought  to  have  given  rise  to 
the  proverb,  "  Tardus  malm  sibi  cacat" 
applied  to  such  as  are  authors  of  their  own 
misfortunes.  Mistletoe  grows  luxuriantly 
upon  the  apple  or  pear  tribe  of  trees,  and 
the  oak ;  and  Mr.  Jessie  describes  it  as 
flourishing  upon  some  lime-trees  in  Datchet 
Mead,  just  as  Shakspeare  described  it  in  his 
day. 

The  mystic  uses  of  the  misletoe  are  traced 
to  the  pagan  ages;  it  has  been  identified 
with  the  golden  branch  referred  to  by 
Virgil,  in  infcrnis ;  and  it  is  affirmed  to 
have  been  used  in  the  religious  ceremonies 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

The  Druids  and  Celtic  nations  called  it 
all-henl  and  guidhel.  They  had  an  ex- 
traordinary veneration  for  the  number 
three,  says  Vallancey,  and  they  chose  the 
mistletoe,  because  not  only  its  berries,  but 
its  leaves  also,  grow  in  clustei-s  of  three 
united  to  one  stalk  ;  but  the  leaves  grow  in 
pairs  only.  The  Druids  celebrated  a  grand 
festival  on  the  annual  cutting  of  the  mistle- 
toe, which  was  held  on*  the  sixth  day  of  the 
moon  nearest  their  new  year.  Many  cere- 
monies were  observed  :  the  officiating  Druid 
being  clad  in  white,  cut  the  plant  with  a 
golden  sickle,  and  received  it  in  a  white 
cloth. 

Kissing  a  fair  one  under  the  mistletoe, 
and  wishing  her  a  happy  new  year  as  you 

!»resenl  her  with  one  of  the  berries  for  luck, 
s  the  Christmas  custom  of  our  times ;  and 


in  some  places  persons  try  lots,  for  the  bough 
with  most  berries,  by  the  crackling  of  leaves 
and  berries  in  the  fire. 

But  at  what  period  came  mistletoe  to  be 
recognised  as  a  Christmas  evergreen  ?  "We 
have  Christmas  carols  in  praise  of  holly  and 
ivy  of  even  earlier  date  than  the  fifteenth 
century;  but  allusion  to  mistletoe  can 
scarcely  be  found  for  two  centuries  later, 
or  before  the  time  of  Herrick : 

"Down  with  the  rosemary,  and  so, 
Down  with  the  bates  and  mistletoe; 

Down  with  the  holly,  ivie,  ;ill, 

Wherewith  ye  dressed  the  Christmas  hall." 
Shakspeare  describes  : 
"The  trees,   though    summer,   yet  forlorn  and 

lean, 
O'ereome  with  moss  and  baleful  mistletoe." 

Tusser  directs : 

"Get  ivye  and  hull    (holly),   woman,    deck  up 
thine  house  j" 

And  thus  refers  to  the  plant  : 

"Ifsnowe  do  continue,  shcepe  hardly  that  faro 

•  Crave  mistle  and  ivie  for  them  for  to  spare." 

The  seeds  of  mistletoe  ripen  late,  between 
February  and  April,  and  birds  do  not  will- 
ingly feed  upon  them  as  long  as  they  can 
procure  the  berries  of  hawthorn,  hollies, 
ivy,  and  other  winter  food.  No  sooner, 
however,  does  a  late  frost  set  in,  and  the 
ground  become  covered  with  snow  in  the 
spring,  as  is  often  the  case,  than  birds  flock 
to  the  mistletoe,  and  find  a  ready  resource 
thus  left  them  when  all  others  have  failed. 
If  the  ripe  berries  are  rubbed  upon  the 
branches  of  trees,  between  February  and 
April,  they  may  be  readily  cultivated ;  and 
mistletoe  has  thus  been  found  to  germinate 
on  the  oak,  several  of  the  pine  tribe,  cherry, 
common  laurel,  Portugal  laurel,  holly, 
lime,- elm,  hornbeam,  birch,  sycamore,  ash, 
chesnut,  hazel,  and  acacia,  as  well  as  the 
apple,  pear,  and  whitethorn  tribe ;  but  on 
all,  except  the  apple  and  pear,  the  seeds 
soon  sicken  and  die. 

ANTEDILUVIAN.  A  term  applied  to 
any  animal  or  thing  which  existed  in  the 
world  previous  to  the  deluge. 
-  COOKING  IN  A  HOUSE  (TO  REMOVE 
THE  SMELL  OF).  Smell  may  be  avoided 
by  making  in  the  tunnel  of  the  chimney  a 
little  door  on  a  level  with  the  ceiling  of  the 
kitchen,  through  which  the  smell  will  es- 
cape. If  the  top  of  the  door  is  lower  than 
the  ceiling,  it  should  be  connected  with  an 
iron  tube  running  up  to  the  same  height  in 
the  chimney,  by  which  means  it  will  be 
secure  from  the  effect  of  sudden  changes  of 
weather,  &c. ;  or  a  distinct  tunnel  may  be 
built  up  for  the  same  purpose. 


A  MTSCELLA.NT   OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


61 


SCRUBBING  FLOORS.  Afterthe  white- 

washing.  paint-cleaning,  and  window- wash- 
ing of  each,  room  has  been  completed,  let 
the  floor  be  scrubbed  ;  first  seeing  that  it 
has  been  well  swept.  For  this  purpose  have 
a  small  tub  or  bucket  of  warm  water;  an 
old  saucer  to  hold  a  piece  of  brown  soap,  a 
iarge  thick  tow-linen  floor-cloth,  and  a  long- 
handled  scrubbing  brush.  Dip  the  whole 
of  the  floor-cloth  into  the  water,  and  with 
it  wet  a  portion  of  the  floor.  Next,  rub 
some  soap  on  the  bristles  of  the  brush,  and 
scrub  hard  all  over  the  wet  place.  Then  dip 
your  cloth  into  the  water,  and  with  it  wash 
tht'  suds  off  the  floor.  Wring  the  clojh, 
wet  it  again,  and  wipe  the  floor  with  it  a 
second  time.  Lastly,  wash  the  cloth  about 
in  the  water,  wring  it  as  dry  as  possible,  and 
give  the  floor  a  last  and  hard  wiping  with 
it.  Afterwards  go  on  to  the  next  part  of 
the  floor,  wet  it,  scrub  it,  wipe  it  three 
times,  and  proceed  in  the  same  manner,  a 
piece  at  a  time,  till  you  have  gone  over  the 
whole ;  change  the  dirty  water  for  clean, 
whenever  you  find  it  necessary.  For  a  large 
room,  fresh  warm  water  will  be  required 
four  or  five  times  in  the  course  of  the  scrub- 
bing. When  the  floor  has  been  scrubbed, 
leave  the  sashes  raised  while  it  is  drying. 
For  scouring  common  floors  that  are  very 
dirty,  have  by  you  an  old  tin  pan  with  some 
grey  sand  in  it;  and  after  soaping  the  brush, 
rub  on  it  some  sand  also. 

RESPIRATION.  The  lungs,  the  organs 
of  respiration,  may  be  described  as  fleshy 
sponges.  In  human  beings  there  are  two ; 
one  on  each  side  the  heart,  fitted  within  the 
chest,  and  reaching  from  top  to  bottom  of 
the  ribs.  These  sponges  are  full  of  little 
holes  or  cells ;  the  number  of  them  is  cal- 
culated at  174  millions,  and  each  one  of 
these  takes  in  air  as  it  comes  down  the  throat 
or  windpipe.  This  large  number  is  required 
for  the  air  to  act  upon.  A  man  inspires 
from  one  to  two  pints  each  time  he  breathes. 
The  air  enters  into  all  the  cells  of  the  lungs, 
where  one  part  of  it  is  absorbed  or  taken  up 
by  the  blood  as  it  rushes  through,  and  the 
remainder  is  breathed  out  again,  mingled 
with  carbonic  acid  gas  and  vapour.  A  man 
breathes  from  fifteen  to  twenty  times  in  a 
minute.  Thus,  about  1,000  "pints  of  air 
enter  the  lungs  every  hour,  or  3,000  gallons 
every  twenty-four  hours. 

DEAF  (AXIOMS  FOR  THE).  1.  Never 
syringe  your  ears,  nor  allow  it  to  be  done  by 
others,  unless  for  the  removal  of  an  accu- 
mulation of  wax.  2.  Be  sure  that  such 
accumulation  forms  an  obstacle  to  the  trans- 
mission of  sound,  otherwise  it  had  better 
remain  where  it  is ;  for  it  should  always  be 


borne  in  mind  that  the  wm  is  a  natural 
secretion,  placed  in  the  passage  of  the  1  ar 
for  a  specific  purpose.  Its  presence,  in 
moderate  quantity,  indicates  a  healthy  con- 
dition of  the  outer  passages  of  the  ear.  Its 
absence  is  the  effect,  and  not,  as  is  generally- 
supposed,  the  cause  of  the  disease  which, 
produces  the  deafness.  Like  deafness,  the 
want  of  wax  is  only  a  symptom  of  ear 
disease ;  hence  the  absurdity  of  attempting 
its  restoration  by  stimulating  drops  and 
ointments.  3.  Never  pick  the  ears.  4. 
Never  wet  the  hair,  nor  wash  the  hair  with 
cold  water — a  most  pernicious  practice. 
5.  Never  bathe,  or  use  a  shower-bath, 
without  carefully  protecting  the  head  and 
ears;  even  then  I  question  its  propriety. 
6  Never  attempt  to  stop  a  discharge  from 
the  ears,  but  under  proper  advice ;  ior  it 
may  be  that  the  drum  of  your  ear  is  open, 
and  then  the  employment  of  a  stimulating 
or  astringent  injection  will  risk  some  fatal 
consequence.  7-  Never  apply,  nor  sutler  to 
be  applied,  anything  to  the  outer  passages  of 
the  ears,  which  causes  heat  or  pain.  Such 
applications  may  prove  of  temporary  benefit, 
but  when  the  stimulus  has  subsided  you 
will  be  left  worse  than  before.  8.  Be  strict 
in  diet.  Stomachic  derangements  are  a 
most  prolific  cause  of  deafness.  9.  Never 
expose  yourself  to  wet  or  wintry  weather. 
10.  Never  consult  an  aurist,  who  is  not  an 
educated  and  diplomatised  surgeon,  and  who 
does  not  admit  that  deafness  is  an  infirmity, 
often  difficult  of  removal,  and,  very  often, 
incurable. 

WINDLASS.  A  common  mechanical 
power,  by  which  weights  are  raised,  and 
water  generally  drawn  out  of  a  well.  As 
power  is  as  velocity,  and  as  the  hand  at  the 


winch  makes  a  larger  circle  than  the  cy- 
linder round  which  the  rope  coils,  so  the 
power  is  proportionally  increased.  Thus, 
if  the  hand  performs  a  circle  of  six  feet, 
while  the  cylinder  performs  but  one  foot,  so 
the  power  of  the  hand,  friction  excepted, 
is  increased  six  times. 


62 


FACTS  FOE   EVEHYBODY: 


TUSCAN.    The  simplest  order  of  archi- 
tecture, like  the  Doric,  but  stronger. 


y 


3 


WATER -WHEEL  (OVERSHOT).  A 
Tarietyof  water-wheel,  by  which  water  fall- 
ing- on  its  upper  periphery,  carries  it  round, 
not  only  by  its  force,  but  by  its  accumulated 
weight ;  for,  it  is  so  constructed  as  to  catch 


and  hold  the  water  in  descending,  part  with 
it  at  the  bottom,  and  ascend  on  the  other 
side  empty,  and  it  is  a  very  convenient  and 
powerful  structure  when  the  nature  of  the 
ground  permits. 

SOUTH-SEA  BUBBLE.  This  term  is 
applied  to  a  company  instituted  in  1710,  and 
incorporated  in  1716.  Under  cover  of  its 
legality,  enormous  frauds  were  carried  on. 
Thousands  of  persons  were  ruined  by  it. 
The  cunning  of  fhe  directors  had  raised 
shares  originally  valued  at  £100,  to  the 
enormous  price  of  £1000.  The  scheme  ex- 
ploded in  1720 ;  when  the  directors'  estates, 
to  the  value  of  £2,014,000  were  seized.  Mr. 
Knight,  thecashier,  absconded  with  £100,000, 
but  he  compounded  the  fraud  for  £10,000, 
and  returned  to  England  in  1743.  Such  was 
the  mania  at  the  time,  that  a  great  many 
•wealthy  persons  in  the  kingdom  became 
stock-jobbers  and  speculators  in  this  ruinous 
scheme. 


CARDINAL.  The  highest  order  in  the 
Romish  Church,  from  which  the  Pope  is 
elected.  He  wears  a  red  hat,  of  the  form 
represented  in  the  engraving. 


.CARDINAL  POINTS.  Konfa,  southeast 
and  west;  subdivided  into  intermediate 
parts,  as  N.E.  north  east ;  N.  W.  north  west, 
&c. ;  to  the  number  of  thirty-two  points  of 
the  compass,  each  \\\  degrees. 


CLEANING  CHINA  AND  EARTHEN- 
WARE. They  should  be  washed  in  plenty 
of  soap  and  warm  water,  rinsed  clean  in  a 
second  bowl  of  water  alone,  either  warm  or 
cold  ;  should  be  then  turned  down  to  drain, 
and  afterwards  wiped  dry  with  linen  tea- 
cloths.  Settlings  of  any  liquid  which  have 
been  suffered  to  dry  up  at  the  bottom  of 
earthen  vessels  may  be  dissolved  by  a  little 
pearl  ash  and  water,  or  with  soda  instead  of 
pearlash. 

CORNS  (CURES FOR).  1.  Place  the  feet 
for  half  an  hour,  two  or  three  nights  succes- 
sively, into  a  pretty  strong  solution  of 
common  soda.  The  alkali  dissolves  the  in- 
durated cuticle,  and  the  corn  comes  away ; 
leaving  a  little  cavity,  which,  however, 
soon  fills  up.  2.  Soak  ivy-leaves  in  vinegar 
during  the  space  of  fifteen  days;  then  place 
a  leaf,  or  part  of  one,  over  the  corn  ;  renew 
it  every  morning,  and  scrape  off,  with 
pumice-stone  dipped  in  vinegar  each  time, 
the  portion  of  hard  skin  which  is  detached. 
The  vinegar  acts  by  stimulating  the  ab- 
sorbents; and  the  friction  hastens  their 
action.  The  pumice-stone  and  vinegar  will 
equally  answer  the  purpose  if  used  every 
morning. 


A   MISCELLANY   OF   USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


63 


JANUARY.  This  month  received  the 
name  of  January  from  the  ancient  Romans. 
It  was  adopted* and  retained  by  the  early 
Christians,  and  has  ever  sinco  been  com- 
puted as  the  first  month  of  the  year  in  all 
the  calendars  and  almanacks  of  Christ- 
endom. It  was  not  originally  in  the  calen- 
dar of  Romulus,  but  introduced  into  it  by 
Numa  Tom pilius,  in  the  place  which  had 
been  -previously  assigned  to  March.  It  was 
60  called  from  a  double-faced  deity,  called 
Jajuub,  who    was    presumed  to  look  both 


into  the  old  and  new  year,  and  in  this 
month  a  great  festival  was  held  in  his 
honour.  At  this  period  the  Romans  laid 
aside  all  old  grudges.  Clients  and  freedmen 
sent  presents  to  their  patrons,  slaves  to  their 
masters,  and  friends  and  acquaintances  to 
each  other;  whence  the  custom  of  New 
Year's  Gifts,  still  retained  among  us,  waa 
originally  derived. 

Among  our  Saxon  ancestors  the  month  of 
January  was  called  Giulu  aftera,  which 
Signified  the  second  Goul,  Grid,  or  Yule; 
or  as  we  should  say,  the  Second  Christmas, 
on  account  of  the  month  commencing  du- 
ring the  joyous  season  of  Christmas  festivity, 
"which,  as  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  good- 
naturedly  observed,  could  not  have  been 
contrived  to  take  place  at  a  happier  period. 

Nkw  Year's  Day.  In  most  parts  of 
America  JYetc-  Year's  Day,  like  New-Year's 
Bre,  is  celebrated  with  great  festivity ; 
while  social  enjoyment  and  friendly  con- 
gratulations appear  to  be  the  order  of  the 
day.  In  England,  the  Wassail  Bowl  is 
carried  from  door  to  door,  in  the  manner  of 
our  Saxon  ancestors,  with  singing  and 
merriment.  According  to  Brand,  who 
quotes  Thomas  de  la  Moore  and  old  Havillan, 
the  terms  icas-haile  and  drinc-heil  were 
the  usual  phrases  of  quaffing  among  the  early 
English,  and  synonymous  with  the  toast — 
"Come,  here's  to  you,"  "I'll  pledgeyou,"  etc. 


The  most  perfect  fragment  of  the  "was- 
sail" exists  in  the  usage  of  certain  domestic 
banquets  and  corporation  festivals.  The 
person  presiding  stands  up  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  dinner,  and  drinks  from  a  flagon, 
usually  of  silver,  with  a  handle  on  each 
side,  by  which  he  holds  it ;  and  the  toast- 
maker  announces  him  as  drinking  "  the 
health  of  his  brethren  out  of  the  "  loving 
cup."  This  cup,  which  is  the  ancient 
wassail  bowl,  is  then  passed  to  the  guest  on 
his  left  hand,  and  by  him  to  his  next  left- 
hand  neighbour;  and  as  the  loving  cup 
thus  passes  round  to  all  the  guests  in  their 
turn,  so  each  stands  up  and  drinks  to  the 
president.  The  ceremony  was  formerly 
accompanied  with  a  wassail  song — 

"Here's  to ,  let  sadness  disappear, 

God  send  our  master  a  happy  new  year — 

A  happy  new  year,  as  e'er  he  did  see — 

With  my  wassailing  bowl  1  drink  to  thee,"  etc. 

Twelfth  Day,  or  Epiphany,  which  falls 
on  the  6th  January,  or  the  twelfth  from 
Christmas-day,  is  usually  kept  up  with 
great  spirit  in  family  parties,  as  it  is  usually 
presumed  that  with  this  night  the  general 
Christmas  festivities  are  terminated. 

The  "Twelfth  Night,"  is  the  time  when  the 
ancient  amusement  of  "  choosing  king  and 
queen,"  and  other  pleasantries  are  practised. 

"  The  bean  found  out,  and  monarch  crown'd, 
He  dubs  a  tool  and  sends  him  round 
To  raise  the  frolic  when  its  low — 
Himself  commands  the  wine  to  flow; 
Each  watches  for  the  king  to  quail'. 
When  all  at  once,  upsprinurs  the  laujrh  ; 
They  cry,  'the  king  i  rinks!'  and  away 
They  shout  a  long  and  loud  huzza  !" 

Of  the  distinguished  individuals  bom  in 
the  month  of  January,  we  subjoin  tho 
following: — 

Joan  of  Arc,  commonly  called  "the 
Maid  of  Orleans,"  was 'born  of  humble 
parents  at  Domremi,  a  village  on  the  borders 
of  Loraine,  in  1402;  but  by  her  extra- 
ordinary talents  and  enthusiastic  courage 
she  was*  enabled  to  take  the  command  of  the 
French  forces,  and  repeatedly  defeated  the 
English  armies,  which  had  previously  been 
considered  as  invincible.  After  repeated 
victories  she  was  at  length  taken  prisoner 
in  a  sally,  and  cruelly  burnt  alive  by  the 
English,'  on  the  charge  of  sorcery,  in  the 
twenty-ninth  year  of  her  age. 

Charles  I.  of  England  is  generally 
styled  "the  Martyr,"  from  the  melancholy 
end  of  his  political  career.  He  was  the 
second  son  of  James  VI.  of  Scotland  and  I. 
of  England,  by  Anne,  daughter  of  the  King 
of  Denmark.  On  the  death  of  his  father, 
in  1612,  he  ascended  the  British  throne; 


64 


TACTS   FOE  EVERYBODY: 


but  his  reign  was  a  series  of  contests  with, 
the  Parliament  of  England,  until  at  length 
his  regal  authority  was  entirely  overthrown, 
when  he  was  condemned  to  death,  and 
executed  at  Whitehall,  on  the  30th  of  Ja- 
nuary, 1649. 

Copernicus  was  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated mathematicians  and  astronomers  of 
the  age  in  which  he  lived.  He  was  born 
at  Thorn,  in  Prussia,  in  1473,  and  died  in 
1543.  His  greatest  work  was  a  Latin 
treatise  "On  the  Revolutions  of  the  Celes- 
tial Orbs,"  in  which,  though  strongly  op- 
posed to  the  prejudices  of  the  age,  he  repre- 
sented the  sun  as  occupying  a  centre,  round 
which  the  earth  and  the  other  planets 
revolve. 

PAl'tiR.  Nowhere  is  paper  so  much  used 
as  in  the  United  States.  In  France,  with 
35,000,000  of  inhabitant*,  only  70.000  tons  are 
produced  yearly,  of  which  one  .seventh  is  for 
exportation.  In  England,  with  28,000.000  of 
inhabitants,  66,000  tons  are  produced.  In 
America,  the  amount  is  nearly  as  great  as  in 
France  and  England  together. 

SINGULAR  COINCIDENCE.  The  win- 
ters of  1837-8,  1847-8  and  1857-8  were  re- 
markably mild  in  their  temperatures. 

RHUBARB.  A  valuable  medicinal  root, 
growing  in  China,  Turkey,  and  Russian 
Tartary,  of  which  that  from  Turkey  is  the 
most  esteemed.  Rhubarb  is  also  cultivated 
in  English  gardens,  and  makes  delicious 
spring  tarts. 


2m-  ~ 


SATURN.  A  planet,  900,000  millions  of 
miles  from  the  sun,  79,000  miles  in  diameter, 
and  period  30  years,  or  10,746  days.  Saturn 
has  seven  moons,  and  is  also  surrounded  by 


a  double  ring,  205.000  miles  in  diameter, 
visible  with  moderate  telescopes,  and  very 
beautiful.  Saturn  used  to  be  considered  as 
the  outermost  planet,  but  the  Herschel  has 
since  been  discovered  at  double  the  dis- 
tance ;  and,  considering  the  middle  distance 


of  the  sun  to  the  nearest  fixed  star,  as  fifteen 
millions  of  millions  of  miles,  there  are,  pro- 
bably, hundreds  of  planets  tindiscovered ; 
for  Herschel  is  not  2,000  millions  of  miles 
distant,  so  that  the  space  beyond  Herschel 
to  the  middle  distance  is  80  times  as  great 
as  the  distance  of  Herschel  from  the  Sun. 

Saturn,  in  heathen  mythology,  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Titans,  and  father  of 
Jupiter,  Neptune,  Pluto,  Juno,  and  Ceres. 
The  rein  of  Saturn  was  called  the  golden 
age — because  the  age  of  agriculture ;  but  it 
was  followed  by  arts,  refinement,  ambition, 
wars,  money,  commerce,  &c. 

PUMP.  An  important  machine  for  ex- 
tracting the  air  from  a  pipe  placed  in  water, 
which,  by  pres- 
sure of  the  air, 
rises  33  feet  in 
the  vacuum.  The 
same  principle  is 
applied  to  extract 
air  from  a  close 
glass  vessel,  and 
it  is  then  called 
an  air  -  pump ;  a 
is  a  solid  fitting 
piece  drawn  up 
from  b,  and  leav- 
ing a  vacuum 
=^»  from  b  to  #,  owing 
to  which  the  air 
presses  the  water  through  the  rising  valve  b, 
and  the  water  rushing  into  the  vacuum 
escapes  at  an  orifice  ;  a  is  then  pushed  down 
again  Avhen  b  closes,  and  on  being  raised 
again  makes  a  new  vacuum. 

PUNCTUATION.  Thediscriminatinguse 
of  certain  marks  adopted  to  distinguish  the 
clauses  of  a  period,  sometimes  with  reference 
to  the  sense,  and  at  others  to  the  gram- 
matical construction.  Thus,  a  full  point  ( .  ) 
closes  a  perfect  sentence;  a  colon  (  : )  indi- 
cates an  adjunct;  a  semicolon  (;)  distin- 
guishes its  principal  part,  and  a  comma  ( , ) 


A  MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


65 


parts  subordinate  to  the  semicolon.  A  sen- 
tence, which  may  include  several  periods, 
terminates  a  branch  of  the  subject  or  argu- 
ment. A  dash  ( — )  within  a  period,  calls 
for  attention  to  what  follows,  and  a  series 
of  dashes  indicates  the  energetic  feeling  of 
the  writer.  A  question  is  indicated  by  (?)  ; 
an  exclamation  by  (!) ;  and  it  is  sometimes 
convenient  to  include  a  collateral  circum- 
stance in  a  parenthesis  (  ). 

ALLSPICE,  OR  PIMENTO  TREE.  A 
native  of  Mexico  and  the  West  Indies.  The 
flavour  and  fruit  have  an  highly  aromatic 
fragrance,  and  the  tree  is  about  30  feet  in 
height,  and  two  in  circumference. 


SABBATH.  The  seventh  day,  or  Satur- 
day, kept  by  the  Jews  as  a  day  of  rest,  in 
conformity  to  the  fourth  commandment  of 
God,  commencing  on  Friday  at  sunset,  and 
ending  on  Saturday  at  sunset.  Christians, 
in  genera1 ,  disregard  the  Sabbath  of  the 
seventh  day,  and  keep  Sunday,  or  the  first 
day  of  the  week,  as  a  festival,  "in  most  coun- 
tries, because  Christ  rose  on  that  day,  and 
in  continuance  of  the  practice  of  the  early 
Christian  Church.  A  sabbath,  or  weekly 
day  of  rest,  is  an  institution,  on  whichever 
day  it  is  kept,  highly  conducive  to  the  hap- 
piness and  comfort  of  mankind,  and  ought 
by  all  g-nod  men  to  be  re-pected. 

GUMS  AND  LOOSE  TEETH  (TO 
STRENGTHEN  AND  FASTEN).  Dissolve 
an  ounce  of  myrrh  as  much  as  possible  in  a 
pint  of  port  wine,  and  the  same  quantity  of 
oil  of  almonds ;  wash  the  mouth  with  this 
fluid  every  morning.  This  is  an  excellent 
remedy  against  worms  in  the  teeth. 


BAGPIPE.  A  musical  instrument,  con- 
sisting of  a  leathern  bag,  and  pipes  for  ad- 
mitting and  ejecting  the, air.  It  is  an  in- 
strument of  great  force,  not  pleasing  to 
those  who  are  unused  to  it,  but  much  esteemed 


by  the  Scots  and  Irish.  The  bass  part  never 
varies  its  tone,  and,  therefore,  is  called  the 
drone,  and  the  compass  of  the  treble  part,  or 
chanter,  is  very  limited. 

BEANS.  This  engraving  is  introduced  to 
show  the  seed  of  vegetables.  The  left  hand 
figure  is  the  seed  whole,  and  the  right  hand 
is  a  section  displaying  the  germ  of  the  future 
plant  within  the  seed.  The  substance  of 
the  seed  is  its  first  means  of  nutriment,  till* 
it  burst  through  the  skin  or  arillus,  and 
finds  nourishment  in  the  soil  and  air.  The 
black  spot,  or  hilum,  on  a  bean,  is  merely 


the  part  by  which  it  was  attached  to  the 
pericardium  or  pod.  The  germ  is  called 
corculum,  or  heart ;  the  side  lobes  are  the 
cotyledons,  or  first  leaves.  When  the  seed 
has  a  downy  appendage  it  is  called  the  co~ 
ronula 

CHILBLAINS  consist  of  a  peculiar  in- 
flammation of  the  skin  of  parts  exposed  to 
sudden  alternations  of  temperature.  They 
occur  on  the  nose,  ears,  hands,  but  most  fre- 
quently on  the  feet.  The  reason  wh)  they 
occur  more  frequently  on  the  hands  and  feet 
is,  because  persons  are  apt,  directly  they 
come  in  from  the  frosty  air,  to  warm  those 
parts  at  the  fire.  The  face  does  no!  get 
warmed  in  the  same  manner,  or  its  skin 
would  be  equally  liable  to  chilblains. 


66 


FACTS  "FOR  EVERYBODY: 


In  this  inflammation,  which  constitutes 
chilblains,  the  sides  of  the  small  blood- 
vessels become  paralyzed,  and  losing  their 
contractility,  are  dilated  by  the  pressure  of 
the  blood  within  them.  It*  the  inflamma- 
tion be  not  abated,  that  is  to  say,  if  the 
little  blood-vessels  are  not  restored  "to  their 
original  size,  and  to  their  natural  contrac- 
tility, they  burst,  and  matter  will  be  formed, 
or  mortification  may  ensue.  This  contrac- 
tility depends  upon  proper  nervous  action 
in  those  small  fibres  which  give  life  to  the 
sides  of  the  hair-like  vessels,  or  small  blood 
pipes.  Any  sudden  shock  of  cold  or  heat 
deprive*,  these  nerves  of  their  power,  and 
induces  a  local  paralysis.  The  change  from 
cold  to  heat  oftener  produces  this  shock  than 
that  from  heat  to  cold  ;  but  either  sudden 
alternation  will  produce  chilblain.  It  need 
hardly  be  said  that  the  nerves  of  persons  in 
low  states  of  health,  persons  of  scrofulous 
habits,  and  young  persons  in  whom  the  tis- 
sues are  delicate,  are  more  liable  to  be  lo- 
cally paralyzed,  in  the  manner  described, 
than  those  persons  of  robust  constitution 
having  a  large  quantity  of  vitality  to  resist 
such  attacks.  Hence  we  find  such  invalids, 
scrofulous  persons,  and  children,  more  liable 
to  chilblains  than  others.  The  liability  to 
chilblain  is  often  an  indication  of  a  low 
state  of  health,  and  want  of  healthy  vital 
action  in  the  system. 

"When  the  nature  of  chilblain  is  under- 
stood, the  mode  of  prevention  will  be  at 
once  perceived,  viz, — 1st,  .0  protect  the 
parts  most  liable  to  the  attack  (hands  and 
feet)  from  sudden  alternations,  either  from 
cold  to  heat,  or  from  heat  to  cold.  2udly. 
To  keep  the  constitution  in  such  a  healthy 
state  as  to  make  all  parts  possess  such  vi- 
tality as  to  be  able  to  resist  slight  alterna- 
tions in  temperature. 

1.  Protection  of  the  Parts.  Those 
substances  which  are  good  non-conductors 
of  heat  are  the  best  coverings.  Woollen 
stockings  or  socks,  and  warm  boots  and 
shoes,  come  under  this  category.  Light 
shoes  and  stockings  should  be  worn  in  the 
house,  or  the  feet  will  become  so  accustomed 
to  a  high  temperature  that  they  will  be 
more  sensitive  to  cold.  Warm  leather 
gloves,  being  impervious  to  wind,  are  better 
for  the  hands  than  woollen  ones,  through 
which  the  dry  frosty  air  is  apt  to  pierce  and 
chap  the  hands.  Tight  wristbands,  tight 
garters,  and  boots  which  lace  or  button 
tightly  about  the  ankles,  must  be  avoided, 
because,  by  preventing  the  proper  circula- 
tion of  the  blood  in  the  hands  or  feet,  they 
diminish  the  vitality  of  the  part,  and  pro- 
duce an  unnatural  pressure  on  the  coats  or 


walls  of  the  small  blood-vessels.  The  most 
frequent  cause  of  chilblain  is  the  warming 
of  numbed  hands  or  feet  at  the  fire.  This 
habit  must,  of  course,  be  relinquished  en- 
tirely.  Gutta-percha  soles,  by  preventing 
the  wearers  from  warming  their  feet  at  the 
fire,  have  saved  hundreds  from  the  attacks 
of  chilblains ;  but  such  soles  should  not  be 
worn  in  the  house.  After  walking  in  the 
snow,  or  in  frosty  weather,  the  coverings  of 
the  hands  and  feet  should  be  removed.  Dry 
stockings  should  be  put  on  after  gently  rub- 
bing the  feet  with  the  pair  which  has  been 
taken  off.  The  fresh  pair  must  not  be 
warmed.  It  is  well  to  wear  woollen  stock- 
ings when  out,  and  cotton  stockings  when 
in-doors.  The  use  of  excessively  hot  water 
when  the  feet  are  cold,  has  produced  morti- 
fication ;  but  the  frequent  washing  of  the 
feet  in  tepid  water  and  soap,  restores  the 
powers  of  the  nerves  in  the  parts,  and  ren- 
ders them  less  likely  to  be  affected  by  those 
alternations  of  temperature  to  which  they 
are  liable  to  be  exposed. 

2.  Constitutional  Means  of  Pre- 
vention. Persons  in  robust  health  are 
less  liable  to  take  infection,  suffer  less 
from  injuries,  and  when  wounded,  are  pos- 
sessed of  greater  powers  of  nature  for  repa- 
ration than  partial  or  confirmed'  invalids* 
The  cold  of  winter  ought  to  stimulate  us 
to  exertion ;  and  exercise  is  especially  ne- 
cessary to  health  in  winter.  Too  warm 
clothing  of  the  body  enervates  and  debili- 
tates; only  sufficient  clothing,  therefore, 
should  be  worn.  Eooms  in  winter  are  often 
made  hotter  than  the  air  of  summer  ;  this, 
and  bad  ventilation,  is  another  blow  to 
constitutional  strength.  Enough,  however, 
has  been  said  on  this  subject  to  indicate 
the  necessity  of  general  attention  to  the 
health  in  persons  who  are  excessively  liable 
to  chilblains. 

3.  Treatment.  When  the  inflammation 
called  chilblain  has  attacked  any  part,  it 
should  be  considered  whether  it  is  a  mere 
local  affection,  or  whether  it  shows  a  consti- 
tutional state,  which  renders  the  hands  or 
feet,  or  both,  more  liable  to  the  attack  than 
those  parts  ought  to  be.  If  hands  and  feet 
are  both  attacked  in  several  spots  at  the 
same  time,  and  this  without  any  very  evi- 
dent cause,  constitutional  treatment  is 
pointed  out,  in  addition  to  the  use  of  reme- 
dial agents  locally  ;  where,  however,  there 
is  only  a  single  spot  on  the  hands  or  feet, 
and  a  cause  (such  as  warming  the  feet  at 
the  fire)  is  remembered,  only  local  treatment 
is  necessary.  The  hands  and  feet  enjoy  dif- 
ferent conditions,  however,  and  require 
slightly  different  management.    The  treat- 


A  MISCELLANY  OP  TJSEFT7L   KNOWLEDGE. 


67 


ment,  therefore,  resolves  itself  into  three 
parts: — 

A.  Constitutional. 

B.  Of  the  hioids. 

C.  Of  the  feet. 

(A.)  Constitutional  Treatment  Aperient 
medicines  may  be  used  to  relieva  the  over- 
loaded blood- vessels,  and  lessen  the  pressure 
upon  the  coats  of  the  capillaries,  or  hair- 
like blood  pipes  of  the  parts  affected.  After 
this  has  been  done,  small  doses  of  tartrate 
of  antimony  wine  (which  seems  to  con- 
stringe  the  enlarged  vessels)  may  be  taken 
with  advantage.  This  treatment  (without 
local  means)  acts  as  a  sort  of  charm,  and  re- 
lieves full  crops  of  chilblains  on  hands  and 
feet.  A  drachm  of  the  wine  may  be  added  to 
half  a  pint  of  water,  in  which  a  drachm  of 
saltpetre  has  been  d  ssolved.  Dose  :  for  an 
adult,  one  or  two  table-spoonfuls  every  four 
hours ;  for  a  child,  one  or  two  tea-spoon- 
fuls three  times  a  day.  It  should  not  be 
given  in  such  doses  as  to  produce  vomiting. 
The  head,  neck,  and  chest,  should  be  washed 
in  cold  water  every  morning,  and  brisk  ex- 
ercise taken  at  regular  hours.  Persons  of  a 
scrofulous  habit  should  be  particularly  at- 
tentive to  their  general  health  in  winter. 
The  addition  of  salt  to  the  washing  water  is 
recommended  in  their  cases.  It  is  not  an 
uncommon  practice  for  persons,  after  expo- 
sure to  cold,  to  drink  hot  elder  wine,  or  hot 
negus,  or  warm  spirits  and  water;  all  such 
measures,  having  a  tendency  to  produce 
rapid  and  violent  reaction,  are  likely  to 
render  persons  liable  to  chilblain. 

(B.)  Treatment  of  the  Hands.  Wash  in 
cold  water  every  three  hours,  and  lather 
well  with  Windsor  soap.  When  the  hands 
are  nearly  dried  with  the  towel,  pour  a 
little  eau-de-Cologne,  or  milk  of  roses,  into 
the  palm  of  one  hand,  and  rub  it  over  the 
whole  of  both  ;  lastly,  polish  with  the  towel 
till  every  part  glows'with  warmth,  and  is  so 
completely  dry,  that  the  lint  from  the  towel 
does  not  stick  to  the  skin. 

(C.)  Treatment  of  the  Feet.  All  the  plans 
for  prevention  are  curative.  Chilblain  in 
the  feet  often  assumes  a  more  serious  form 
than  in  the  hands,  and  the  application  of 
cold  water  is  inadmissible,  especially  in  the 
care  of  females.  The  three  degrees  of  chil- 
blains in  the  feet  are  . — 1st.  The  skin  is  red 
in  patches,  and  slightly  swelled,  with  more 
or  lew  itching  or  tingling,  with  slight  ten- 
derness. 2nd.  Small  blisters  appear,  sur- 
rounded by  a  livid  skin.  3rd.  Ulceration 
and  mortification  take  place.  For  the  first 
two  cases,  which  are  most  common,  the  fre- 
quent application  of  tepid  water,  (using 
plenty  of  soao,)  gives  relief.     A  leech  is  a 


useful  remedy  to  unload  the  overcharged 
blood-vessels;  or  the  part  may  be  pricked 
with  a  needle,  or  punctured  with  a  faucet ; 
in  such  cases  a  soft  bread  and  water  poultice 
should  be  kept  on  during  the  night,  applied 
warm,  so  us  to  encourage  the  How  of  blood. 

If  this  plan  is  objected  to,  the  application 
of  the  following  liniment  is  likely  to  be  be- 
neficial. Take  of  common  soap  liniment, 
or  opodeldoc,  six  drachms;  of  compound 
tincture  of  camphor,  and  tincture  of  can- 
tharides,  each  one  drachm.  If  there  are  no 
blisters,  a  little  of  this  must  be  rubbed  in 
sharply  with  the  hand  ;  but  where  vesi- 
cations appear,  it  must  be  applied  with  a 
feather,  and  care  must  be  taken  not  to  break 
the  skin. 

MEERSCHAUM.  Tie  appearance  of 
this  substance,  before  its  manufacture, 
somewhat  resembles  foam.  It  is  stated  to 
be  found  floating  in  the  sea  of  Azof,  and  on 
the  shores  of  Samos,  and  Negropont.  From 
either  of  these  circumstances  its  name, 
meaning  "sea-foam,"  may  have  been  de- 
rived. It  consists  of  a  hydrate  of  magnesia, 
with  silex,  carbonic  acid,  and  water.  It  is 
dug  from  the  earth  in  several  places  in 
Turkey,  where  it  is  used  as  soap.  The 
tobacco-pipes  are  made  in  Turkey  by  a  pro- 
cess analogous  to  that  for  making  pottery- 
ware,  and  imported  into  Germany,  where 
they  are  prepared  for  sale  by  soaking  them 
first  in  wax,  then  in  tallow,  and  finally 
polishing  them  with  shave-grass,  or  crape. 
The  latter  is  used  to  remove  scratches  or 
imperfections  from  those  injured  in  packing. 
Artificial  meerschaum  is  made  with  fine 
plaster  of  Paris  baked  for  a  few  hours,  and 
thrown,  while  warm,  into  melted  wax,  or 
linseed  oil. 

CARPETS  (MANAGEMENT  OF).  Pre- 
vious to  laying  down  a  carpet,  cover  the 
joints  of  the  floor  with  stripes  of  brown 
paper;  this  will  prevent  the  dust  from 
rising  between  the  boards.  Take  up  your 
carpets  frequently,  and  have  them  shaken 
and  afterwards  drawn  along  the  surface  of  a 
lawn  or  meadow,  to  remove  the  dust.  If  a 
carpet  is  kept  down  too  long  the  dust  passes 
through  it,  and  assists  to  wear  it  out  by 
grinding  the  under  surface.  If  you  want  to 
clean  a  carpet  well,  put  one-third  of  a  bul- 
lock's gall  into  a  pint  of  water,  and  scrub 
the  carpet  with  it,  after  it  is  nailed  down  : 
if  the  carpet  is  not  nailed  down  it  will 
shrink.  If  you  are  not  particular  about  the 
pattern  of  your  carpet,  or,  in  fact,  more 
disposed  to  study  its  durability  than  orna- 
mentation, choose  one  with  small  figures  in 
it,  because  the  two  webs  are  closer  inter- 
woven than  in  the  large  patterned  carpets. 


68 


PACTS  fob,  everybody: 


ANIMALCULJE.  Animals  so  small  as  not 
to  be  immediately  perceptible  to  the  naked 
eye.  Their  origin  is  unknown,  for  they  rise 
in  substances  which  did  not  previously  con- 
tain them,  and  their  numbers  and  varieties 
are  infinite.  Their  existence  is  generally, 
perhaps  always,  preceded  by  that  process  of 
atoms  called  fermentation.  Some  have  been 
discovered,  not  the  10,000th  part  of  an  inch 
long,  so  that  a  million  of  them  might  be  con- 
tained in  a  cubic  inch,  yet  perfect  in  their 
parts,  and  depending  on  air. 


Vinegar  Eels. 


0 


P. 


a 


Hay-tea  Eels. 

HAIR  BRUSHES.  The  use  of  a  mode- 
rately hard  brush  for  the  head  keeps  up  a 
health}'  circulation,  and  is  on  every  account 
to  be  preferred  to  the  employment  of  a 
comb.  The  scurf,  as  it  is  called,  which  collects 
on  the  head  from  neglect,  arises  not  from, 
at  least  only  in  a  very  small  degree,  the> 
dead  cells  or  scales  of  the  scalp  being  thrown 
oif,  but  from  the  evaporation  and  hardening 
of  the  secretions  which  are  poured  out  on 
th3  scalp.  Washing  is  much  less  effectual 
in  removing  this  incrustation,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  greasv  nature,  than  brushing. 

PENCIL-MARKS  (TO  PRESERVE). 
Pencil-marks  may  easily  be  prevented  from 
rubbing  out  by  dipping  the  paper  into  a 
dish  of  skimmed  milk;  then  dry,  andiron 
it  on  the  wrong  side.  In  ironing  paper,  do 
not  let  the  iron  rest  a  moment,  as  it"  will 


leave  a  crease,  or  mark,  but  go  over  it  as 
rapidly  as  possible. 

BEETLE,  OR  SCHARABJEUS.  A  genus 
of  insects  furnished  with  shelly  wing-cases, 
and  of  which  there  are  several  species,  all 
perfectly  harmless,  and  in  general  very  timid 
and  sagacious. 


COMPLEXION  (TO  IMPROVE  THE). 

Infuse  wheat-bran,  well  sifted,  for  three  or 
four  hours  in  white  wine  vinegar ;  add  to 
this  five  yolks  of  eggs  and  a  grain  or  two  of 
ambergris,  and  distil  the  whole.  When  the 
bottle  is  carefully  corked,  keep  it  for  twelve 
or  fifteen  days  before  you  make  use  of  it. 

Or, — Dissolve  flowers  of  sulphur  in  milk, 
and  strain  clean.  When  used,  take  care 
not  to  disturb  any  sediment  of  the  sulphur 
that  may  remain. 

TEETH  (10  MAKE  THEM  WHITE). 
Take  gum  tragacanth  one  ounce ;  pumice- 
stone,  two  drachms,  gum  arabie,  half  an 
ounce ;  and  crystals  of  tartar  finely  pow- 
dered, one  ounce;  dissolve  the  gums  in 
rose-water,  and  add  to  it  the  powders ;  form 
the  whole  into  little  sticks,  which  are  to  be 
dried  slowly  in  the  shade,  and  afterwards 
kept  for  use. 

BREATH  (TO  SWEETEN  THE). 
Chew  every  night  and  morning  a  clove,  a 
piece  of  Florentine  orris-root,  about  the 
size  of  a  small  bean,  or  the  same  quantity 
of  burnt  alum. 

Or, — Rull  up  a  little  ball  of  gum  traga- 
canth, scent  it  with  some  odoriferous  essence 
or  oil,  and  hold  it  in  the  mouth.  A  little 
musk  may  be  added  to  the  ball  while 
rolling  up,  where  that  perfume  is  not  dis- 
agreeable. 

BLOWPIPE.  A  tube  through  which  air 
is  blown,  and  more  oxygen  brought  in  con- 
tact with  flame ;  and,  latterly,  it  has  been, 
contrived  to  pass  a  jet  of  oxygen  and  hydro- 
gen through  it,  when  it  is  called  the  gas 
blow-pipe,  the  heat  of  which  disperses  and 
melts  the  most  refractory  substances. 


A   MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE.      ' 


69 


BATTERING-RAM.  A  machine  made 
use  of  by  the  ancients  to  effect  breaches  in 
fortifications  Sometimes  they  were  swum: 
on  ropes,  and  at  others  driven  by  men,  who 
■were  protected  from  the  besieged  by  suitable 
coverings. 


IMPRESSIONS  (TO  COPY.)  To  take 
an  exact  mould  of  any  c:>in,  medal,  em- 
bossed or  stamped  paper,  or  in  fact,  of  any 
device,  raised  or  imprinted  (that  is,  sunk  on 
paper),  cut  a  piece  of  cardboard,  say  to  the 
breadth  of  half  an  inch,  with  which  form  a 
ring  just  the  dimension  of  theimpression  to 
be  taken  ;  thin  pour  within  the  said  ring, 
which  surrounds  the  spot,  melted  fusible 
metal ;  the  carding  will  prevent  the  metal 
from  running  away,  and  ir>  a  few  minutes  it 
will  cool  and  t;ike  the  impression,  without 
the  slightest  injury  to  the  paper  from  which 
it  was  taken.  The  impression,  &c,  taken 
will  be  the  same  as  the  original  but  re- 
versed. Fusible  metal  is  a  compound  of 
eight  parts  of  bismuth,  five  of  lead,  and 
three  of  tin,  which  liquefies  at  212  degrees, 
or  the  same  temperature  as  boiling  water, 
and  below  that  if  one  part  of  quicksilver  be 
added. 

ATTRACTION  (ELECTRICAL).  A  term 
used  to  express  the  phenomena  by  wh  ch 
light  bodies  leap  towards  an  electrified  body; 
and  the  principle  has  been  applied  to  effect 
the  amusing  experi- 
ment represented  in 
the  engraving.  The 
upper  plate  has  been 
electrified,  and  two 
light  figures  have  been 
^^  placed  between  that 
plate  and  another 
plate  ;  and  for  some 
time  they  jump  and 
dance  from  one  plate 
to  another  in  a  very  surprising  manner 
The  cause  is  not  any  principle  of  attraction 
or  repulsion,  but  arises  from  the  atoms  of 
air  which  lie  between  the  two  plates  being 
4* 


disturbed  by  what  was  done,  when  the  upper 
plate  was  what  was  called  electrified; 
whereas,  in  truth,  it  was  the  stratum  of  air 
lying  between  the  two  plates  which  was 
then  disturbed,  the  plates  themselves  being 
mere  boundaries  of  that  stratum ;  and  the 
effort  of  the  atoms  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
stratum  to  return  to  their  regular  natural 
Position,  being  greater  than  the  weight  of 
the  light  bodies,  the  light  bodies  yield  to 
the  lorce,  and  jump  from  side  to  side  of  the 
stratum,  till  the  original  natural  position  of 
the  atoms  of  the  stratum  of  air  is  restored. 

ANTS  ( W II ITE)  inhabitantsof  East  India, 
Africa,  and  South  America,  far  exceeding  in 
wisdom  and  policy,  the  bee,  the  ant,  or 
beaver.  Thev  build  pyramidal  structures, 
divided  into  cnainbers,  magazines,  &c,  as  re- 
presented in  the  annexed  engraving.  These 
hills,  or  houses,  are  so  strong,  as  to  bear 
four  men  to  stand  upon  them,  and  in  the 
plains  of  Senegal  they  appear  like  villages. 
Their  social  economy  is  of  the  most  regular 
kind,  and  large  masses  of  them  act  as  soldiers, 
trained  for  offence  and  defence,  and  their 
assault  is  so  vigorous,  that  even  men  and 
large  quadrupeds  often  become  their  victims. 


Nests  of  the  Termites,  or  White  Ants. 
COOKERY  (RUDIMENTS  OF).  The 
foundation  of  all  good  cookery  consists  in 
preparing  the  meat  so  as  to  render  it  tender 
in  substance,  without  extracting  from  it 
those  juices  which  constitute  its  true  fla- 


70 


FACTS   FOR  ETEB.YBODY: 


vour;  in  doing  which,  the  main  point  in 
the  art  of  making  soups,  and  made 
dishes  of  every  sort,  which  should  form  so 
large  a  portion  in  every  well-ordered  dinner, 
as  well,  also,  as  of  cooking  many  of  the 
plain  family  joints,  is  boiling,  or  rather 
steicing,  which  ought  always  to  be  per- 
formed over  a  slow  lire.  There  is,  in  fact, 
no  error  so  common  among  English  people 
as  that  of  boiling  meat  over  a  strong  fire, 
"which  renders  joints  hard  and  partly  taste- 
less; while,  if  simmered  during  nearly 
double  the  time,  with  less  than  half  the 
quantity  of  fuel  and  water,  and  never 
allowed  to  "  boil  up,"  the  meat,  without 
being  too  much  done,  will  be  found  both 
pliant  to  the  tooth  and  savoury  to  the 
palate. 

For  instance :  the  most  common  and 
almost  universal  dish  throughout  France  is 
a  large  piece  of  plainly-boiled  fresh  beef, 
from  which  the  soup — or  "potage,"  as  it  is 
there  called — has  been  partly  made,  and 
which  is  separately  served  up  as  "  bouilli," 
accompanied  by  strong  gravy  and  minced 
vegetables,  or  stewed  cabbage.  Now  this, 
as  constantly  dressed  in  the  French  mode, 
is  ever  delicate  both  in  fibre  and  flavour ; 
while,  in  the  English  manner  of  boiling  it, 
it  is  almost  always  hard  and  insipid.  The 
reason  of  which,  as  explained  by  that  cele- 
brated cook,  Careme,  who  superintended  the 
kitchen  of  his  Majesty  Georsre  IV.,  is  this : 
— "  The  meat,  instead  of  being  put  down  to 
boil,  as  in  the  English  method,  is  in  France 
put  in  the  pot  with  the  usual  quantity  of 
cold  water,  and  placed  at  the  corner  of  the 
fire-place,  where,  slowly  becoming  hot,  the 
heat  gradually  swells  the  muscular  fibres  of 
the  beef,  dissolving  the  gelatinous  sub- 
stances therein  contained,  and  disengaging 
that  portion  which  chemists  term  '  osma- 
zorae,'  and  which  imparts  savour  to  the 
flesh — thus  both  rendering  the  meat  tender 
and  palateable,  and  the  broth  relishing  and 
nutritive;  whilst,  on. the  contrary,  if  the 
pot  be  inconsiderately  put  upon  too  quick  a 
fire,  the  boiling  is  precipitated,  the  fibre 
coagulates  and  hardens,  the  osmazome  is 
hindered  from  disengaging  itself,  and  thus 
nothing  is  obtained  but  a  piece  of  tough 
meat,  and  a  broth  without  taste  or  suc- 
culence." 

Meat  loses,  by  cooking,  from  one-fifth  to 
one-third  of  its  whole  weight.  More  is  lost 
by  roasting  than  by  boiling  meat. 

The  use  of^skewers  in  joints  should  be 
avoided  as  much  as  possible,  as  they  let  out 
the  gravy  ;  twine  will  answer  better. 

To  Remove  the  Taint  of  Meat,  wash 
it  several  times  in  cold  water;  then  put  it 


into  plenty  of  cold  water,  into  which  throw 
several  pieces  of  red-hot  charcoal.  If  you 
fear  meat  will  not  keep  till  the  time  it  is 
wanted,  par-roast  or  par-boil  it,  that  is, 
partly  cook  it ;  it  will  then  keep  two  days 
longer,  when  it  may  be  dressed  as  usual, 
but  in  rather  less  time. 

When  Meat  is  Frozen,  it  should  be 
brought  into  the  kitchen,  and  laid  at  some 
distance  from  the  tire,  early  in  the  morning; 
or  soak  the  meat  in  cold  water  two  or  three 
hours  before  it  is  used :  putting  it  near  the 
fire,  or  into  warm  water,  till  thawed,  should 
be  avoided. 

Meats  become  tenderer  and  more  digesti- 
ble, as  well  as  better  flavoured,  by  hanging. 
In  summer,  two  days  is  enough  for  lamb 
and  veal,  aud  from  three  to  four  for  beef 
and  mutton.  In  cold  weather,  the  latter 
may  be  kept  for  double  that  time. 

Legs  and  shoulders  should  be  hung  knuckle 
downwards. 

Articles  that  are  likely  to  spoil  should  not 
be  kept  in,  or  laid  upon  wood. 

Warm,  moist  weather,  is  the  worst  for 
keeping  meat ;  the  south  wind  is  very  un- 
favourable,  and  lightning  very  destructive  ; 
so  that  after  their  occurrence  meat  should 
be  especially  examined. 

Boiling.  Boiling  is  the  most  simple  of  all 
processes  of  cooking.  Regularity  and  atten- 
tion to  time  are  the  main  secrets — indeed, 
these  are  the  main  secrets  of  all  successes. 
Much  less  heat 
is  requisite  to 
keepliquidsboil- 
ing  in  copper 
and  iron  sauce- 
pans than  in 
those  made  of 
tin. 

There    is  fre- 
quently a   great 
Boiling  Pot.  waste  of  fuel  in 

cooking,  which  arises  from  making  liquids 
boil  fast,  when  they  only  require  to  be  kept 
slowly  boiling.  Count  Rumford  (the  in- 
ventor of  the  Rumford  stove)  states  that 
more  than  half  the  fuel  used  in  kitchens  is 
wasted  in  the  above  manner. 

It  is  a  sad  waste  to  put  fuel  under  a  boil- 
ing pot.  There  is  a  degree  of  heat  in  water 
called  the  boiling-point;  and  all  the  coal 
or  wood  in  the  world  cannot  make  water 
hotter  in  an  open  vessel  :  it  can  but  boil. 
By  this  waste,  the  cook  not  only  loses  time, 
but  spoils  the  cookery. 

The  average  time  for  boiling  fresh  meat 
is  from  eighteen  to  twenty  minutes  for  every 
pound ;  thus,  a  joint  weighing  six  pounds 
will  require  from  one  hour  and  three-quar- 


A   MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


71 


tcrs  to  two  hours  boiling.  Salted  meat  re- 
quires rather  more  boiling  and  water;  fresh 
killed  meat  longer  time  ;  and  all  meats 
longer  in  Bold  than  in  warm  weather. 

It  is,  however,  hotter  to  be  guided  for 
time,  by  the  thickness  of  the  joint,  than  by 
its  weight. 

Dried  or  salted  fish  and  meats  require 
soaking  in  eohl  water  before  boiling. 

Meat  and  poultry  will  lose  their  flavour 
and  firmness,  if  left"  in  the  water  after  they 
are  done ;  as  will  also  fish,  which  will  break 
to  pieces. 

The  water  in  winch  fish,  meat,  or  poultry 
has  been  boiled  should  be  saved;  this  pot- 
liquor,  as  it  is  called,  may  be  made  into  soup. 

Slow  boiling  is  very  important  for  all 
meats  to  ensure  their  tenderness ;  fasr  boil- 
ing always  makes  them  hard  and  tough,  less 
plump,  and  of  darker  colour,  than  when 
they  are  boiled  gradually. 

Skimming  the  pot  will  alone  ensure  the 
good  colour  and  sweetness  of  the  meat ;  a 
little  cold  water  and  salt  will  aid. in  throw- 
ing up  the  scum  ;  milk  put  into  the  pot 
does  good  in  few  cases  only  ;  and  wrapping 
in  a  cloth  is  unnecessary,  if  the  scum  be 
carefullv  removed. 

The  lid  of  the  saucepan  should  only  be 
removed  for  skimming;  and  before  taking 
off  the  lid,  be  careful  to  blow  from  it  any 
dust  or  blacks  from  the  fire  or  chimney. 

The  joint  should  always  be  covered  with 
water;'  above  this  quantity,  the  less  water 
the  more  savoury  will  be  the  meat. 

In  some  few  instances,  however,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  boil  the  articles  in  a  much 
larger  quantity  of  water  ;  a  quart  of  water 
is  mostly  a  good  proportion  to  a  pound  of 
meat. 

If  meat  be  put  into  cold  water,  it  should 
be  heated  gradually,  so  as  not  to  cause  it  to 
boil  in  less  than  forty  minutes ;  if  it  boil 
much  sooner,  the  meat  will  shrink  and  be 
hardened,  and  not  so  freely  throw  up  the 
scum. 

Four  skewers,  or  a  plate,  inside  down- 
wards, should  bo  laid  on  the  bottom  of  the 
saucepan,  especially  for  large  joints  and 
puddings ;  so  that  they  may  be  equally 
done,  and  escape  burning  or  adhering  to  the 
saucepan. 

When  a  pot  boils,  remove  it  nearly  off 
the  fire,  but  let  the  lid  remain  on :  a  very 
little  heat  will  then  keep  up  the  boiling. 

The  time  of  boiling  should  be  reckoned 
from  the  time  bubbles  begin  to  rise  on  the 
surface  of  the  liquid.  As  the  boiling  conti- 
nues, the  water  will  evaporate,  and  in  some 
cases  it  may  be  requisite  to  fill  up  the  sauce- 
pan with  boiling;  water. 


Roasting.  No  success  can  be  acLieved 
in  cookery  without  good  management  of  the 
kitchen  hre  :  roasting  especially  requires  a 


Dripping  Pan. 
brisk,  clear,  and  steady  fire,  if  made  up  close 
to  the  bars  of  the  grate. 

The  spit  being  wiped  clean,  the  joint  to 
be  roasted  should  be  carefully  spitted  even, 
and  tied  tight ;  and  if  it  will  not  turn  round 
well,  balance-skewers,  with  leaden  heads, 
should  be  used  ;  for  if  the  meat  be  not 
evenly  spitted,  it  will  probably  be  burned 
on  one  side,  and  not  done  on  the  other. 
Avoid  running  the  spit  through  the  prime 
parts  of  joints. 

A  leg  of  mutton  should  never  be  spitted, 
as  the  spit  lets  out  the  gravy,  and  leaves  an 
unsightly  perforation  just  as  you  are  cutting 
into  the  pope's  eye. 

Make  up  the  roasting-fire  three  or  four 
inches  longer  than  the  joint,  else  the  ends 
of  the  meat  will  not  be  done. 

In  stirring  the  fire,  be  careful  to  remove 
the  dripping-pan,  else  dust  and  ashes  may 
fall  in.  On  no  account  let  the  fire  get  dull 
and  low,  as  a  strong  heat  is  requisite  to 
brown  the  meat. 

A  thin  joint  requires  a  brisk  fire  ;  a  large 
joint,  a  strong,  sound,  and  even  fire.  When 
steam  rises  from  the  meat,  it  is  done. 

Large  joints  should  be  put  at  a  moderate 
distance  from  the  fire,  and  gradually  brought 
nearer ;  else  the  meat  will  be  overdone  half- 
way through  the  joint,  and  be  nearly  raw 
at  the  bone. 

Such  meat  as  is  not  very  fat  should  have 
paper  placed  over  it,  to  prevent  it  from 
being  scorched. 

Do  not  sprinkle  the  meat  with  salt  when 
first  put  down,  as  the  salt  draws  out  the 
gravy. 

Old  meats  require  more  cooking  than 
young.  The  longer  the  meat  has  been 
killed,  the  less  time  is  required  to  roast  it. 
Very  fat  meat  requires  more  time  than  usual. 

The  goneral  rule  is  to  allow  fifteen 
minutes  to  a  pound  for  roasting  with  a  good 
fire,  and  ten  or  twenty  minutes  over,  as  the 
family  like  it  well  done  or  not. 

_       Baste 
*^^)  the    meat 
first  with 
fre<h  drip- 
Basting  Ladle.  pi"g<    an(l 
then  with  its  own  fat  or  dripping :    ana 


FACTS  FOE  EVERYBODY! 


72 

within  the  last  hour  of  roasting,  take  off  the 
paper,  and  sprinkle  the  meat  with  salt  and 
flour,  to  brown  and  froth  it ;  but  some  cooks 
dredge  the  meat  with  flour  earlier,  so  that  it 
may  imbibe  the  gravy,  a  practice  which 
should  be  specially  avoided. 

The  spit  should  be  wiped  dry  immediately 
after  it  is  drawn  from  the  meat,  and  washed 
and  scoured  every  time  it  is  used. 

Perfection  in  roasting  is  very  difficult, 
and  no  certain  rules  can  be  given  for  it,  as 
success  depends  on  many  circumstances 
which  are  continually  changing:  the  age 
and  size  (especially  the  thickness)  of  the 
pieces,  the  quality  of  the  coal,  the  weather, 
the  currents  of  air  in  the  kitchen,  the  more 
or  less  attention  of  the  cook,  and  the  time 
of  serving,  are  all  to  be  considered.  Hence, 
epicures  say  of  a  well-roasted  joint,  "  It  is 
done  to  a  turn." 

Roast  meats  should  be  sent  to  table  the 
moment  they  are  ready,  if  they  are  to  be 
eaten  in  perfection. 

Broiling.     To  broil  well  requires  a  brisk, 

clear  fire,  proportioned  to  the  article  to  be 

broiled ;  for  example,  mutton  chops  require 

a  clear  ra- 

f-fgg§jg%^y»  _  ther  than  a 

^£g£iSSi^*£2£5s"'^  brisk    fire, 

fT^^        siy  else  the  fat 

*-^  ■*  will    be 

Revolving  Gridiron.  wasted    be  • 

fore  the  lean  is  warmed  through  ;  but  for  a 
beef-steak,  the  fire  can  neither  be  too  brisk 
nor  clear,  if  the  gridiron  be  placed  at  the 
proper  distance.  Fish  requires  a  steady 
lire  ;  as  also  does  underdone  meat. 

Much,  however,  depends  on  the  substance 
of  the  article  to  be  broiled  :  if  it  be  thick,  it 
must  be  placed  at  a  greater  distance,  at 
first,  to  warm  it  through ;  if  thin,  the  fire 
must  he  brisk,  to  ensure  a  a  good  colour. 

The  gridiron  should  be  wiped  clean  after  it 
has  been  used,  so  that  the  bars  may  be  kept 
bright  on  the  top ;  they  should  be  allowed 
to  get  hot  before  the  article  is  laid  on  them, 
but  not  too  hot,  else  they  will  burn  the  meat 
or  fish:  the  latter  especially.  To  prevent 
this,  the  bars  should  be  rubbed  with  fat. 

A  charcoal  fire  is  best  for  broiling. 

To  prevent  the  fat  dripping  into  the  fire, 
set  the  gridiron  aslant. 

JL -v^  For  turning 

jft  the  broiling 
"V^  article     use 

KocfBtc^Tons,.  J-J- J,-  ^ 

out  the  gravy.  When  the  artiele  is  done, 
it  will  feel  firm  if  touched  with  the  tongs : 
by  no  means  cut  the  meat  to  ascertain  if  it 
lie  done,  as  that  will  let  out  the  gravy. 


Frying.    Frying   is,   "to  scorch  some- 
thing solid  in  fat,  or  oil,"  or  butter.     Lard, 
clarified  suet,  or  dripping,  is  well  adapted 
for  fish,    eggs, 
potatoes,     and 
meat  generally 
Olive     oil      is 
much  used  for 
fish ;    and  the 
same    oil  will 
serve  for  more 
than  one  fry- 
ing.    Butter  is 
Frying  Pan.  used?  but  it  ia 

not  as  well  adapted  for  frying  as  either  of 
the  other  articles. 

Be  careful  that  the  fat  or  oil  is  fresh,  clean, 
and  free  from  salt,  else  what  you  fry  in  it 
will  be  of  bad  colour  and  flavour;  salt  will 
prevent  it  from  browning. 

Fat  or  oil,  to  be  used  again,  should  be 
strained  through  a  sieve  before  it  is  set  aside. 

Fat  becomes  richer  from  having  meat  fried 
into  it,  and  may  be  used  repeatedly ;  but  the 
fat  that  has  been  used  for  fish  cannot  be 
used  again  for  meat. 

The  fat  must  have  left  off  bubbling  and 
be  quite  still  before  you  put  in  the  articles. 

To  prepare  crumbs  for  frying,  dry  tho- 
roughly in  a  warm  oven,  or  before  the  fire, 
any  waste  pieces  of  bread ;  then  pound  them 
in  a  mortar  and  sift  them,  and  put  them 
away  till  wanted.  This  is  much  better  than 
grating  bread  as  it  is  needed,  or  using  oat- 
meal, &c. 

When  you  wish  fried  things  to  look  as 
well  as  possible,  do  them  twice  over  with 
egg  and  crumbs. 

If  eggs  be  very  dear,  a  little  flour  and 
water  may  be  substituted  for  them  in  pre- 
paring fish  to  fry. 

In  frying  use  a  slice  to  lift  the  articles  in 
and  out  of  the  pan,  and  drain  them 

To  make  batter  for  frying:  melt  two 
ounces  of  butter  in  a  little  warm  water,  and 
pour  it  upon  half-a-pound  of  Hour ;  stir  it, 
and  add  water  enough  to  form  a  batter, 
thick  enough  to  adhere  to  whatever  is  put 
into  it ;  but  it  should  run  freely  ;  add  some 
salt  and  the  beaten  whites  of  two  eggs. 

A  small  shallow  frying-pan  is  very  useful 
to  fry  articles  to  be  stewed:  this  method 
differs  from  common  frying,  as  i4  only 
requires  butter  enough  to  keep  the  article 
from  sticking  to  tbe  pan  and  burning. 

The  fire  for  frying  should  be  free  from 
smoky  coal,  and  be  sharp  and  even.  Char- 
coal makes  the  best  frying  fire. 

The  fat  should  be  carefully  drained  from 
all  fried  articles ;  indeed,  tbey  should  be  so 
dry  as  scarcely  to  soil  a  cloth.     Fish  is  beat 


A   MISCELLANY  OF   USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


73 


drained  by  wrapping  it  in  soft  whitey-brown 
paper,  by  which  it  will  so  dry  as  not  to  soil 
the  napkin  upon  which  it  is  served. 

Stewing.  All  articles  to  be  stewed  should 
first  be  boilel  gently,  then  skimmed  and 
8et  aside  in  an  even  heat:  on  this  account 
charcoal  makes 

IsPS  stewing.      All 

^V**^'%F'?MB   ^ws,  or  meat 

I  dressed   a   se- 

V  I   oond      time, 

^1;i'.i,       _J*     should  be  onl\ 

Stewpan.         simmered,     a*s 

the  meat  shoud  only  be  made  hot  through. 

A  stewpan  is  the  most  advantageous  vessel 
in  which  stews,  hashes,  soups,  or  gravies 
can  be  made;  indeed,  for  all  purposes  of 
boiling,  a  stewpan  is  preferable  to  a  deep 
saucepan,  as,  in  the  former,  the  articles  are 
exposed  to  more  even  heat  than  when  they 
are  placed  one  upon  another  in  the  saucepan, 
and  are  likely  to  be  broken  in  stirring. 

Danger  from  Copper  Saucepans.  The 
precise  danger  from  the  use  of  copper  sauce- 
pans, or  stewpans,  imperfectly  tinned,  is 
far  from  rightly  understood.  It  appears 
that  the  acid  contained  in  stews  and  other 
made  dishes,  as  lemon-juice,  though  it  does 
not  dissolve  copper  by  being  merely  boiled 
in  it  a  few  minutes,  nevertheless,  if  allowed 
to  cool  and  stand  in  it  for  some  time,  will 
acquire  poisonous  matter,  as  verdigris,  in 
the  form  of  a  green  band,  or  crust,  inside 
the  vessel.  It  has  likewise  been  proved  that 
weak  solutions  of  common  salt,  such  as  are 
daily  made  by  adding  a  little  salt  to  boiling 
vegetables,  fish,  or  meat,  act  powerfully  on 
copper  vessels,  although  strong  solutions  or 
brine  would  not  affect  them.  It  is,  how- 
ever, in  vain  to  hope  that  cooks  will  attend 
to  the  nice  distinctions  by  which  copper 
stewpans  may  be  rendered  safe ;  the  general 
advice  given  by  prudent  physicians  is,  there- 
fore, against  their  use  at  all. 

The  kettles  in  which  the  soups  are  made 
should  be  well  tinned,  and  kept  particularly 
clean,  by  being  washed  in  hot  water  and* 
rubbed  dry  before  they  are  put  away.  If 
they  are  not  kept  well  tinned,  the  taste  as 
well  as  the  colour  of  the  soup  will  be  liable 
to  be  affected  by  the  iron  ;  and  if  the  soup- 
kettle  be  made  of  copper,  and  the  tinning 
not  quite  perfect,  everything  cooked  in  it 
will  be  more  or  less  poisonous,  as  everything 
which  is  sweet,  Si" 
digris  from  copper. 

Baking.  Baking  is  the  least  advanta- 
geous mode  of  cookery ;  for  by  it  meat  loses 
about  one-third  of  its  weight. 

Iron  ovens  are    ill-adapted  for    baking 


meat  or  meat-pies;  fruit-pies,  pastry,  and 
paddings,  mnv,  however,  he  baked  in  them. 
BUTTEEPlT, OR PAPILIO.  Agenusof 
insects,  of  which  there  are  many  hundred 
species.  Curious  and  elegant  as  they  are, 
this  is  the  last  state  of  the  varied  existence 
of  the  same  creature ;  first  in  the  grub,  or 
caterpillar  form,  in  which  it  emerges  frorq 
the  eggs  laid  by  a  former  generation  :  the 
irruh  then  passes  into  an  insensible  state, 
called  the  chrysalis  oraurelia,  in  which  it 
continues  sqme  weeks  or  months,  having 
neither  legs,  wings,  nor  motion  :  at  length 
the  case  is  burst,  and  moths  and  butterflies 
emerge,  which  pass  a  short  and  flutttering 
existence,  during  which  they  lay  eggs  for 
future  successions  of  the  same  kind. 


Chrysalis  of  the  Butterfly. 


Butterfly. 

NAILS  (CAKE  OF).  The  care  of  the 
nails  adds  greatly  to  the  beauty  of  the  hand. 
The  white  spots  you  complain  of  are  occa- 
sioned by  injury,  a  blow,  &c,  and  will 
gradually  disappear  at  the  end.  The  nails 
should  be  well  brushed  with  soap  and  water, 
and,  when  quite  dry,  with  lemon-juice,  to 
be  washed  off  again  with  clean  water.  Pure 
back  the  scarf-skin  at  the  root,  but  never 
cut  it,  or  you  will  have  nail  springs,  as  they 
are  called, — an  untidy,  and  sometimes  very 
painful  appendage  to  the  root  of  the  nail. 


74- 


FACTS   FOB,  EVERYBODY: 


POTlCfllMANIE;  OR  IMITATION 
PORCELAIN.  The  art  of  imitating  old 
china  and  porcelain  of  various  descriptions 
is  one  which  has  recently  been  introduced 
into  Paris. 

The  result  :f  this  work  is,  what  it  pro- 
fesses to  be,  an  excellent  imitation  of  every 
sort  of  porcelain — Sevres,  Etruscan,  Ja- 
panese, Assyrian. 

The  work,  when  properly  performed,  is 
extremely  beautiful,  and  wonderfully  sim- 
ple. No  one  can  fail  to  succeed  in  it  who 
studiously  follows  the  rules  we  shall  lay 
down. 

The  Materials  required  for  Potichi- 
manie  are — 

Glass  Vases. 

Sheets  of  paper  printed  in  various  designs. 

Varnish. 

Dissolved  gum-arabic. 

Prepared  colours. 

Paint  brushes. 

A  packet  of  gold  powder. 

Essence  of  lavender,  or  turpentine ;   and 

Fine  scissors. 


The  vases  are  of  plain  glass,  in  various 
forms,  some  with  and  some  without  lids. 


At  present  these  rases  are  too  often  inele- 
gant in  shape,  as  from  the  nature  of  the 
work  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  neck  large 
enough  to  admit  the  hand.  Thus  the 
graceful  shape  of  the  Etruscan  vase  is  not 
yet  achieved  in  Potichimanie.  We  think, 
however,  that  ere  long  we  shall  be  able  to 
devise  some  plan  to  remedy  what  we  cannot 
help  regarding  as  a  great  defect. 

The  vases  are  of  various  shapes  and  sizes, 
as  seen  in  our  engraving.  ■ 

The  sheets  of  paper  are  coloured  and 
printed,  in  various  designs.  Some  have 
figures  and  other  subjects  in  the  graceful 
Etruscan  style;  others  exhibit  dragons, 
trees,  flowers,  birds,  and  similar  things  in 
Chinese  design ;  the  researches  of  Mr. 
Layard  have  furnished  ns  with  eccentric 
Assyrian  figures  and  decorations ,  and  again 
there  are  medallions,  and  other  subjects 
exclusively  French,  besides  borders  of  all 
these  different  sorts. 

The  first  operation  is  to  cut  out  the 
figures,  birds,  &c,  with  extreme  care  ;  and 
we  may  observe,  en  passant,  that  beginners 
should  always  select  such  subjects  as  are 
tolerably  compact.  Running  patterns  with 
the  various  parts  connected  only  by  long 
stems,  and  flowers,  with  the  pistil  and 
stamens  projecting,  are  considerably  more 
dij/icult  to  arrange  than  simpler  patterns. 
Every  part  of  the  ground  of  the  paper  must 
be  cut  out,  such  as  the  space  between  the 
body  and  the  bended  arm,  in  any  figure 
where  that  occurs ;  so  that,  in  fact,  nothing 
is  left  but  what  would  be  done  by  the 
brush,  were  the  vase  to  be  a  painted  one. 

Now  lay  all  the  materials  on  the  table, 
including  a  clean  towel,  some  soft  old  linen, 
and  a  small  basin  of  warm  water. 

Fold  a  sheet  or  two  of  blotting  psper  into 
several  thicknesses,  lay  one  of  the  subjects 
on  it,  and,  with  one  of  the  brushes  cover 
the  painted  side  of  it  with  gum  in  every 
part.  Of  course,  your  vases  have  been 
previously  thoroughly  washed,  and  well- 
dried.  Put  the  paper  inside  the  glass, 
rubbing  down  every  part  with  your  nail,  so 
that  no  air  may  be  left  between  the  paper 
and  the  glass,  as  this  would  ruin  the  work. 
Proceed  in  this  way  with  each  figure,  flower, 
or  other  design,  until  sufficient  patterns  are 
placed  on  the  glass ;  borders  may  be  added 
or  not,  according  to  the  fancy,  but  they 
must  always  be  of  a  character  to  harmonize 
with  the  rest  of  the  design. 

When  all  these  are  perfectly  dry,  examine 
them  to  see  that  no  air-bubble  is  left. 
Then  add  a  coating  of  gum  at  the  back  of 
the  figures,  without  touching  the  glass. 
Let  this  also  dry.    Then  a  coat  of  varnish 


A   MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


78 


must  he  added,  and  this  also  must  he  done 
without  touching  the  glass. 

After  thoroughly  drying  this,  remove 
With  I  wet  cloth  any  spots  of  gum  or  var- 
ni-h  that  niiiy  have  fallen  on  the  vase,  and 
nil  the  colouring  with  sufficient  essence  of 
lavender  to  make  it  run  freely.  Pour  the 
liquid  into  the  vase,  which  you  will  twist 
round  and  round  until  it  has  adhered  to 
and  completely  coloured  every  part.  Pour 
the  remainder  out,  let  it  dry,  and  then  add 
another  coat  of  varnish.  The  vase  is  then 
completed. 

It  is  asserted  that  a  vase  so  prepared  will 
hold  water.  It  may  be;  but  we  do  not 
counsel  the  trial.  An  inner  vessel,  filled 
■with  water,  might  readily  be  placed  in  the 
larger  one,  for  flowers. 

In  the  large  vase,  of  our  engravings,  it 
■will  be  observed  that  the  ground  of  the 
upper  and  lower  part  is  black,  and  of  the 
centre  only  a  light  colour.  "When  this 
effect  is  to  be  produced,  the  colour  must  be 


applied  with  brushes,  and  not  poured  in 
as  we  have  before  directed.  Each  part 
should  also  dry  before  the  next  band  is  ap- 
plied. 

The  choice  of  the  ground  is  always  a 
matter  for  much  consideration,  as  on  it 
greatly  depends  the  truthful  hue  of  the 
china.  A  peculiar  blue  and  green  are 
frequently  seen  in  Oriental  china ;  black 
and  a  soft  salmon  are  common  for  the 
grounds  of  Etruscan  subjects;  the  Bleu  de 
Sevres  is  too  well  known  to  need  comment. 
We  saw  a  vase  that  pleased  us  greatlv,  with 
a  running  floral  design  in  grey,  edged  with 


gold,  on  a  soft  pink  ground.  It  was  moat 
chaste  and  beautiful. 

Nothing  but  attention  to  these  directions 
is  required  to  enable  any  one  to  work  in 
Potichimanie ;  and  from  the  admirable 
effect  produced,  and  the  facility  afforded  to 
those  to  whom  handsome  vases  and  other 
similar  decorations  have  been  impossible, 
we  confidently  predict  that  this  work  will 
have  as  great  success  with  the  English 
ladies  as  with  their  continental  sisters. 
But  care  and  cleanliness  are  indispensable 
to  success ;  and  loose  hanging  sleeves  or 
dresses  being  spoiled  by  a  spot  of  gum  or 
paint  are  far  from  desirable. 

The  price  of  materials  varies,  according 
to  the  elaborateness  of  the  subjects,  the 
gilding.  &c,  of  the  paper,  and  also  the  size 
of  the  vases.  Unless  these  latter  are  very 
large,  one  sheet  of  paper  will  give  more 
subjects  than  will  be  required  for  a  pair. 
The  entire  materials  may  be  had  from  $6. 
to  $8,    according  to  the  size  of  the  vases. 

WARTS.  Mr.  Lawrence,  surgeon  of  St. 
Bartholomew's,  says,  the  easiest  way  to  get 
rid  of  warts  is  to  pare  off  the  thickened  skin 
which  covers  the  prominent  wart,  cut  it  off 
by  successive  lavers ;  shave  it  till  you  come 
to  the  surface  of  the  skin,  and  till  you  draw 
blood  in  two  or  three  places.  When  you 
have  thus  denuded  the  surface  of  the  skin, 
rub  the  part  thoroughly  over  with  lunar 
caustic,  and  one  effective  operation  of  this 
kind  will  generally  destroy  tne  wart ;  if  not, 
cut  off  the  black  spot  which  has  been 
occasioned  by  the  caustic,  and  apply  it 
again ;  or  you  may  apply  acetic  acid,  and 
tiius  you  will  get  rid  of  it.  Kisenberg 
says,  in  his  "Advice  on  the  Hand,"  that 
the  hydrochlorate  of  lime  is  the  most 
certain  means  of  destroying  warts;  the  pro- 
cess, however,  is  very  slow,  and  demands 
perseverance  ;  for  if  discontinued  before  the 
proper  time,  no  advantage  is  gained.  The 
following  is  a  simple  cure  :— On  breaking 
the  stalk  of  the  crow-foot  plant  in  two,  a 
drop  of  milky  juice  will  be  observed  to 
hang  on  the  upper  part  of  the  stem  ;  if 
this  be  allowed  to  drop  on  a  wart,  so  that  it 
be  well  sahirated  with  the  juice,  in  about 
three  or  four  dressings  the  wart  will  die, 
and  may  be  taken  off  with  the  fingers. 
They  may  be  removed  by  the  above  means 
from  the  teats  of  cows,  where  they  are  some- 
times very  troublesome,  and  prevent  them 
standing  quiet  to  be  milked. 

AUSCULTATION.  The  art  of  distinguish- 
ing, by  the  sense  of  hearing,  whether  the 
lungs  or  heart  are  acting  in  a  healthy  man- 
ner, the  instrument  used  for  this  purpose  is 
called  a  stethoscope. 


•76 


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78 


FACTS    FOR    EVERYBODY: 


THE  AMERICAN  FLAG.  On  the  13th  of 
Jane,  1~77,  the  following  resolution  was  adopt- 
ed by  the  American  Congress  :  "  That  the  flag 
of  the  thirteen  United  States  be  thirteen 
stripes,  alternately  red  and  white ;  that  the 
Union  be  thirteen  white  stars  in  a  blue  field, 
representing  a  new  constellation."  There  is  a 
striking  coincidence  between  the  design  of 
our  flag  and  the  arms  of  General  Washington, 
which  consisted  of  three  stars  upon  the 
upper  portion  of  three  bars,  running  across 
the  escutcheon.  It  is  thought  by  some  that 
th^  flag  was  derived  from  this  heraldic 
design.  History  informs  us  that  several  flags 
were  used  by  the  Yankees  before  the  present 
national  one  was  adopted. 

In  March,  1775,  a  minor  flag  with  a  red 
field,  was  hoisted  in  New  York,  bearing  the 
inscription  (in  one  side  of  "  George  Rex  and 
the  Liberties  of  America,"  and  upon  the 
reverse,  "  No  Popery."  General  Israel  Put- 
nam raised,  on  Prospect  Hill,  July  18th,  1775, 
a  minor  flag  bearing  on  one  side  the  mot- 
to of  the  Commonwealth,  "  Qui  transtulit 
sustinet ;"  on  the  other,  "An  Appeal  to 
Heaven,"  an  appeal  well  taken  and  amply 
sustained. 

In  October,  1775,  the  floating  batteries  of 
Boston  bore  a  flag  with  the  latter  motto,  and 
a  pine  tree  upon  a  white  field,  bearing  the 
Massachusetts  emblem.  Some  of  the  colonies 
used  iu  1775,  a  flag  with  a  rattlesnake  coiled, 
as  if  about  to  strike,  and  the  motto,  "  Don't 
tread  on  me." 

On  the  2d  of  January,  1776,  the  grand 
Union  flag  of  the  Stars  and  Stripes  was  raised 
on  the  heights  near  Boston,  and  it  is  said  that 
some  of  the  regulars  made  the  grand  mistake 
of  supposing  it  was  a  token  of  submission  to 
the  king,  whose  speech  had  just  been  sent  to 
the  Americans.  The  "  British  Register"  of 
1779  says :  "  They  (the  rebels)  burnt  the 
king's  speech,  and  changed  their  colors  from 
a  plain  red  ground  to  a  flag  with  thirteen 
stripes,  as  a  symbol  of  the  number  and  union 
of  the  colonies."  A  letter  from  Boston,  pub- 
lished in  the  "  Pennsylvania  Gazette"  in  1776, 
says :  "  The  Union  flag  was  raised  on  the  2d, 
in  compliment  to  the  United  Colonies." 

The  various  flags  we  have  mentioned — the 
Pine  Tree,  Rattlesnake  and  the  Stripes — were 
used  according  to  the  taste  of  the  patriots, 
until  Julv.  1777,  when  the  Stars  and  Stripes 
were  established  by  law.  At  first  a  stripe 
was  added  for  each  new  state,  but  the  flag 
became  too  large,  and  Comrress,  foreseeing, 
possibly,  the  spirit  of  annexation,  reduced  the 
stripes  to  the  original  thirteen,  and  now  the 
stars  are  made  to  coriespond  in  number  with 
the  States. 

Watson,  in  his  "  Men  and  Times  of  the  Re- 
volution," says:  "Soon  after  my  arrival  in 
England,  having  won  at  the  insurance  office  [ 


one  hundred  guineas  on  the  event  of  Lord 
Howe's  relieving  Gibraltar,  and  dining  the 
same  day  with  Copley,  the  distinguished 
painter,  who  was  a  Bostonian  by  birth,  I 
determined  to  devote  the  sum  to  a  splendid 
portrait  of  myself.  The  painting  was  finished 
in  a  most  admirable  style,  except  the  back- 
ground, which  Copley  and  myself  designed  to 
represent  a  ship  bearing  to  America  the  in- 
telligence of  the  acknowledgment  of  inde- 
pendence, with  a  sun  just  rising  upon  ihe 
stripes  of  the  Union,  streaming  from  her  gaff. 
All  was  complete,  save  the  flag,  which  Copley 
did  not  esteem  prudent  to  hoist  under  present 
circumstances,  as  his  gallery  is  a  constant  re- 
sort of  the  royal  family  and  the  nobility.  I 
dined  with  the  artist  on  the  glorious  fifth  of 
December,  1782,  after  listening  with  him  to 
the  speech  of  the  king,  formally  receiving  and 
recognizing  the  United  States  of  America  into 
the  rank  of  nations.  Previous  to  dining  and 
immediately  after  our  return  from  the  House 
of  Lords,  he  invited  me  into  his  studio,  and 
there,  with  a  bold  hand,  a  master's  touch, 
and,  I  believe,  an  American  heart,  attached 
to  the  ship  the  stars  and  stripes.  This  was,  I 
imagine,  the  first  American  flag  in  old  Eng- 
land." 

The  American  flag  is  one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful that  floats  upon  any  land  or  sea.  Its 
proportions  are  perfect  when  it  is  properly 
made — one  half  as  broad  as  it  is  long.  The 
first  stripe  at  the  top  is  red,  the  next  white, 
and  these  colors  alternate,  making  the  last 
stripe  red.  The  blue  field  for  the  stars  is  the 
width  and  square  of  the  first  seven  stripes, 
viz.:  four  red  and  three  white.  The  colors  of. 
the  American  flag  are  in  beautiful  relief,  and 
it  is  altogether  a  beautiful  national  emblem. 
Long  may  it  wave  untarnished.  He  who 
would  erase  one  stripe  or  dim  one  star  upon 
it,  "  acts  a  traitor's  part,  and  deserves  a  trait- 
or's doom." 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  NAMES  OF  THE 
STATES— The  following  information,  rela- 
tive to  the  derivation  of  the  names  of  the 
States,  will  be  found  interesting  : 

Maine  was  first  called  Marvosheen,  but 
about  1638  took  the  name  it  now  bears,  from 
Maine,  a  province  in  the  west  of  France.  The 
name  is  originally  derived  from  the  Cenoman- 
ni,  an  ancient  Gallic  people.  New  Hampshire 
was  the  name  given  to  the  territory  granted 
by  the  Plymouth  Company  to  Captain  John 
Mason,  by  patent,  in  1639,  and  was  derived 
from  the  patentee,  who  was  Governor  of 
Portsmouth,  in  Hiimpshire,  England.  Ver- 
mont is  trom  verd,  green,  and  rwnd,  moun- 
tain. Massachusetts  was  named  from  a  tribe 
of  Indians  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston.  Roger 
Williams  says  the  word  signifies  blue  hills. 
Rhode  Island  was  so  called  in  1644,  in  relation 
to  the  Island  of  Rhodes  in  the  Mediterranean. 


A    MISCELLANY    OF    USEFUL    KNOWLEDGE. 


Now  York  whs  named  inhonorof  the  Duke  of 
York,  to  whom  this  territory  was  granted. 
Pennsylvania  whs  called  after  William  IVnn. 
In  L684,  the  Duke  of  York  made  a 'grant  of 

what  U  now  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  to  Lord 
Berkeley  and  Sir  George  Carta  ret,  and  it  re- 
ceived its  name  in  compliment  to  the  latter, 
who  had  been  Governor  of  the  Island  of  Jer- 
sey. Delaware  mu  so  called  in  171)2,  after 
Lord  De  La  Ware.  Maryland  was  named  in 
honor  ol  Henrietta  Maria. Queen  of  Charles  1., 
in  his  patent  to  Lord  Baltimore,  June  3,  1632. 
Virginia,  was  called  after  the  Virgin  Queen  of 
England,  Elizabeth.  The  Carolina*  were 
pained  by  the  French,  in  honor  of  Charles  IX. 
of  France.  Georgia  was  called,  in  1692,  after 
George  II.  Louisiana  was  named  after  Louis 
XV.  of  France.  Florida  received  its  name 
from  Ponce  de  Leon,  while  on  his  voyage  in 
search  of  the  fountain  of  youth.  He  discov- 
ered it  on  Easter  Sunday — in  Spanish,  Pascue 
Florida.  The  States  of  Alabama,  Mississip- 
pi. Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Illinois,  Indiana, 
Ohio,  Arkansas  and  Missouri,  are  all  named 
from  their  principal  rivers,  and  they  are  of  In- 
dian origin,  excepting,  perhaps,  Kentucky — 
and  their  meanings  involved  in  some  obscu- 
rity. Tennessee  is  said  to  signify  a  curved 
epoon  ;  Illinois,  the  River  of  Men  ;  Mississippi, 
the  Whole  River,  or  a  river  formed  by  the 
union  off  many.  Michigan  was  named  from 
the  lake  on  :ts  borders.  Iowa  is  an  Indian 
name;  also,  Texas,  signifying  beautiful.  Cal- 
ifornia was  thus  named  by  the  Spaniards  at  a 
very  early  day. 

kEMARKABLB  EVENTS  PREDICTED 
BY  COMETS.  The  Pays,  to  show  the  pop- 
ular l>elief  that  comets  predict  remarkable 
events  is  not  altogether  unfounded,  publishes 
the  following  table  of  the  visitations  of  comets, 
and  of  the  events  by  which  they  have  been 
followed  : 

Before  Christ:  480,  Battle  of  Sal  amis ; 
431,  Peloponnessian  War;  331.  Battle  of 
Arbela;  43,  Death  of  Caesar.  Christian  Era: 
1,  Birth  of  Christ ;  62,  Earthquake  in  Achnia 
and  Macedonia;  70,  Destruction  of  Jerusalem; 
79,  Eruption  of  Vesuvius,  which  caused  the 
Destruction  of  Herculaneum;  337,  Death  of 
Coustantine;  400,  Invasion  of  Alaric  in  Italy; 
813.  [(receded  the  death  of  ( 'harlemagne  ;  877, 
Death  of  Charles-le-Chau\e ;  999,  preceded 
the  disasters  and  terrors  of  the  year  1000 ; 
1066,  Conquest  of  England  by  the  Normans  ; 
1233.  Death  of  Philip  Augustus  ;  1264,  Death 
of  Urban  IV.;  1265,  preceded  the  Death  of 
Manfred,  King  of  Naples  ;  1273,  Accession  off 
R'dol|,h  off  Hapsburg  ;  1293,  modified  char- 
acter and  conduct  of  Koub  ai  Khan,  founder 
of  Tartar  domination  In  China  ;  1454,  Taking 


of  Constantinople  ;  1500,  Irruption  of  Tartars 
in  Poland,  Famine  in  Kwabia,  and  Expedition 
of  Charles  VIII.,  in  Italy;  1516,  announced 
the  Misfort  mes  of  Minister  under  John  of 
Leyden.  Invasion  of  the  Tirks  in  Hungary, 
Civil  War  in  Switzerland,  Plague  in  England, 
Inundations  in  Holland,  and  an  Earthquake  in 
Portugal;  1556,  Abdication  of  Charles  V.; 
1560.  Death  of  Francois  II.  of  France  ;  1572, 
the  llaasacre  off  St.  Bartholomew,  and  Death 
of  Charles  IX. ;  1577,  King  Sebastian  makes 
an  unfortunate  expedition  into  Africa,  where 
he  lost  his  life  ;  1580,  Epidemic  in  Italy  and 
France  ;  1793.  Execution  off  Louis  XVI ;  1804, 
Empire  ;  1811,  Birth  of  the  King  of  Rome  ; 
1820,  Napoleon  considered  this  comet  as  a 
sign  that  his  death  was  approaching  ;  1858—  ? 
Finally,  the  comet  of  2255  is  to  cause  the  end 
of  the  world — Newton  and  other  great  men 
having  calculated  that  it  will  come  into  colli- 
sion with  the  sun,  and  so  damage  it  that  it 
can  no  longer  give  light  and  heat  to  the  earth. 

*  QUAINT  QUESTIONS.  What  is  the 
difference  between  twenty  four  quart  bottles, 
and  four  and  twenty  quart  bottles  ? 

Ans.— 56  quarts  difference. 

What  3  figures,  multiplied  by  4,  will  make 
precisely  5  ? 

Ans— 14.  or  1-25. 

What  is  the  difference  between  six  dozen 
dozen  and  half-a-dozen  dozen  ? 

Ans. — 792  :  Six  dozen  dozen  being  864,  and 
half-a-dozen  dozen  72. 

Place  three  sixes  together  so  as  to  make 
seven. 

Ans.— 6  6-6. 

Add  one  to  nine  and  make  it  twenty. 

Ans IX  ;  cross  the  I,  it  makes  it  XX. 

Place  four  fives  so  as  to  make  six  and  a 
half. 

Ans.— 5  5-5-5. 

A  room  with  eight  corners  had  a  cat  in 
each  corner,  seven  cats  before  each  cat,  and 
a  cat  on  every  cat's  tail.  What  was  the  total 
number  of  cats  ? 

Ans.— Eight  cats. 

Prove  that  seven  is  the  half  of  twelve. 

Ans. — Place  the  Roman  figures  on  a  piece 
of  paper,  and  draw  a  line  though  the  middle 
of  it — the  upper  will  be  VII. 

A  BOY  HIS  OWN  GRANDFATHER— 
There  was  a  widow  and  her  daughter,  and  a 
man  and  his  son.  The  widow  married  the  son, 
and  the  daughther  the  father  ;  the  widow  was 
therefore  mother  to  her  husband's  father,  and 
grandmother  to  her  husband  ;  thev  had  a  sou 
to  whom  she  was  great-grandmother,  and  as 
the  son  of  a  great-grandmother  must  be  either 
a  grandfather  or  great-uncle,  this  boy  was 
therefore  his  own  grandfather. 


*  From  «'  The  Magician's  Own  Book  ;  or,  Over  One  Thousand  Tricks."    Illustrated  with  over 
600  wood  engravings.    Dick  <fc  Fitzgerald.    Price  $1  00. 


eo 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


NUTMEG.  The  kernel  of  a  fruit  like  the 
yeach,  which  flourishes  in  the  Moluccas,  in- 
vested with  a  rind  or  coat,  which  is  mace.  In 
four  years,  from  1814  to  1817,  1,800,000  lbs. 
of  nutmegs  were  imported  into  Great  Britain, 
and  also  during 
the  same  years, 
480,000  lbs.  of 
mace,  the  prin- 
cipal portion  of 
which  were  re- 
exported. The 
annual  sale  or 
consumption  of 
each  in  the 
United  King- 
dom, on  an 
average  of  the 
27  years  1797 
to  1823,  was 
of  mace  only 
10,500  lbs.,  and 
of  nutmegs  but 
25,000 lbs.;  the 
annual  average 
importation  for 
and  during  the 
same  period  of 
time  having  been  35,390  lbs.  of  mace,  and 
128,500  lbs.  of  nutmeg.  For  a  long  time  the 
Dutch  had  the  monopoly  of  commerce  in 
nutmegs ;  but  about  the  year  1770  it  was  in- 
troduced into  the  Isle  of  France,  and  thence 
subsequently  passed  into  Surinam,  the  West 
Indies,  and  other  places,  and  is  now  im- 
ported direct  into  the  United  States,  in  large 
quautities. 
_  CONE.  A  solid,  whose  base  is  a'circle,  the 
sides  approaching  and  terminating  in  a 
point,  by  cutting  which,  in  different  direc- 
tions, the  ellipsis,  parabola,  and  hyperbola, 
are  produced. 


MICROSCOPE.  An  arrangement  of 
lenses  which  enables  the  observer  to  see  an 
object,  or  its  true  image,  nearer  than  with 
the  naked  eye,  and  magnified  accordingly. 
The  simplest  microscope  is  a  small  hole  made 


with  a  needle  in  a  sheet  of  paper.  The 
microscope  is  the  most  instructive  of  all 
instruments,  and  no  family  or  school  should 
be  without  one.  It  displays  our  own  merely 
relative  size,  and  shows  that  there  are  as 
many  wonders  which  our  vision  does  not 
reach,  as  it  does.  We  see  by  it  perfect 
animals,  in  all  forms  and  habits,  hundreds 
of  which  move  with  freedom  in  a  drop  of 
water,  and  enjoy  themselves  like  larger 
species.  It  displays  the  perfect  mechanism 
of  every  part  of  every  thing,  and  affords  a 
moral  lesson  to  pride  and  the  arrogant  as- 
sumptions of  man.  It  proves  that  nature  is 
an  evolution  from  the  smallest — the  inde- 
finitely smallest — to  the  great ;  and  that  to 
understand  the  great,  it  is  necessary  to  un- 
derstand the  small  which  produce  the  great. 
In  experimenting  with  the  microscope, 
cruelty  to  sensitive  objects  of  curiosity  should 
be  avoided ;  for  if  your  own  life  and  comfort 


are  desirable  to  you,  so  are  they  to  others, 
and  compassion  should  not  be  limited  by  the 
tears  of  the  law.  The  engravings  represent 
a  section  of  a  tree  as  viewed  through  a 
microscope. 

STEEL  (TO  PRESERVE  FROM  RUST). 
The  followinghas  been  found  very  useful  :— 
Half  an  ounce  of  emery  powder,  one  ounce 
of  soft  soap,  mixed,  and  well  rubbed  in. 

POLISHED  STEEL  FROM  RUSTING. 
After  cleaning,  and  when  not  in  use,  take 
a  cloth  with  a  very  little  sweet  oil  on  it,  and 
wipe  the  articles  over  so  as  to  slightly,  but 
evenly,  oil  the  surface.  Let  steel  knives,  &c. 
be  rubbed  with  a  little  unguentum,  which 
may  be  procured  at  a  chemist's.  One  or 
two  pennyworth  will  last  a  long  time. 


A  MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


81 


POLYPE.  A  species  of  zoophytes,  whose 
chief  animal  property  consists  of  having  a 
stomach  which  is  so  constituted  that  it  acts 
equally  well  if  the  animal  is  turned  inside 
out.  They  propagate  by  stems  or  buds,  and, 
when  cut  into  parts,  each  part  becomes  a 
perfect  animal,  living  in  water,  fixed  at  one 


end ;  but  myriads  of  them  reside  in  small 
cells  of  corals,  madrepores,  &c.  in  forms  like 
plants,  and  their  multiplication  and  industry 
create  rocks  and  whole  islands  in  many  seas. 
SOUND.  An  affection  of  the  medium  in 
which  we  live,  by  vibrations  like  those 
which  are  produced  %.  water,  when  a  stone 
is  thrown  into  it.  It  travels  at  the  rate  of 
1,142  feet  in  a  second,  and  different  vibra- 
tions affect  the  different  gases  which  con- 
stitute the  atmosphere,  and  hence  their 
various  simultaneous  tones.  But  the  same 
gas  may  be  variously  affected,  and,  hence, 
different  pitches  of  tone,  or  octaves.  If  a 
string  perform  100  vibrations  in  a  second, 
the  ear  receives  100  strokes,  which  we  call 
sound ;  and,  if  another  makes  200  vibra- 
tions, the  first  is  lower  or  flatter,  and  the 
latter  higher  and  sharper,  but  according 
every  other  time,  so  that  in  flat  sounds 
there  are  fewer  vibrations  than  in  sharp 


sounds.  Every  key  of  the  piano-forte  con- 
tains a  determinate  number  of  vibrations, 
which  accord  at  regular  intervals,  and  are 
completed  in  a  second.  The  note  marked 
C  makes  100  vibrations  in  a  second ;  but 
the  note  C,  three  octaves  higher,  makes 
1.600  viorations  in  the  same  time.  It  ap- 
pears, by  experiment,  that  we  cannot  de- 
termine the  sound  of  a  string  which  makes 
less  than  30  vibrations  in  a  second,  because 
it  is  too  low,  nor  of  one  which  makes  more 
than  7,552  vibrations  in  a  second,  because 
too  high.  These  limits  determine  the  power 
of  the  human  ear.  The  eight  notes  of  an 
octave  are  in  length  as  follow; — 128-144- 
160-180-192-216-240-256— andthese  are  the 
proportions  of  strings  which  sound  the  dia- 
tonic scale,  in  which,  at  certain  intervals  of 
2,  3,  and  5,  the  vibrations  correspond. 

CONVEX  LENS,  by  means  of  which, 
light  proceeding  from  its  focus  is  recon- 
vened on  the  other  side,  and  there  makes  a 
picture  of  the  object  on  the  other  side. 


ORANGE-TREE.  A  native  of  the  tfbpics, 
where  it  produces  fruit  throughout  the  year, 
the  average  annual  crop  of  each  tree  being 
from  6,000  to 
8,000.  The 
orange  -  tree 
was  trans- 
planted from 
China  (hence 
the  term  of 
China  orange) 
into  Europe 
by  the  Portu 
guese,  about 
1650,  and  now 
flourishes  in 
Portugal  and 
Spain,  as  well 
as  the  south 
of  France,  and 
on  the  shores 
and  islands  of 
the  Mediter- 
ranean. In 
our  own  coun- 
try a  singular 
exception  i  g 
found— a  species  of  a  very  agreeable  flavor 
is  extremely  abundant  in  East  Florida,  and  is 
pronounced  to  be  undoubtedly  native. 


82 

CANARIES,  (THETR  HISTORY  AND 
MANAGEMENT).  This  most  highly  and 
deservedly  valued  of  all  cage  songsters  i 
not  a  native  bird ;  although  from  its  lonn 
domestication  and  breeding  amongst  U3  we 
have  become  accustomed  to  consider  it  a^ 
such.  It  is  said  to  have  been  brought 
originally  from  the  Canary  Isles;  and  the 
manner  of  its  introduction  into  Europe  at 
the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century 
is  thus  related — A  ship,  bound  for  Leghorn, 
having  on  board  a  number  of  these  beautiful 
finches,  then  first  made  an  article  of  mer- 
chandize, was  wrecked  near  the  island  of 
Elba,  on  which  island  the  released  birds 
found  the  »climate  so  congenial  to  their 
nature,  that  they  settled  and  bred  there, 
and  would  probably  have  become  completely 
naturalized,  had  ~  not  their  beauty  and 
powers  of  song  attracted  the  attention  of 
bird-catchers,  who  hunted  them  so  assi- 
duously, that  after  a  while,  not  a  single  spe- 
cimen was  left  on  the  island.  It  was  natural 
that  the  birds  thus  caught  should  be  sent 
first  into  Italy;  and  from  that  country, 
accordingly,  we  have  the  earliest  accounts 


FACTS   FOR  EVERYBODY: 


of  tame  canaries.  There,  and  in  Germany, 
they  are  still  bred  in  greater  numbers  than 
in  any  other  part  of  the  European  conti- 
nent. It  is  from  the  Rhineland,  and  about 
Thuringia  especially,  that  we  now  derive 
our  principal  supply  of  imported  birds ;  but 
some  of  the  choicest  canaries  are  those  bred 
in  this  country,  chiefly  by  small  tradesmen 
and  mechanics. 

In  its  wild  or  native  state,  the  canary  is 
a  little  greyish-brown  bird,  with  a  tinge  of 
olive-green  pervading  its  plumage,  melting 
off  into  greenish  yellow  on  the  under  parts. 
Some  of  the  domesticated  varieties  do  not 
depart  much  from  this  original  tvpe,  and 
such  are  generally  considered  to  be  the 
stronger  and  healthier  birds— delicacy  of 
tint  too  frequently  indicates  delicacy  of 
constitution.  The  jonquills,  or  jonques — 
as  the  golden-coloured  canaries  are  called — 


are  indeed  lovely  creatures,  and  lovely,  too, 
is  the  cheek  on  which  the  hectic  of  con- 
sumption plays.  If  you  want  a  good,  strong 
canary,  especially  if  it  be  for  breeding  pur- 
poses, do  not  choose  a  pure  jonque,  but  one 
in  whose  plumage  there  is  a  due  admixture 
of  brown  or  greenish  gray. 


They  pair  in  February,  and  have  five, 
sometimes  six,  broods  in  a  season.  They 
frequent  the  gardens  near  to  human  habita- 
tions ;  and  even  their  untaught  melody  is 
very  delightful,  having  in  it  many  notes 
like  both  the  nightingale  and  skylark,  from 
neither  of  which  birds  could  they  have  ac- 
quired them,  from  their  not  being  natives 
of  the  island.  They  moult  in  August  and 
September. 

Varieties  of  Colour,  etc.  The  size  of 
the  canary  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the 
linnet,  being  in  length  five  inches,  includ- 
ing the  tail,  which  is  two  inches  and  a 
quarter  long;  the  beak,  that  '  haraeteristic 
feature  of  all  birds,  is  finch-like — that  is, 
short,  stout,  and  sharply-pointed ;  in 
eo'our,  whitish  ;  the  legs  are  flesh-coloured, 
rather  long  and  slender.  The  whole  shape 
of  the  bird  is  extremely  elegant,  and  its 
motions,  when  in  health,  full  of  vivacity. 
There  is  not  much  in  the  female  to  dis- 
tinguish her  from  the  male ;  her  body  is 
generally  somewhat  more  slender,  although 
she  has  a  longer  and  thicker  head;  thecolours 
of  her  plumage,  too,  are  generally  brighter; 
and  the  yellow  around  the  eyes  and  upon 
the  temples  is  always  so,  in  comparison  with 
the  rest  of  her  own  plumage. 

Perhaps  the  most  esteemed  of  all  the 
varieties,  as  far  as  colour  is  concerned,  are 
those  birds  in  which  the  body  is  a  clear 
yellow,  or  white,  and  the  wings,  *aU,  and 
head,  which  should  be  crested,  a  rich, 
golden,  dun  colour ;  the  pinion  and  tail 
feathers,  and  also  those  of  the  back,  may  be 
marked  with  black,   but    these    markings 


A   MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


83 


must  be  regular,  and  flow  into  each  other 
like  the  ripple  of  waves,  or  connoisseurs 
will  not  look  at  the  bird.  A  golden  variety, 
with  a  dark,  gray,  head,  wings  and  tail,  is 
also  much  admired,  M  is  one  which  has  a 
gray  or  yellow  head  or  collar,  and  the  rest 
of  the  plumage  nearly  black;  or  that  has  a 
yellow  breast,  a  white  head  and  tail,  and  a 
gray  or  blackish  head,  wings,  and  body. 

BKBBDING.  Canaries  6hould  not  be 
allowed  to  pair  before  the  beginning  of 
April,  as  the  cold  weather  of  a  backward 
spring  frequently  kills  the  young  birds.  If 
they  are  loose  in  a  room  together,  or  in  a  cage 
where  the  cocks  and  hens  can  have  access. 
t<>  each  other,  they  will  be  most  likely  to 
obey  the  call  of  St.  Valentine,  and  make  up 
their  matches  very  early;  it  is  therefore 
best,  as  soon  as  you  see  an  inclination  to 
pair,  to  shut  up  in  separate  cages  such  males 
and  females  as  you  intend  to  breed  from ; 
these,  however,  should  have  passed  the 
winter  in  each  other's  society ;  or,  when  the 
happy  time  does  come,  it  is  quite  likely  that 
they  will  refuse  all  intercourse.  Male  birds 
for  pairing  should  be  at  least  two  vears  old, 
and  if  these  are  put  with  hens  older  than 
themselves,  the  majority  of  the  progeny  will 
be  males.  It  requires  some  j  udgment  to  choose 

K 


good  breeding  birds.  Particular  attention 
should  be  paid  to  temper  and  temperament. 
Some  cocks  are  melancholy  and  phlegmatic  ; 
gome  fiery  and  passionate,  so  much  so  as  to 
fight  with  the  hen  bird,  and  kill  their  off- 
spring ;  others,  again,  are  so  ardent  in  their 


love-making  as  to  teaze  and  annoy  the  female 
while  she  is  silting,  to  tear  the  nest  and 
break  the  eggs.  The  hens,  too,  have  their 
faults;  some  are  impatient,  and  will  n<,t 
wait  long  for  results  of  their  labours,  for- 
saking their  eggs  almost  as  soon  as  laid, 
and  beginning  to  build  and  pair  again; 
some  break  their  eggs  or  destroy  their 
young  through  awkwardness;  some  are 
careless,  and  let  them  die  for  want  of 
attention  ;  others  are  spiteful,  and  bite 
their  young  and  pull  out  their  feathers,  so 
that  they  die  miserably  ;  and  it  sometimes 
happens  that  the  hens  are  too  weak  to  bear 
the  exhausting  pains  and  cares  of  mater- 
nity; they  lay  their  egg3  with  difficulty 
and  at  long  intervals,  and  are  unable  to 
bestow  the  requisite  attention  on  family 
matters,  so  that  everything  goes  wrong,  as 
our  fair  readers  know  it  must  do  when  the 
presiding  genius  of  the  house  is  sick  or 
indolent. 

In  selecting  your  birds  for  pairing,  take 
it  as  an  invariable  rule  that  the  cock  and 
hen  must  not  both  be  crested ;  if  they  are, 
you  will  most  likely  have  the  progeny  bald, 
or  with  some  disfigurement  about  the  head. 
With  regard  to  the  matching  of  colours,  let 
it  be  observed  that  the  union  of  opposites 
produces  the  most  beautiful  and  harmonious 
results.  All  late  experience  goes  to  prove 
this ;  although  some  of  the  older  authorities 
say,  put  together  birds  of  the  same  colour; 
but  if  you  do  this,  you  will  have,  not  in- 
crease of  beauty,  but  deterioration.  The 
great  secret  of  fancy  breeding  seems  to  con- 
sist in  this — not  apposition,  but  opposition 
of  colours;  thus,  for  instance,  a  fine,  full, 
richly-tinted  jonquecock,  should  be  matched 
with  a  good  mealy  or  variegated  hen,  and 
vice  versa.  A  spangle -marked  cock  with  a 
mealy  hen  will  produce  a  more  full-toned 
and  regularly  spangled  back  than  if  both 
parents  had  been  like  the  father.  Innumer- 
able instances  might  be  cited  to  show  how 
this  principle  operates ;  but  enough  has  been 
said,  we  trust,  for  the  guidance  of  the 
breeders,  whose  stock,  at  first,  should  con- 
sist of  about  three  cocks,  carefully  selected, 
and  half  a  dozen  hens;  these,  deducting 
largely  for  casualties,  will  produce  twenty 
or  thirty  young  birds  in  a  season,  quite  aa 
many  as  can  well  be  managed  without  ex- 
traordinary facilities. 

J  The  following  directions  will  be  of  ser- 
vice to  those  who  breed  Canaries  in  cages : — 
"When  the  proper  time  arrives,  place  your 
birds,  a  cork  and  one  or  two  hens,  together 
in  a  breeding-cage,  so  constructed  that  you 
can,  if  necessary,  separate  the  birds.  At 
one  end,  near  the  top,  should  be  hung  two 


84 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


nest-bags,  or  boxes,  as  far  apart  as  the 
width  of  the  cage  will  allow,  and  behind 
each  of  these  let  there  be  a  square  door 
opening  outwards,  by  which  you  can  at  any 
time  watch  the  progress  of  affairs  without 
disturbing  the  sitters.  If  you  find  a  cold- 
ness and  disinclination  to  pair  in  the  birds, 
place  the  hen  or  hens  in  one  division  of  the 
cage  and  the  cock  in  the  other,  and  let  them 
remain  so  that  they  can  see  each  other 
■without  being  able  to  come  together;  or 
else  put  the  cock  in  a  smaller  cage,  and 


hang  it  up  near  to,  without  touching,  that 
in  which  the  hens  are.  In  a  few  days,  pro- 
bably, the  male  bird  will  begin  to  sing  with 
extraordinary  loudness  and  energy,  and 
peck  at  the  bars  which  confine  him ;  he 
may  then  be  placed  again  with  the  hens, 
and  the  desired  results  will  no  doubt  follow. 
You  will  soon  see  one  of  the  hens,  whichever 
happens  to  be  the  favourite,  busy  in  the 
construction  of  her  nest,  and  in  about  a 
week  the  first  egg  will  be  laid,  and  each 
day  it  will  be  followed  by  another,  until 
there  are  five  or  six.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  the  attentions  of  the  male  are  bestowed 
wholly  upon  one  hen ;  if  this  is  the  case, 
as  soon  as  the  favourite  begins  to  lay,  shut 
up  the  cock  with  the  other  hen  in  the  se- 
parate division  of  the  cage,  and  do  not  open 
the  door  until  you  see  symptoms  of  an 
amicable  understanding  "between  the  pri- 
soners, or  at  all  events,  until  a  reasonable 
time  has  elapsed.  Sometimes  this  second 
pairing  does  not  take  place,  and  the  ne- 


glected hen  has  to  be  sent  about  her  business. 
It  is  customary  with  some  breeders  to  re- 
move the  eggs"  as  they  are  laid,  and  replace 
them  within  ory  imitations,  putting  the  whole 
back  together  when  the  number  is  completed; 
but  we  do  not  think  this  is  a  good  plan  ;  and 
the  end  in  view,  that  of  having  the  young 
birds  all  hatched  together,  is  of  questionable 
advantage.  In  these  simple  operations  of 
nature  the  birds  should  be  left  to  themselves 
as  much  as  possible.  Watch  them  without 
appearing  to  do  so ;  and  if  all  is  going  on 
right,  by  no  means  interfere  with  them. 
If  on  the  thirteenth  day  of  sitting  the  young 
birds  do  not  begin  to  make  their  appearance, 
you  had  better  take  the  eggs  very  carefully, 
one  at  a  time,  and  hold  them  for  a  minute 
or  so  in  lukewarm  water,  replacing  them 
under  the  hen  directly  they  come  out  of  the 
bath.  The  same  operation  may  be  performed 
on  young  birds,  when,  as  is  sometimes  the 
case  in  cold  seasons,  the  feathers  are  not 
developed  so  quickly  as  they  should  be. 
Great  care,  however,  should  be  taken  that 
they  do  not  get  a  chill.  To  obviate  the 
danger  of  this,  it  has  been  recommended  to 
syringe  the  young  birds  in  the  nest  with 
warm  water,  discharged  from  such  a  dis- 
tance that  it  falls  in  a  gentle  spray.  When 
the  fledgelings  are  from  twelve  to  fourteen 
days  old  they  begin  to  feed  themselves,  and 
the  hen  commences  her  preparations  for 
another  brood;  somewhat  recruited  in 
strength  by  the  rest  she  has  enjoyed ;  for  on 
the  cock  has  devolved  the  principle  charge 
of  attending  to  the  young  family,  which 
by  this  time  are  scarcely  fully  fledged.  A 
strong  hen  canary,  paired  writh  a  chosen 
cock,  will  produce  four  broods  in  the  season 
— that  is,  from  April  to  September — some- 
times five ;  but  this  is  too  exhausting,  and 
should  not  be  allowed. 

Food.  Canaries,  like  all  other  finches, 
are  seed-eating  birds.  Kape  and  canary 
seed  are  the  best  kinds  to  give  them  as  a 
general  diet ;  the  summer  rape  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred, not  being  so  hot  and  oily  as  that 
sown  in  the  autumn,  which  is  larger  and 
blacker  than  the  other.  When  tney  re- 
quire rich  stimulating  food,  as  during  the 
moulting  and  breeding  seasons,  a  small  pro- 
portion of  hemp  seed  should  be  mixed  with 
the  others,  and  also  a  little  hard-boiled  yolk  of 
egg  chopped  small ;  at  such  times,  too,  a 
little  raw  lean  meat,  scraped  fine,  may  be 
given  occasionally.  And  in  some  measure 
to  neutralize  the  heating  effects  of  this  rich 
diet,  let  them  have  some  green  food,  such 
as  salad,  water- cresses,  groundsel,  &c; 
something  of  this  kind  is  good  for  them  all 
through  the  hottest  part  of  the  year;  and 


A   MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


65 


while  it  can  be  had,  the  cage  or"  aviary 
should  never  be  without  groundsel,  of  which 
they  are  very  fond,  both  green  or  in  the 
ripe  state.  A  special  treat  now  and  then, 
as  you  would  give  a  plumcake  to  your 
children,  is  to  mix  up  some  millet,  summer 
cabbage,  and  canary  seed,  with  bruised  oats 
or  oatmeal,  and  place  it  in  their  feed- 
in-  vessels;  they  will  enjoy  it  greatly, 
as  they  will  a  little  stale  bun  or 
sponge-cake,  with  a  small  proportion 
of  seed  of  one  or  more  of  the  above  kinds. 
As  a  general  rule,  however,  it  is  best  to 
keep  to  plain  diet.  It  is  mistaken  kindness 
to  over-feed  with  delicacies  a  feathered  pet. 
Many  are  killed  by  such  treatment.  The 
practice  of  keeping  a  piece  of  sugar  con- 
stantly between  the  wires  is  a  bad  one;  for 
although  some  birds  will  only  peck  it  occa- 
sionally, others  are  immoderately  fond  of 
sweets,  and  will  take  so  much  as  to  cloy  the 
stomach,  and  indispose  them  for  food  of  a 
more  healthful  kind.  It  is  bad  for  canaries 
as  for  children  to  have  too  many  sweets ; 
they  are  sure  to  end  in  sours.  Various 
recipes  for  canary  paste  have  been  given, 
but  we  can  scarcely  recommend  any  of 
them.  Pastes  and  powders  are  apt  to  turn 
sour,  or  become  musty,  in  which  state  the}* 
act  like  poison  on  the  birds.  Moist  food 
should  never  be  kept  more  than  twenty-four 
hours;  in  hot  weather  give  it  fresh  twice 
a-day,  and  wash  out  the  vessels  carefully 
each  time.  If  you  put  into  the  seed  vessels 
more  than  sufficient  for  twenty-four  hours' 
consumption,  the  birds  will  be  likely  to 
take  on  the  first  day  more  than  is  good  for 
them,  and  afterwards  feed  on  the  husks,  and 
thus  injure  and  weaken  their  digestive 
organs.  To  young  birds,  if  you  have  to  feed 
them  by  hand,  give  wheaten  bread  crumbled, 
or  biscuit  grated  fine,  and  mixed  with 
bruised  rape  seed  and  yolk  of  hard-boiled 
egg  ;  this  should  be  moistened  with  a  little 
water,  so  as  to  make  it  into  a  stiff  paste,  and 
about  four  quillfuls  given  to  each  bird  ten 
or  twelve  times  a-day.  If  fed  by  the  pa- 
rents, the  same  preparation  may 'be  used, 
only  put  the  seed,  previously  boiled  to  take 
away  its  pungency,  in  a  separate  vessel. 
As  the  young  birds  grow  up  and  become 
able  to  feed  themselves,  gradually  decrease 
the  quantity  of  thb  paste,  and  increase  that 
of  the  seed,  mixing  with  it  canary  and  a 
little  linseed  occasionally ;  the  latter  is  good 
for  the  voice. 

Diseases.  The  diseases  to  which  the 
canary  is  especially  liable  are  not  numerous ; 
it  is  by  no  means  so  delicate  a  bird  as  is 
generally  considered;  and,  if  properly  fed 
and  cared  for,  will  live  many  years  in  con- 
5 


linement  without  falling  ill,  or  manifesting 
any  decline  of  strength  and  vigour. 

Surfeit  or  Rupture.  This  disease  most 
commonly  attacks  young  birds;  it  is  an 
inflammatory  state  of  the  bowels,  caused 
generally  either  by  an  excels  of  highly 
nutritious  food  which  cannot  be  digested", 
or  by  food  in  a  stale  or  otherwise  improper 
condition.  Its  most  marked  symptom  u  a 
great  distention  of  the  skin  of  the  body, 
which  appears  full  of  small  red  veins; 
through  this  the  intestines  may  be  seen, 
more  particularly  at  the  lower  part,  in 
knotty  lumps,  looking  black  and  turgid. 
The  mode  of  treatment  will  depend  greatly 
upon  whether  the  motions  of  the  bird  are 
frequent  and  watery,  or  unfrequent  and 
hard.  In  the  former  case  it  should  have 
Embden  groats  or  oatmeal,  mixed  with  a 
little  bruised  hemp  seed,  which  indeed  aro 
of  a  binding  nature,  and  a  small,  very 
small  quantity,  once  or  twice  a-day,  of  stale 
sponge-cake,  soaked  in  white  wine  ;  a  little 
piece  of  alum  in  the  water  is  also  good. 
In  the  latter  case,  give  mixed  with  the  seed 
a  few  whole  groats,  a  blade  or  two  of  saffron 
in  the  water,  in  which  for  two  or  three 
mornings  also  put  as  much  magnesia  as  will 
lie  upon  a  sixpence;  bread  and  milk,  with, 
a  sprinkle  of  hemp  seed,  may  be  given  once 
or  twice  a-day  with  advantage.  In  both 
cases  the  patients  should  be  kept  warm  and 
quiet.  In  old  birds  surfeit  sometimes  shows 
itself  in  scabs  about  the  head,  eyes,  and 
bill,  out  of  which  flows  a  humour  so  acrid 
as  to  destroy  the  surrounding  feathers,  and 
sometimes  to  produce  total  blindness.  The 
only  chance  for  the  bird  now  lies  in  a  spare, 
cooiingdiet;  let  it  now  eat  rape  seed  with, 
ome  bruised  groats,  and  put  salt  in  itss 
water.  When  it  has  been  well  purged  and 
got  quite  thin,  if  the  malady  seems  some- 
what subdued,  you  may  gradually  mix 
canary  seed  with  the  rape,  and  render  its 
diet  more  nourishing;  but  this  should  be' 
done  very  carefully.  Anoint  the  sores  and 
places  where  the  feathers  come  off  with  fresh 
butter,  or  oil  of  sweet  almonds,  and  bathe 
them  with  warm  milk ;  a  weak  solution  o* 
salt  or  alum  is  sometimes  useful  to  dij 
the  humour  and  cleanse  the  sores. 

I'.fjij  ll>  i pt  are.  Suffering  under  this 
disease,  which  of  course  attacks  birds  only, 
a  bird  is  said  to  be  egg-bound ;  there  is 
some  obstruction  in  the  passage  which  pre- 
vents the  extrusion  of  the  ova.  You  will 
probably  find  your  canary  crouched  down  in 
a  corner  of  the  cage,  or  perhaps  brooding 
over  an  empty  nest  under  the  impression 
that  she  has  laid.  Take  her  up  very  gently, 
and  anoint  the  abdominal  parts  with  warm 


86 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY! 


salad  -oil ;  this  will  frequently  afford  relief 
in  a  lew  hours.  If  it  does  not,  administer, 
by  means  of  a  quill  passed  into  the  gullet, 
a  few  drops  of  castor-oil.  Should  that  fail 
the  case  is  hopeless.  A  warm  bath  may 
be  tried  as  a  last  resource,  but  most  likely 
the  patient  will  die. 

Yellow  Gall,  or  Scab,  in  the  head  and  eyes 
may  be  cured  by  light  cooling  foods,  such  as 
lettuce  and  rape  seed,  and  a  little  bread  and 
milk,  to  nourish  without  heating  the  system. 

Sweating.  This  is  a  disease  to  which 
sitting  hens  are  liable ;  it  is  an  indication 
of  weakness,  and  will  sometimes  destroy  the 
brood.  Let  the  body  of  the  patient  be  first 
washed  with  salt  and  water,  and  then  with 
fresh  spring  water  to  remove  the  saline 
particles;  dry  her  rapidly  in  the  sun,  or 
before  a  good  fire ;  repeat  this  every  day 
until  she  is  better;  give  her  good,  nourish- 
ing food,  and  lighten  her  duties  as  much 
as  possible  ;  remove  her  mate  if  he  is  at  all 
troublesome,  and  every  cause  of  annoyance 
and  anxiety.  See  that  the  breeding  place 
be  not  too  close  and  ill-ventilated,  and  you 
will  no  doubt  effect  a  cure. 

Sneezing  is  generally  caused  by  some  ob- 
struction of  the  nostril,  which  may  be 
removed  by  putting  a  small  feather  up  it. 
This  should  be  done  very  carefully,  cv  you 
may  inj  ure  the  bird ;  hold  it  in  a  firm 
yet  gentle,  manner,  that  you  may  not  give 
it  unnecessary  alarm  or  pain.  The  same 
directions  will  apply  to  the  cutting  of 

Overgrown  Claws  and  Beak,  which,  on 
account  of  their  bad  effects  upon  the  health 
and  spirits  of  a  cage  bird,  may  well  be 
classed  among  diseases.  The  consciousness 
of  having  these  an  undue  length,  rendering 
it  liable  to  be  entangled  in  the  bars  of  its 
cage,  or  whatever  it  comes  in  contact  with, 
will  cause  a  bird  to  mope  and  refuse  its 
food ;  and  if  not  relieved  from  its  awkward 
state  of  embarrassment,  it  will  be  very 
likely  to  pine  and  die.  In  both  bill  and 
claws,  if  held  up  to  the  light,  you  may  see 
by  the  termination  of  the  red  lines  how  far 
the  veins  extend.  Nearly  up  to  this  point 
you  may  safely  cut. 

Hmkiness  and  Loss  of  Voice  generally 
proceeds  from  a  cold  ;  it  sometimes  comes  on 
after  moulting.  If  not  speedily  attended 
to  and  cured,  it  will  most  likely  become 
chronic.  Many  a  fine  songster  ha3  been 
thus  rendered  mute  and  comparatively 
valueless.  The  bird  suffering  under  this 
disease  should  be  kept  in  a  warm  room, 
and  fed  upon  rape  and  canary  mixed  with 
linseed.  Ripe  plantain  should  also  be 
given,  and  every  morning  about  a  teaspoon- 
ful  of  boiled  bread  and  milk,  with  maw 


seed  sprinkled  over  it.  Sponge-cake  soaked 
in  sherry  wine  is  also  good,  and  a  little 
white  sugar -candy  or  extract  of  liquorice 
dissolved  in  the  water. 

Constipation  may  be  cured  by  giving  the 
birds  plenty  of  green  food,  such  as  lettuce, 
water-cress,  duckweed,  &c. 

Epilepsy  is  commonly  the  result  of  fear 
acting  upon  a  constitution  enervated  by  too 
delicate  a  mode  of  treatment.  At  the 
slightest  alarm,  and  often  when  agitated  or 
excited  in  any  way,  the  bird  will  drop  from 
its  perch  as  if  dead.  The  quickest  remedy 
is  to  plunge  it  in  a  bath  of  cold  water,  and 
when  it  begins  to  recover,  drop  a  little  sherry 
wine  down  its  throat.  The  bath,  if  repeated 
every  morning,  will  strengthen  the  bird,  as 
will  a  few  drops  of  spirits  of  nitre  in  its 
water.  When  in  the  fit,  some  pull  a  fea- 
ther out  of  the  tail  of  the  patient,  but  we 
scarcely  think  this  of  much  service. 

Moulting  Sickness.  This  is  an  inevitable 
visitation,  which  no  amount  of  care  and 
attention  will  prevent  or  delay  beyond  the 
appointed  time.  Every  year,  in  or  about 
the  month  of  September,  sometimes  earlier, 
your  bird  sheds  his  old  feathers  and  acquires 
new  ones,  and  during  the  process,  which 
lasts  from  three  to  six  weeks,  according  to 
the  strength  of  the  bird,  the  state  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  other  circumstances,  it  will 
be  more  or  less  indisposed.  As  the  time  for 
the  annual  change  approaches,  when  you 
see  your  pet  begin  to  lose  his  vivacity,  and 
to  drop  liis  feathers,  your  first  care  must  be 
to  have  it  placed  in  a  warm  situation.  Let 
the  cage  be  partly  muffled  with  baize 
or  flannel  so  as  to  exclude  all  draughts,  as 
well  as  disturbing  sights  and  sounds.  Give 
it  bread  and  milk,  a  little  beef,  raw  and 
lean,  scraped  fine,  yolk  of  egg,  and  now 
and  then  a  piece  of  sponge-cake,  and  some 
ripe  chickweed.  Put  a  rusty  nail  in  the 
water,  with  occasionally  a  clove,  or  a  few 
shreds  of  saffron,  or  a  piece  of  refined 
liquorice.  Should  he  moult  with  difficulty, 
let  him  have  cake  soaked  in  sherry  wine, 
and  blow  a  little  of  the  wine  over  his 
feathers  every  day.  This  will  invigorate 
him,  and  assist  their  development.  If  it 
be  a  hearty,  strong  bird,  most  likely  matters 
will  go  on  all  right,  and  you  will  have  no 
occasion  to  resort  to  this.  With  all  birds, 
however,  the  moulting  season  is  a  critical 
time,  and  with  weakly  ones  especially  so. 
Then  it  is  that  coarse  sand  or  gravel  at  the 
bottom  of  the  cage  is  more  than  ever  essen- 
tial ;  and  also,  as  there  is  generally  a  loss  of 
appetite,  such  delicacies  as  we  have  de- 
scribed, to  tempt  the  palate  and  support  the 
strength.     The  first  moult  of  young  birds 


A   MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


87 


takes  place  when  they  are  from  six  to 
twelve  weeks  old  ;  they  then  exchange  the 
soft  down  and  loose  feathers  with  which 
they  are  first  covered,  for  the  perfect  adult 
plumage,  which  in  the  second  m  rait  under- 
goes considerable  changes  in  colour. 

Diseased  Feet.  Swollen  feet  and  claws 
in  a  canary  nearly  always  result  from  the 
want  of  opportunity  to  wash  and  bathe,  or 
from  a  dirty  state  of  the  perches  and  bottom 
of  its  cage;  consequently  they  convey  a 
reproach,  mute  yet  eloquent,  on  the  neglect 
of  its  keeper.  Let  the  bird  have  the  re- 
quired opportunities,  and  remove  the  ex- 
citing cause  of  the  unsightly  and  disgraceful 
swellings,  and  they  will  soon  disappear. 
Sometimes  a  little  anointing  with  salad-oil 
may  be  required  to  hasten  the  cure. 

Cages.  On  this  head  we  need  scarcely 
trouble  our  readers  with  many  special 
directions.  Canary  cages  may  be  made  of 
every  conceivable  variety  of  shape;  and, 
provided  the  comforts  of  the  little  inmates 
are  properly  cared  for,  as  highly  ornamented 
as  taste  or  fancy  may  dictate.  Either 
mahogany,  or  some  hard,  close-grainea 
wood,  should  be  used  in  their  construc- 
tion —  the  former  is  best ;  fir  should 
never  be  tolerated,  nor  anything  of  a 
soft  and  porous  nature,  which  might  afford 
a  harbour  for  insects.  Bell-shaped  cages, 
chiefly  of  wire,  have  been  a  good  deal  used ; 
they  are  light  and  pretty,  and  easily  kept 
clean.  Perfoiated  zinc  has  lately  come  into 
use  as  a  material  for  cages;  some  good 
examples  of  its  application  to  this  purpose 
were  shown  in  the  Zollverein  department  of 
the  Great  Exhibition.  Very  elegant  effects 
might  be  produced  with  this  metal  in  com- 
bination with  glass.  Of  this  latter  material, 
or  of  porcelain,  food  and  water  vessels  should 
always  be  made ;  and  their  proper  place  is 
on  the  outside  of  the  cage,  the  interior  space 
of  which  ought  to  be  at  least  a  foot  in  height, 
eight  inches  in  length,  and  about  the  same 
in  breadth — that  is,  for  one  bird.  Every 
cage  should  have  at  least  two  perches,  at 
different  heights,  and  these  should  not  be 
placed  one  under  the  other.  Breeding  cages 
twe  have  already  spoken  of. 

AX  EMPTY  BOAST.— At  Vienna  there 
mw  formerly  a  gate  called  the  Five  Vowels. 
It  was  a  gate  of  the  Palace,  then  described  as 
A  E  1  o  U",  meaning,  Austria  est  imperare 
orbi  universo  ;  i.  e.,  "  Austria  is  to  govern 
'he  whole  world." 

ADHESIVE  COMPOSITION.  Glue  and 
water  with  a  small  admixture  of  sweet  oil, 
make  a  good  adhesive  composition  for 
labels.  A  little  treacle,  or  sugar,  mixed 
with  gum,  prevents  the  curling  up  and  crisp- 


ness  of  the  latter.  The  postage  labels  are,  we 
think,  made  adhesive  by  "dextrine."  This 
substance  is  frequently  called  British  gum; 
it  may  be  procured  of  chemists  or  oilmen. 

COFFEE.  An  evergreen  shrub,  growing 
in  Arabia,  the  island  of  Java,  and  the  West 
Indies.  It  seldom  rises  mere  than  16  or  18 
feet  high ;  tho 
flowers  are  of  a 
pure  white,  and 
the  berries  grow 
in  clusters,  re- 
sembling cher- 
ries. Coffee  is  an 
article  of  but  re- 
cent introduction 
It  was  first  pub- 
licly sold  in  Eng- 
land in  1652,  by 
Daniel  Edwards, 
a  Turkey  mer- 
chant, who  un- 
derstood the  me- 
thod of  roasting 
coffee,  and  mak- 
ing it  into  a  bev- 
erage. At  Paris 
coffee  was  nearly 
unknown  until 
the  arrival  of  tho 
Turkish  Ambassador,  Soloman  Aga,  In  L669  : 
about  three  years  after  which  the  first  coffee- 
house is  said  to  have  been  established  in  that 
city. 

COllAL.  A  genus  of  zoophytae  found  in 
the  sea,  attached  to  stones,  bones,  shells, 
&c.  Corals  were  formerly  believed  to  bo 
vegetable  substances-,, 
but  are  now  ascer- 
tained to  consist  of 
animals.  The  islands 
in  the  South  Seas  are 
principally  coral  rocks 
covered  with  earth, 
which  have  been 
formed  by  them  from 
the  bottom  of  the 
ocean.  These  sub- 
marine works  are  still 
proceeding,  which 
renders  it  more  than 
probable  that  new 
islands  may  occa- 
sionally be  produced.  The  branch  repre- 
sented in  the  engraving  contains  several 
cells  or  apertures,  each  of  which  is  tenanted 
bv  insects,  which  were  long  mistaken  for 
flowers.  Broken  branches  of  coral  have 
been  seen  to  attach  themselves  to  other 
branches,  and  thus  to  continue  to  grow. 
The  three  varieties  are  red,  white,  and  black. 


68 


FACTS   FOR  EVERYBODY 


CAMELEOPARD,  or  GIRAFFE.  A] 
native  of  South  Africa,  usually  16  or  17  feet 
high,  and  named  from  its  resemblance  to  a 
can  el  aiid  a  panther.  These  animals  are 
exceedingly  docile,  and  delicate  in  consti- 
tution. In  1827,  the  Bey  of  Tunis  sent  one 
each  as  presents  to  the  kings  of  France  and 
of  England.  The  one  in  France  was  kept  at 
the  Jardin  des  Plantes  at  Paris,  and  attended 
with  great  care  :  the  one  to  England  was 
sent  to  Windsor,  where  the  climate  seemed 
unfavourable  for  it. 


MARBLE  APPEARANCE  TO  PLAS- 
TIC FIGURES.  Dissolve  an  ounce  of  pure 
curd  soap  grated  in  water,  and  add  one 
once  of  white  wax,  cut  in  thin  slices;  When 
the  whole  is  incorporated  it  is  fit  for  use. 
Having  dried  the  figure  before  the  fire, 
suspend  it  by  a  string  and  dip  it  in  the  mix- 
ture ;  when  it  has  absorbed  the  varnish,  dip 
it  in  a  second  time,  and  that  generally  suf- 
fices ;  cover  it  carefully  from  the  dust  for  a 
week,  then  rub  it  gently  with  soft  cotton 
wool,  and  you  will  have  a.  brilliant  shining 
gloss,  exactly  resembling  polished  marble 

DORIC.  An  order  of  architecture,  in 
imitation  of  a  wooden  structure,  resembling 
the  trunks  of  trees  in  union. 


CLOVE-TREE.  A  native  of  the  Moluccas. 
The  blossoms  are  first  white,  then  green, 
and  at  last  red  and  hard,  when  they  are 
cloves.  When  dried  they  turn  yellow,  and 
then  dark-brown.    The  clove  is  also  culti- 


vated to  great  extent  at  Cayenne,  in  South 
America,  from  whence  more  than  500. 000 lbs. 
were  imported  into  England,  in  1815  :  the 
quantity  imported  from  the  East  Indies  in 
the  five  vears  1823  &  1827  was  1,036,057  lbs. 
and  in  the  latter  year  sold  as  low  as  30  cts.  a 
pound. 

FROG.  Ad  amphibious  animal,  perfectly 
harmless,  which  continues  growing  for  five 
years,  and  is  very  tenacious  of  life.  Frogs 
are  formed  from  tadpoles;   the  feet  grow, 


and  the  tail  is  absorbed  when  they  leave  the 
ponds,  after  rain.  They  subsist  on  worms 
and  insects ;  and  certain  parts  of  a  green 
frog  are  eaten  in  France  as  a  delicacy. 
Spallanzani  kept  some  torpid  in  an  ice-house 
for  3^  years,  and  they  revived  in  the  sun. 

BEDS.  In  regard  to  the  kind  of  beds 
most  suitable  for  refreshing  slumber,  there 
are  differences  of  opinion  ;  some  are  advo- 
cates for  soft  and  some  for  hard  beds.  The 
difference  between  the    two    is    this — the 


A   MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


?9 


▼eight  of  a  body  on  a  soft  bed  presses  on  a 
larger  surface  than  on  a  hard  bed,  and  con- 
sequently more  comfort  is  enjoyed.  Child- 
ren should  never  be  allowed  to  sleep  on 
hard  beds,  and  parents  err  who  supn  ise 
that  such  beds  contribute  to  health,  harden- 
ing and  developing  the  constitution  of 
children.  Eminent  physicians,  Dr.  Darwin 
among  the  number,  state  that  hard  beds 
have  frequently  proven  injurious  to  the 
shape  of  infants,  liirds  cover  their  offspring 
witli  the  softest  down  or  the  most  velvety 
Bioaa,  The  softness  of  a  bed  ir.  not  evidence 
of  its  being  unhealthy,  and  they  have  but  a 
poor  understanding  of  the  laws  of  nature 
▼ho  think  otherwise. 

MERC  lit  Y.  The  planet  nearest  to  the 
Bun,  in  diameter  3200  miles,  distance  37 
millions,  and  period  of  revolution  88  days. 
It  is  seldom  visible. 

Mekcuky,  in  the  heathen  mythology, 
the  inventor  of  letters,  and  the  god  of  elo- 
quence, and  son  of  Jupiter  and  Maia,  the 
daughter  of  Atlas.    He  was  the  messenger 


of  Jupiter  and  the  gods,  and  was  furnished 
with  a  winged  hat,  and  with  wings  to  his  feet. 

Mercury,  or  fluid  of  silver,  a  white 
fluid  metal,  the  heaviest,  except  platina  and 
gold.  It  freezes  at  39°  below  the  zero  of 
Fahrenheit,  when  it  is  malleable,  and  boils 
at  660°.  It  readily  combines  with  nearly 
all  other  metals,  and  is  used  in  water- 
gilding,  the  manufacture  of  vermilion,  the 
silvering  of  looking-glasses,  the  making  of 
barometers  and  thermometers,  and  the 
preparation  of  several  powerlul  medicines, 
some  of  which  are  deadly  poisons. 

TEA- PLANT.  A  small  evergreen  shrub, 
a  native  of  Japan,  China,  and  Tonquin.  In 
seven  years  the  shrub  rises  six  feet,  and 
being  cut  down  to  the  stem  produces  fresh 
shoots,  each  of  which  bears  as  many  leaves 
as  a  whole  shrub.  The  culture  of  tea  in  the 
United  States  is  an  attempt  the  importance  of 


which  is  not  fully  known.  The  trade  with 
China  la  rapidly  increasing.  In  1849  we  im- 
ported 18,000,000  pounds,  and  in  1858  the 
import  reached  about  40,000,000  pounds. 


FRECKLES  (TO  REMOVE).  Take  of 
Venice  soap  an  ounce,  dissolve  it  in  half  an 
ounce  of  lemon -juice,  to  which  add  of  oil  of 
bitter  almonds,  and  deliquated  oil  of  tartar, 
each  a  quarter  of  an  ounce.  Let  the  mix- 
ture be  placed  in  the  sun  till  it  acquires  the 
consistence  of  ointment.  When  in  this  state 
add  three  drops  of  the  oil  of  rhodium,  and 
keep  it  for  use.  Apply  it  in  the  following 
manner: — Wash  the  face  at  night  with  elder- 
flower  water,  then  anoint  it  with  the  above 
unction.  In  the  morning,  cleanse  the  skin 
from  its  oily  adhesion  by  washing  it  copi- 
ously in  rose-water. 

EGYPTIAN  ARCHITECTURE,  distin- 
guished by  capitals  like  the  engraving,  and 
lately  much  introduced. 


90 


FACTS  FOE  EVERYBODY: 


COFFEE,  TEA,  CHOCOLATE,  AND 
COCOA.  Coffee  and  tea  have  now  become 
such  universal  beverages  for  the  morning  or 
after-dinner  meal,  that  beyond  a  few  ge- 
neral directions  little  remains  for  prefatory 
matter. 


Coffee  should  be  purchased  in  the  berry, 
and  fresh  roasted,  and  it  should  always, 
when  possible,  be  ground  just  previous  to 
being  made.  After  it  is  ground,  it  should 
not  be  exposed  to  the  air,  as  the  aroma 
speedily  flies  off.  If  more  is  ground  than 
required  for  the  meal,  keep  it  in  a  closely- 
stopped  glass  bottle.  Coffee,  like  tea,  should 
be  an  infusion,  not  a  decoction. 

The  best  coffee  is  the  Mocha,  the  next  is 
the  Java,  and  closely  approximating  is  the 
Jamaica  and  Berbice. 

Of  Tea  little  need  be  said ;  almost  every 
one  knows  the  rules  for  making  it.  Boiling 
water  should  alone  be  used.  Metal  tea-pots 
in  preference  to  earthenware.  Silver  is 
better  than  either.  A  spoonful  of  tea  for 
each  person.  Heat  the  tea-pot  first  with 
some  boiling  water,  then  pour  that  into  the 
tea-cups  to  warm  them ;  put  in  your  tea, 
and  pour  enough  water  on  the  tea  to  cover 
it ;  let  it  stand  three  or  four  minutes,  then 
nearly  fill  the  tea -pot  with  water;  let  it 
stand  a  few  minutes,  and  pour  out,  leaving 
some  portion  of  tea  in  the  pot  when  you  re- 
plenish, that  all  the  strength  may  not  be 
poured  away  in  the  first  cup. 

Chocolate  can  only  be  obtained  pure  of 
a  first-rate  house ;  that  commonly  sold  is 
most  infamously  adulterated;  the  best  Span- 


ish or  Italian  chocolate  should  be  pur- 
chased ;  the  Florence  has  a  high  repu- 
tation. 

Cocoa  is  the  foundation  of  chocolate;  it 
may  be  pounded,  and  either  boiled  in  milk, 
or  boiling  water  may  be  poured  upon  it.  It 
is  verv  digestible,  and  of  a  fattening  nature. 

COFFEE  (FRENCH  METHOD  OF 
PREPARING).  Let  your  coffee  be  dry, 
not  in  the  least  mouldy  or  damaged ;  divide 
the  quantity  that  is  to  be  roasted  into  two 
parts ;  roast  the  first  part  in  a  coffee-roaster: 
the  handle  must  be  constantly  turning  nntit 
the  coffee  becomes  of  a  dry  almond  colour  or 
bread  raspings,  and  has  lost  one-eighth  of  its 
weight ;  roast  the  second  part  until  it  be- 
comes the  fine  brown  colour  of  chesnuts, 
and  has  lost  one-fifth  of  its  weight;  mix 
the  two  parts  together,  and  grind  them  in  a 
coffee  mill;  do  not  roast  or  make  your 
coffee  until  the  day  it  is  wanted.  To  two 
ounces  of  ground  coffee  put  four  cups  of  cold 
water,  then  drain  off  this  infusion  and  put 
it  aside  ;  put  to  the  coffee  which  remains  in 
the  biggin  three  cups  of  boiling  water,  then 
drain  it  off  and  add  it  to  that  which  has 
been  put  on  one  side ;  by  this  method  you 
obtain  three  cups  more;  when  vour  coffee 
is  wanted,  heat  it  quickly  in  a  silver  coffee- 
pot, taking  care  not  to  let  it  boil,  that  the 
perfume  may  not  be  lost  by  undergoing  any 
evaporation. 

COFFEE  (TO  MAKE  WITH  HOT 
WATER).  Instead  of  pouring  cold  water 
upon  the  coffee,  boiling  must  be  used, 
taking  care  the  froth  does  not  run  over, 
which  is  to  be  prevented  by  pouring  the 
water  on  the  coffee  by  degrees. 

COFFEE  MILK.  Boil  a  dessert-spoon- 
ful of  coffee  in  nearly  a  pint  of  milk  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,  then  put  in  a  little 
isinglass  and  clear  it,  and  let  it  boil  a  few 
minutes,  and  set  it  on  the  fire  to  grow  fine. 

CHOCOLATE.  According  as  you  intend 
to  make  this,  either  with  milk  or  water, 
put  a  cup  of  one  or  the  other  of  these  liquids 
into  a  chocolate-pot  with  one  ounce  of  cake 
chocolate ;  some  persons  dissolve  the  choco- 
late before  they  put  it  into  the  milk :  as 
soon  as  the  milk  or  water  begins  to  boil, 
mill  it;  when  the  chocolate  is  dissolved  and 
begins  to  bubble,  take  it  off  the  fire,  letting 
it  stand  near  it  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour ; 
then  mill  it  again  to  make  it  frothy  ;  after- 
wards serve  it  out  in  cups.  The  chocolate 
should  not  be  milled  unless  it  is  prepared 
with  cream;  chocolate  in  cakes  should 
always  be  made  use  of  in  ices  and  dragees. 

TEA.  (Tea  Cream.)  Infuse  an  ounce  of 
the  best  green  tea  in  half  a  pint  of  boiling 
milk,  simmer  it  five  minutes,  then  strain 


A  MISCLLLANY  OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


01 


it  through  a  t»mmy,  pressing  the  leaves 
wel  I :  boil  a  pint  of  rich  cream,  add  to  it 
the  yolks  of  (our  erg*  beaten,  and  sufficient 
quantity  of  clarified1  sugar;  pour  this  whilst 
hot  to  the  milk,  stir  them  together  well, 
put  in  a^  much  clarified  isinglass  as  will  tat 
it,  and  pour  the  cream  into  the  mould  or 
glasses ;  place  them  on  ice  when  cold,  turn 
it  out  of  the  mould,  or  serve  hi  the  glaesee. 

LEMON.  A  fruit,  the  product  of  the  south 
of  Europe,  of  the  genus  citrus,  from  which 
citric  acid,  lemonade,  punch,  &e.,  are  made. 
The  engraving  represents  a  branch  of  the 
Lemon-tree. 


OIL  CLOTIIS  (TO  BUY  AND  PRE- 
SERVE). In  buying  an  oil-cloth  for  a 
floor,  endeavour  to  obtain  one  that  was 
manufactured  several  years  before;  as  the 
longer  it  has  been  made  previous  to  use,  the 
better  it  will  wear,  from  the  paint  becoming 
hard  and  durable.  An  oil-cloth  that  has 
been  made  within  the  year  is  scarcely 
■worth  buying,  as  the  paint  will  be  defaced 
in  a  very  little  time,  it  requiring  a  long 
while  to  season.  An  oil-cloth  should  never 
be  scrubbed  with  a  brush  ;  but,  after  being 
first  swept,  it  should  be  cleaned  by  washing 
with  a  large  soft  cloth  and  lukewarm  or  cold 
water.  On  no  account  use  soap,  or  take 
water  that  is  hot ;  as  either  of  them  will 
certainly  bring  off  the  paint.  When  it  has 
dried,  you  may  sponge  it  with  milk,  which 
will  brighten  and  preserve  the  colours; 
and  then  wipe  it  with  a  soft  dry  cloth. 

LEADEN  CISTERNS  (TO  NEUTRA- 
LIZE THE  BAD  EFFECTS  OF).  Sul- 
phate of  soda,  or  common  Glauber's  salt,  is 
as  good  as  anything  that  could  be  employed. 


A  few  applications  of  this  salt  will  be  found 
sufficient;  it  will  form  with  all  the  lead  that 
ma]  be  contained  in  the  water  an  insoluable 
precipitate,  which,  forming  a  crust  on  tho 
surface  of  the  cistern,  will  protect  the  latter 
from  the  further  action  of  the  water. 

BOTTLES  (TO  EXTRACT  CORKS 
FROM).  A  simple  invention  may  exist 
unknown.  This  u  illustrated  in  your  I  ase. 
You  have  "been  greatly  troubled  by  corks 
getting  within  bottles,  and  have  waistcd 
hours  in  endeavouring  to  extract 
them."  The  engraving  illustrates 
a  simple  instrument  formed  of 
twisted  wire,  with  a  moveable 
ring  (A),  by  which  its  four  "fin- 
gers" may  be  closed.  Move  the 
ring  down  to  the  extremities  of 
the  fingers,  and  insert  the  latter  a 
into  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  still 
holding  fast  of  the  ring,  and 
drawing  it  back  as  the  instru- 
ment is  pushed  inward.  When 
thus  inserted,  the  fingers  will// 
open,  as  in  the  engraving ;  then 
turn  the  bottle  upside  down,  and  by  shaking 
it,  the  cork  will  soon  be  brought  within  the 
open  fingers;  then  draw  the  instrument  out, 
the  while  sliding  the  ring  again  on  tho 
fingers  to  secure  their  hold  of  the  cork. 
When  fairly  tightened,  the  cork  may  be 
drawn  out  without  any  difficulty.  It  will 
be  observed  that  the  points  of  the  fingers, 
(B),  are  sharply  bent,  by  which,  when  they 
once  lay  hold  of  the  cork,  they  do  not  re- 
lease it  readily.  The  plan  is  very  successful. 

PIMPLES.  The  following  is  an  oint- 
ment recommended  by  Sir  M.  Tierney : — 
Take  of  purified  lard  an  ounce;  of  citron 
ointment,  an  ounce  and  a  half;  of  finest 
almond  oil,  half  an  ounce ;  and  mix  all  well 
together.  The  whole  may  be  scented  with 
oil  of  bergamot. 

MILK  (TO  PREVENT  FROM  TURN- 
ING SOUR  IN  WARM  WEATHER).  In 
Paris  the  milkmen  are  in  the  habit  of  em- 
ploying a  little  sub-carbonate  of  soda  or  of 
potash.  This,  by  combining  with  and  neu- 
tralising the  acetic  acid  formed,  has  the 
desired  effect,  and  keeps  the  milk  from 
turning  as  soon  as  it  otherwise  would.  The 
salt  that  is  thus  formed — viz.,  the  acetate  of 
sod^i  or  of  potash — is  not  at  all  injurious  ; 
and  as  pure  milk  does  contain  a  small  quan- 
tity of  this  salt,  it  is  difficult  to  pronounce 
upon  the  addition  of  any  alkali,  except  there 
should  be  some  in  a  free  or  uncombined 
6tate,  which  does  not  exist  in  milk.  The 
addition  of  a  little  carbonate  of  potash  will 
break  down  the  curd  that  is  beginning  to 
form,  in  consequence  of  souring. 


92 


FACTS   FOB,  EVERYBODY*. 


HAND.  The  numerous  bones  of  the 
hand  prove  the  wonderful  structure  of  the 
animal  frame.  It  is 
joined  to  the  radius  and 
ulnus  of  the  arm  by 
the  carpus,  or  wrist, 
which  consists  of  eight 
small  bones,  in  two 
rows;  to  these  are  at- 
tached four  bones  within 
the  palm,  called  meta- 
carpal, and  each  of  the 
fingeis  and  the  thumb 
contains  three  bones, 
connected  by  cartilages : 
hence  the  hand  contains 
twenty-seven  bones.  It 
is  so  important  an  in- 
strument to  man,  that  without  it  his  reason 
and  speech  would  not  have  availed  him 
against  other  animals. 

MAGIC  LANTERN.  An  optical  toy,  by 
which  light  is  diverged  on  a  wall  by  a  lens, 
and  intercepted  by  coloured  figures. 


LONG  SIGHT.  This  is  a  disease  of  age 
•when  the  eve  becomes  too  fiat  to  converge 
rays  of  light  to  the  distance  of  the  optic 
nerve ;  but  the  light,  as  is  shewn  in  the  en- 
graving, arrives  at  a  focus  beyond  the  nerve, 
and  gives  a  confused  picture  at  the  nerve  ; 
nevertheless,  if 
the  object  is 
carried  further 
off,  the  conver- 
gency  is  then 
perfect,  but  the 
object  at  the 
increased  dis- 
tance becomes 
too  small  to  be 
discerned  dis- 
tinctly, as  for 
reading,  &c, 
and  hence  it  is, 
that  such  per- 
■Bighted.  The  defect  is, 
by  means  of  a  convex 
lens,  by  which  the  rays  are  made  convergent 
before  they  reach  the  eye,  and  the  eye, 
therefore,  has  less  to  perform.    Fig.  1.  ex- 


eons  are  called  long- 
however,   corrected 


plains  long  sight,  and  the  use  of  a  convex 
lens  ;  and  fig.  2.  short  sight,  and  the  use  of 
a  concave  lens. 

DROMEDARY.  The  Arabian  camel,  with 
a  single  hunch  ;  a  beast  of  burden  in  Western 
Asia,  docile,  patient,  and  hardy,  but  very 
uneasy  to  ride  upon,  though  generally  used 
for  that  purpose  in  long  journeys.  They 
are  commonly  about  six  feet  high,  but  nine 
feet  to  the  top  of  the  head  ;  and  they  are 
taught  to  kneel  when  they  take  up  their 
load. 


HARROW.  The  name  of  a  very  useful 
instrument  of  agriculture,  employed  to  pre- 
pare ploughed  land  for  the  seed,  and  to  mix 
the  seed  with  the  soil  after  it  has  been  sown. 


The  latter  kind  is  expressed  in  the  engrav- 
ing, but  their  structure  is  different,  accord- 
ing to  their  purpose. 

PLUTO.    Brother  of  Jupiter,  and  god  ol 
the  infernal  regions. 


A  MISCELLANY  OP  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


93 


FEBRUARY.  It  is  generally  known  that 
Nun:a  Pompilius  altered  the  Roman  calen- 
dar, by  adding  two  months  (January  and 
February)  to  the  year,  and,  also,  that  be 
assigned  twenty-nine  days  to  the  latter. 
Julius  Cesar  did  not  make  any  alteration  in 
the  oalendar  of  Numa,  but  Augustus  Cawai 
subtracted  one  day  from  February  and  added 
it  to  his  own  month  of  August.  Every 
fourth  year  an  additional  or  twenty-ninth 
day  was  iitterculatcd  between  the  twenty- 
third  and  twenty-fourth  of  this  month,  and 
was  unnoticed  ;  but  now  the  intercalated 
day  occurs  every  fourth  or  leap  year,  and  is 
placed  after  the  twenty-eighth  ;  it  is  there- 
fore the  29th  or  last  day  of  February. 
Every  leap-year  is  readily  discovered  by 


iL 


rJ 


dividing  the  year  by  four;  and  if  there  is 
no  remainder,  as  in  1852,  then  February 
contains  twenty-nine  days,  but  if  there  is  a 
remainder,  as  in  18o4,  the  month  only  con- 
tains twenty -eight  days. 

The  Saxons  called  this  month  Sprout 
Kale,  or  the  month  in  which  young  cole- 
worts  or  cabbages  begin  to  sprout ;  but  it 
was  afterwards  called  Sol  Monath,  or  sun 
month,  because  the  sun  returns  and  warns 
us  of  the  approach  of  spring,  with  its  fresh 
vegetation  and  balmy  airs.  In  Latin,  it  is 
called  Februarius  ;  in  French,  Fevrier ;  in 
Italian,  Febrojo ;  and  in  Portuguese,  Fc- 
vereiro. 

The  usual  allegorical  representation  of 
the  month  is  a  young  man  dressed  in  a  dark 
or  cloudy  sky-coloured  habit,  symbolical  of 
the  frequent  rain  and  gloomy  sky.  On  his 
left  is  the  astronomical  sign  of  Pisces,  or  the 
fishes,  to  intimate  that  the  sun  enters  that 
sign  on  the  19th  of  the  month.  February 
has  been  represented  as  a  young  man  dressed 
in  a  white  robe,  with  a  wreath  of  snow- 
drops round  his  brows,  and  a  burning  candle 
in  his  right  hand.  Our  Saxon  ancestors 
painted  this  month  as  a  vine-dresser  pruning 
his  trees;  and,  sometimes,  as  a  man  in  a 
frieze-jacket  buttoned  close  up  to  the  throat, 
5* 


throwing  his  arms  across  his  body,  the  same 
as  we  frequently  observe  cabmen  "and  oth  rs 
at  this  time  of  the  year,  when  the  weather 
is  very  inclement. 

The  month  of  February,  though  generally 
of  a  cheerless  and  uninspiring  character, 
has  not  been  without  its  muse.  The  bard  of 
the  "Bhepherd'a  Calendar"  thus  pours 
forth  his  effusion 8  : — 

"The  sunbeams  on  the  heda-es  lie, 

The  south  wind  murmurs  summer  soffcj 
file  maids  hang  out  white  clothes  to  dry 

Around  the  elder-skirted  croft; 

A  calm  <>f  pleasure  listens  round, 

And  almost  whispers  winterly; 

While  fancy  dreams  ot  summer's  sound, 

•  And  quiet  rapture  fills  the  eye." 

The  red-letter  days  of  February,  or  its 
feasts,  fasts,  and  festivals,  are  tolerably  nu- 
merous and  remarkable.  In  addition,  we 
have  day 8  rendered  memorable  by  certain 
events  chronicled  by  the  antiquary  and  his- 
torian with  due  care. 

The  1st  day  of  this  month  is  always  re- 
membered by  sportsmen  as  the  end  of 
pheasant  and  partridge;  shooting ;  a  happy 
time  for  part  of  the  feathered  tribe  ! 

2nd.  Candlemas  Day. — This  day  is  cabled 
thus  on  account  of  its  being  celebrated  in 
this  and  Roman  Catholic  countries  with 
proccs.-rions  by  torchlight,  and  the  perform- 
ance of  mass  afterwards.  It  commemorates 
the  attendance  of  the  Virgin  Mary  in  the 
temple,  forty  days  after  the  birth  of  our 
saviour,  and  it  is  in  consequence  frequently 
called  the  Day  of  the  Purification  of  the 
Virgin  Mary.  The  Germans  say  —  the 
badger  peeps  out  of  his  hole  on  Candlemas- 
day,  and  if  he  finds  snow  he  walks  abroad  ; 
if  he  sees  the  sun  shining,  he  draws  back 
again.  Probably  the  saying,  that  "  if  Can- 
dlemas be  a  shining  day,  the  winter  is  not 
half  finished,"  may  have  arisen  fro  u  the 
notion  of  the  Germans.  In  1300,  upon  this 
day,  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  instituted  the 
jubilees  in  the  Romish  Church.  In  1461, 
Edward,  Earl  of  March,  defeated  the  forces 
of  Henry  VI.,  under  the  command  of  the 
Earl  of  "Pembroke,  at  Mortimer's  Cross, 
near  Ludlow,  and  Owen  Tudor,  Prince  of 
Wales,  was  beheaded  on  the  spot.  In  1625, 
Charles  I.  was  crowned  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  with  his  queen,  Henrietta  Maria,  by 
Abbot,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  On  this 
day,  Christopher  Wordsworth,  D.D.,  the 
celebrated  poet  died,  leaving  the  British 
nation  his  beautiful  compositions  as  a  me- 
mento. The  many  varied  and  beautiful 
poems  he  composed  rank  foremost  among 
the  best  productions  of  modern  poets. 

3rd.     St  Blaise  is  the  patron  saint  of  the 


94 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY 


■wool-combers.  He  was  a  bishop  of  Sebtfste, 
in  Armenia,  who  suffered  martyrdom  under 
Diocletian,  289. 

5th.  St.  Agatha  was  a  female  martyr  of 
Sicily,  put  to  death  by  order  of  De'cius, 
in2ol. 

16.  In  1497,  tho  celebrated  divine, 
Philip  Melanethon,  the  coadjutor  of  Martin 
Luther  in  the  great  work  of  the  Reforma- 
tion of  the  Christian  Church,  was  born  in 
the  small  town  of  Brethen  or  Bretheim,  in 
the  Palatinate  of  the  Rhine.  He  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  general  body  of  the  Reformers, 
in  the  early  part  of  1530,  to  draw  up  the 
exposition  of  their  opinions,  which  was  pre 
sen  ted  to  the  Emperor  at  Augsburg  in 
March  of  the  same  year;  and  is  well  known 
as  the  "  Confession  of  Augsburg." 

2'2d.  In  1732  George  Washington  was  born 
in  Westmoreland,  in  the  State  of  Virginia. 
In  1759  he  married  Mrs.  Martha  Curtis.  He 
was  appointed  one  of  the  delegates  from  Vir- 
ginia to  the  first  general  Congress,  in  1774. 
He  became  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Amer- 
ican army  on  the  15th  of  June,  1775,  and 
resigned  his  command  at  the  close  of  the  year 
1783.  He  was  inaugurated  as  the  first  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  on  the  30th  of 
April,  1789.  lie  retired  from  public  life  in 
1796,  and  died  on  the  14th  of  December,  1799, 
eaving  a  reputation  without  a  stain. 

28 1  h.  Shrove  Tuesday  is  the  day  previous 
to  the  beginning  of  Lent.  In  Venice  and 
Rome,  the  carnival  ceases  on  this  d".y.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Scrifan,  to  confess,  and  signifies  the  time  of 
confessing  sins  ;  for  which  purpose  this  day 
■was  anciently  set  apart  by  the  Church  of 
Rome  as  a  preparation  for,,  the  austerities  of 
Lent.  After  the  people  had  confessed,  they 
were  permitted  to  indulge  in  festive  amuse- 
ments, and  hence  arose  the  custom,  yet 
preserved,  of  eating  pancakes  and  fritters  at 
Shrovetile,  which  has  given  this  day  the 
vulgar  appellation  of  Pancake  Tuesday.  To 
the  pastimes  of  this  day  may  be  traced  the 
nearly  exploded  diversions  of  cock-fighting 
and  cock-throwing,  whipping-tops,  jack  of 
Lent,  etc.  

St.  Valentine's  Bay  falls  on  the  14th  of 
this  month.  St.  Valentine  was  an  ancient 
presbyter  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  who  was 
beheaded  in  the  Via  Flaminia,  about  the 
year  278,  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Valerianus.  This  is  the  day  for  choosing 
patron  saints  in  Rome,  and  lady  loves  in 
America.  Well  does  the  poor  postman  re- 
member this  day,  and  how  eagerly  the 
anonymous  letters  he  bears  are  snatched 
from*  his  hands  and  perused  in  the  quiet 
chamber. 


POPE'S  HAT,  or  Papal  Tiara,  is  a  triple 
crown  worn  by  the  popes  on  state  occasiona. 


LEYDEN  JAR.  A  mere  plate  of  glass,  in 
the  jar  form,  for  the  convenience  of  hand- 
ling ;  an  electrical  excitement  is  produced 
on  one  side,  and  this  operates  on  the  che- 
mical elements  within  the  substance  of  the 
ass,  just  as  though  it 
were  a  plate  of  air,  or  a 
plate  of  fluid  in  a  gal- 
vanic combination;  and 
the  opposite  side  has  a 
\f  similarly  opposite    ex- 

,  V  citement,   as  acid  and 

akaline,  called  positive 
and  negative;  and  the 
excitement  continued 
by  a  metal  surface,  from 
side  to  side,  produces,  when  within  a  small 
distance,  an  explosive  restoration  of  the  two 
disturbed  sides,  considered  either  as  acid 
and  alkaline,  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  or  sup- 
porter and  combustible. 

DOG  DAYS.  These  days  commence  on 
the  3rd  of  July,  and  end  on  the  11th  of  Au- 
gust. Dr.  Hutton  says,  that  common 
opinion  has  been  accustomed  to  regard  the 
rising  and  setting  of  Sirius,  or  the  "  dog- 
star,"  with  the  sun,  as  the  cause  of  excessive 
heat,  and  of  consequent  calamities,  instead 
of  its  being  viewed  as  the  sign  when  such 
effects  might  be  expected.  The'  star  not 
only  varies  in  its  risings  in  every  one  year 
as  the  latitude  varies,  but  is  always  later 
every  succeeding  year  in  all  latitudes;  so 
that"  in  time  the  star  may,  by  the  same 
rule,  come  to  be  charged  with  bringing  frost 
and  snow." 

STARCH.  In  the  vegetable  kingdom 
starch  is  a  very  widely-diffused  body.  In 
almost  every  growing  cell  granules  of 
starch  may  be  distinguished  by  means  of 
the  microscope.        These  granules  are  of 


A  MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


95 


various  sizes,  and  assume  a  great  variety  of 
forms;  some  are  round,  others  are  flat, 
whilst  others  are  even  stellate.  I  hew 
granules  are  always  found  mixed  with  other 
iubstanoee,  hut  they  are  easily  made  dis- 
tinguishable by  the  application  of  a  little 
iodine,  which  is  one  ut'  the  best  tests  for 
starch,  and  which,  coming  in  contact  with 
ii.  produces  a  beautiful  blue  colour. 

Starch  is  found  in  some  plants  in  greater 
quantities  than  in  others;   it  is,  however, 


Granules  of  Starch.  (A)  From  wheat  and 
barley;  (B)  froai  arrow-root;  (C)  From  Port- 
land sago. 

very  generally  found  in  perennial  roots  and 
rootstocks,  in  the  stems  and  in  the  seed?  of 
plants.  I*;  seems  stored  up  in  these  parts 
for  the  future  growth  of  the  developing 
organs  of  the  plant.    There  are  few  or  no 


vegetables  or  parts  of  plants  that  are  eaten 
that  do  not  contain  starch.  We  tind  it  in 
turnips,  carrots,  potatoes,  cabbages,  pars- 
nips be. ms,  peas,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and 
the  rest  of  the  Cercalia;  in  chesnuts,  wal- 
nuts, ha/.elnuts,  and  all  other  seeds;  in  the 
Apple,  the  pear,  the  plum,  the  cherry,  and 
all  other  fruits.  In  many  of  these  th'ngs, 
however,  it  ia  not  the  disl  inguishing  alimen- 
tary ingredient,  but  it  is  often  separated 
and  used  pure  as  an  article  of  diet.  The 
substances  in  which  it  exists  in  a  tolerably 
pure  form,  and  of  which  we  wish  now  more 
particularly  to  speak,  are  arrow-root,  sago, 
and  tapioca. 

Arrow-Root.  "What  is  sold  under  this 
name  in  the  shops,  is  a  form  of  starch  pro- 
cured from  the  rootstocks  of  various  species 
of  plants  belonging  to  the  family  Maran- 
tacece.  There  are  three  kinds  of  arrow- 
root known  in  the  shops,  the  AVest  Indian 
and  the  East  Indian  arrow-roots,  and 
Tous  les  Mois.  The  West  Indian  is  the 
produce  of  a  species  of  Maranta,  called 
M.  arundinacea.    The  East  Indian  is  pro- 


Maranta  arundinacea— Ashow-boot. 
duced  by  another  species,  the  M.  Indica. 
What  is  called  Tous  les  Mois  is  obtained 
from  another  genus  of  Marantaceous 
plants,  and  is  called  Carina  edulis.  The 
part  of  the  plant  from  which  the  starch  is 
obtained  is  the  same  in  all  these  cases, 
and  the  mode  of  preparation  the  same. 
Plants  belonging  to  this  family  have  what 
is  called,  botanically,  a  rhizoma  or  root- 
stock  (a),  an  organ  standing  between  the 
root  and  the  stem.    In  this  root-stock  the 


96 


FACTS  EOR  everybody: 


starch  is  deposited,  and  it  is  separated 
in  the  following  manner: — The  root-stock 
is  dug  up,  and  then  bruised  and  placed 
in  water.  The  heavier  parts,  consisting 
of  woody  tissue  and  other  matters,  fall  to 
the  bottom  of  the  water,  but  the  starch  is 
diffused  through  the  water.  The  water, 
with  the  starch,  is  then  separated,  and 
allowed  to  stand,  when  at  the  end  of  some 
hours  the  starch  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the 
water  ;  it  is  then  collected  and  dried.  This 
is  the  principle  on  which  all  starch  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  tissues  in  which  it  is  deve- 
loped. By  the  same  process  starch  may  be 
procured  from  potatoes,  carrots,  turnips, 
and  the  stems,  leaves,  and  seeds  of  plants. 

Although  arrow-root,  sago,  tapioca,  and 
potato  starch,  are  all  composed  of  the  same 
constituent,  their  flavour  is  very  different ; 
hence  the  preference  given  to  arrow-root  as 
an  article  of  diet.  This  flavour  depends  on 
some  peculiar  principle  which  is  produced 
in  the  plant  from  which  the  starch  is  ob- 
tained, and  by  very  careful  preparing  can 
be  entirely  got'rid  of.  Arrow-root  is  used 
for  making  cakes,  puddings,  and  a  thick 
gelatinous  fluid  in  great  request  in  the  sick 
room.  It  is  a  property  of  starch  to  com- 
bine with  water  at  a  temperature  of  180° 
and  form  a  gelatinous  compound.  This  pro- 
perty of  starch  renders  it  very  useful  in 
cookery,  and  seems  to  increase  the  diges- 
tibility of  the  starch  itself. 

Arrow-root  is  frequently  regarded  as 
very  nutritious  ;  but  if  what  we  have  stated 
above  is  correct,  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is 
not  nutritious  in  the  proper  sense  of  the 
word.  Those  foods  can  alone  be  called 
nutritious  that  contribute  to  the  building 
up  of  the  fabric  of  the  body,  by  adding 
those  materials  to  the  tissues  which  are 
being  constantly  removed  by  the  wear  of 
the  body.  Now,  starch  does  not  perform 
this  function,  and  is  entirely  consumed  in 
the  body  in  maintaining  its  animal  heat. 
Arrow-root,  however,  and  the  other  forms 
of  starch,  are  frequently  mixed  with  nutri- 
tious matters,  such  as  milk  and  bread;  and 
in  this  way  the  food  into  which  they  enter 
becomes  nutritious. 

Still,  it  may  be  said  that  children  be- 
come fat  when  fed  on  arrow-root ;  and  this 
is  an  undoubted  fact.  The  explanation  is, 
however,  easy.  When  the  carbonaceous 
substances  are  taken  into  the  system  in 
larger  quantities  than  can  be  consumed  in 
maintaining  animal  heat,  they  are  changed 
in  their  characters,  and  become  converted 
into  oil,  which  being  deposited  in  the 
tissues,  produces  fat.  This  oil  is  not  a 
living  part  of  the  body ;  and  a  person  may 


get  fat  even  without  having  his  frame 
nourished,  or  his  strength  increased. ^  This 
is  an  important  fact  to  bear  in  mind,  as 
many  persons  get  fat  upon  cerfain  kinds  of 
diet,  without  getting  any  stronger,  or  more 
able  to  perform  the  functions  of  the  hody._ 

Sago.  Another  form  of  starch  sold  in 
the  shops  of  America  is  5^*70.  It  occurs  in 
little  round  masses,  and  when  very  white 
and  pure,  is  called  pearl  sago.  "When  it  is 
in  larger  and  darker  masses,  it  is  called 
common  sago.  It  is  starch  obtained  from 
the  inside  of  the  trunks  of  palms,  and  other 
trees.    They  are  cut  down,  and  the  tissue 


Sagus  Ittimphii — Pbickly  Sago  Palm. 

containing  the  starch  being  scraped  oui> 
the  sago  is  prepared  in  much  the  same  way 
as  arrow-root.  Many  plants  yield  starch 
in  their  stems,  which,  on  being  prepared, 
is  called  sago  by  Europeans.  The  sago 
which  is  sold  in  the  shops  in  America  is 
principally  imported  from  the  islands  of 
the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  is  the  produce 
of  a  palm  called  the  true  sago  palm,  or 
Sagus  leevis.  There  is,  however,  another 
paim  belonging  to  the  same  genus,  the 
Sagus  Rumphii  (the  prickly  sago  palm) 
Avliich  yields  the  sago  that  is  consumed  by 
tht  natives  of  India. 

Tapioca.  This  is  anotherform  of  starch.  It 
is  brought  to  us  here  from  South  America, 
and  is  the  produce  of  a  plant  known  to 
botanists  by  the  name  of  Janipha  manihot. 
It  is  a  poisonous  plant,  and  the  Indians  in 
the  countries  where  it  grows  extract  a 
poison  from  it,  which  they  use  to  poison 
their  arrows  before  they  obtain  the  starch. 
The  mode  of  preparing  the  tapioca  is  as 
follows  • — The  roots  of  the  plant,  after  it  is 
dug  up,  are  bruised  and  placed  in  a  bag, 
to  allow  the  juice  to  drain  out,  which  is 


A  MISCELLANY  OP  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


M 


ootlected  in  %  vessel,  into  which  the  Indian 
plunges  his  arrow,  so  as  to  poison  its  point. 
After  the  root  is  drained  it  is  taken  out  of 
the  bag,  and  submitted  to  a  process  such  as 
we  have  above  described  for  preparing 
arrow-root.  Cassava,  which  is  eaten  by 
the  natives,  is  procured  from  the  same 
plant,  but  is  prepared  in  a  different  way 
from  tapioca.  The  starch  of  tapioca  does 
not  differ  in  chemical  composition  from  that 
of  sago  and  arrow-root,  and  it  is  used  in  the 
same  way,  and  for  the  same  purposes. 

There  are  many  other  well-known  plants 
which  owe  their  dietical  properties  to  the 
stan  h  they  contain ;  amongst  these  we  may 
mention  the  potato,  the  carrot,  the  turnip, 
the  parsnip,  the 
cabbage,  the  Jeru- 
salem artichoke. 
From  any  of  these 
starch  might  be 
prepared.  There 
is  a  plant  in  our 
hedges,  known  to 
children  in  the 
spring  of  the  year 
by  the  name  of 
"lords  and  ladies," 
and  commonly  call- 
ed "cuckoo-pint." 
This  plant,  the 
Arum  maculatum 
of  botanists,  con- 
tains an  acrid  j  uice ; 
but,  nevertheless, 
its  roots  are  full  of 
starch.  When 
cooked,  the  acridity 
of  the  plant  is  got 
rid  of,  and  they  are 
eaten  with  impu- 
nity. These  roots  are  employed  in  making 
the  substance  called  Portland  sago ;  which 
is  the  starch  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
matter  of  the  plant  This  sago  is  used  for 
the  same  purposes  as  the  other  kinds  of  sago. 
GOLDFINCH  (THE)— (Fringilla  Car- 
duelisj .  The  scientific  name  of  this"  beau- 
tiful and  well-known  bird  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  words,  Fringilla  a  finch,  and 
Carduus  a  thistle,  indicating  the  plant  on 
which  it  often  feeds.  The  British  natu- 
ralist, Macgillivray,  calls  it  the  Red-fronted 
Thistle-finch,  or  Carduelis  elegans  ;  and  the 
propriety  of  this  latter  title  cannot  be  dis- 
puted, for  a  more  sprightly  and  elegant 
songster  does  not  exist.  "Of  all  chamber- 
birds,"  says  Bechstein,  "this  is  the  most 
delightful,  alike  for  the  beauty  of  its 
plumage  and  the  excellence  of  its  song,  its 
proved  docility  and  remarkable  cleverness." 


Arum  maculatum — 
Cuckoo-pimt. 


In  Scotland  they  term  it  G oldie  and  Gold- 
spink.     Thus  Burns  alludes  to  it  as 

"The  goldspink,  music's  gayest  child." 

Others  have  called  it  "  the  dapper  Finch." 
and  applied  to  it  many  endearing  epithets  ; 
which  our  readers,  we  arc  sure,  will  be 
ready  to  echo,  for  a  universal  favourite  is 
Master  Goldie.  If  you  want  to  sec  him  in 
his  glory  you  should  go  forth  on  a  bi  i-cht 
autumnal  day  to  some  common  or  other 
-round,  where  thistles  grow  abun- 
dantly; there  he  is  feasting  on  the  downy 
seeds,  and  flitting  about  in  the  sunshine 
from  clump  to  dump,  in  hia  suit  of  silky 
brown,  and  black,  and  gold,  and  red,  as 
happy  as  a  bird  can  be ;  every  now  and 
then  twittering  out  his  lively  song,  as  he 
scatters  upon  the  gale  the  white  flocculi,  by 
means  of  which  the  thistle-seeds  are  wafted 
far  and  wide  over  the  surrounding  landscape. 

In  nearly  all  parts  of  Great  Britain  may 
the  goldfinch  be  found  wild ;  it  is  a  perma- 
nent resident  with  us,  and  by  no  means  a 
shy  bird.  Its  song  commences  about  the 
end  of  March,  and  continues  till  July  or 
August;  it  is  not  powerful,  but  very  sweet, 
and  sufficiently  varied  to  make  it  agreeable 
to  the  ear;  for  mellowness  of  tone  and 
plaintiveness,  it  is  considered  by  good  judges 
to  be  second  to  few,  if  any,  of  our  native 
songsters.  Early  in  spring,  and  again  in 
the  autumn,  goldfinches  may  commonly  be 
met  with  in  small  flocks  of  from  twenty  to 
thirty  ;  severe  winters  kill  a  great  mauy  of 
them. 

In  the  breeding  season  they  leave  the  open 
country,  and  resort  to  woods  and  thickets, 
orchards  and  groves,  where  they  build  their 
nests, — generally  amid  the  higher  branches 
of  fruit  and  other  trees  ;  sometimes  in  tall 
thick  hedges  and  evergreens.  They  are  very 
neat  builders,  and  use  mosses,  lichens,  root- 
fibres,  and  grass-stalks,  closely  interwoven; 
for  lining,  they  usually  prefer  wool,  hair, 
and  thistle  or  other  vegetable  down.  The 
nest  is  perfectly  hemispherical,  like  that  of 
the  chaffinch,  by  which  only,  perhaps,  it  is 
excelled  in  finish  and  compactness.  Mudie 
well  observes  that  "  the  nest  of  the  goldfinch 
is  literally  a  cradle,  and  the  young  are  rocked 
by  the  winds  in  their  hatching-place,  nearly 
as  much  as  they  are  to  be  afterwards  on  the 
tall  and  flexible  stems  on  which  they  are  to 
find  their  food."  And  this  is  doubtless  a 
wise  ordination,  in  order  that  the  birds  may 
become  early  accustomed  to  the  rocking 
motion,  and  acquire  confidence  thus  to  seek 
and  to  seize  that  which  is  necessary  to  their 
existence.  Being  frequently  placed  in  such 
exposed  situations,  were  the  nest  not  very 


98 


TACTS  TOR   EVERYBODY: 


closely  and  compactly  woven,  and  firmly 
fixed  in  its  place,  it  would  be  liable  to  be 
torn  in  pieces,  and  scattered  by  the  winds, 
or  at  least  detached  from  the  lofty  bough 
on  which  it  rests,  to  the  destruction  of  its 
precious  contents ;  hut  this  seldom  happens, 
and  the  little  structure  swings  as  safely  in 
it.-  apparently  dangerous  position,  as  the 
Bailor-boy  upon  the  mast,  when  the  wild 
blasts  howl  and  whistle  fearfully  around  him. 

The  eggs,  of  which  there  is  rarely  more 
than  one  laying  in  a  season,  are  from  four 
to  six  in  number,  of  a  bluish  gray  colour, 
sometimes  inclining  to  green;  they  are 
-  sparely  marked  with  light  and  dark  reddish 
spots  and  stripes.  The  young  birds,  if  taken, 
should  be  fed  on  poppy  or  well-soaked  rape- 
seed,  mixed  with  crumbs  of  white  bread 
moistened  with  milk. 

Wild  goldfinches  may  be  caught  in  spring 
by  means  of  a  decoy-bird,  placed  in  a  cage 
set  round  with  limed  twigs  or  nooses.  In 
autumn  and  winter  bundles  of  thistles  will 
best  attract  them.  If  these  are  fastened  to 
a  tree,  and  armed  with  springes  or  limed 
twigs,  they  are  most  likely  to  be  successful. 
They  may  also  be  taken  in  nets ;  as  many 
as  one  hundred  and  fifty  having  been  caught 
in  this  manner  on  a  single  morning. 


the  pinion-feathers;  but  this  must  by  no 
means  be  taken  as  a  distinctive  mark.  The 
hen  bird  is  generally  smaller  altogether,  the 
red  about  the  beak  is  neither  so  broad  nor 
so  vivid,  the  beak  is  a  deeper  brown,  and 
there  is  more  of  this  latter  colour  diffused 
over  various  parts  of  the  body.  In  shape, 
as  well  as  in  markings,  the  head  somewhat 
varies,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  engravings. 


Male. 
Some  goldfinches  are  smaller  than  others ; 
but  the  standard  size  may  be  stated  at  five 
inches  and  a  half,  the  tail  measuring  about 
two  inches.  It  is  scarcely  necessary,  with 
so  familiar  a  bird,  to  describe  its  peculiar 
conformation  and  markings  ;  the  bright 
scarlet  in  front  of  the  head  and  round  the 
base  of  the  beak ;  the  glossy  black  crown, 
vertex,  wing-coverts,  and  tail-feathers,  so 
beautifully  relieved  by  the  white  and  golden 
spots  and  interlacings,  and  contrasted  by  the 
soft  brown  of  the  back,  all  go  to  make  up  a 
picture  at  once  striking  and  harmonious ; 
and  which,  aided  by  the  sprightly  motions, 
sweet  song,  and  engaging  qualities  of  the 
bird,  produce  a  powerful  effect  upon  the 
mind  and  imagination.  Bird-catchers  tell 
us  that  the  female  may  be  distinguished 
from  the  male  goldfinch  by  its  smaller  size, 
and  deficiency  of  some  of  the  white  tips  of 


Female. 
Although  there  is  but  one  species,  there 
are  several  distinctly  marked  varieties  of  the 
goldfinch,  such  as — 1st,  the  yellow- breasted ; 
2nd,  the  white-headed ;  3rd,  the  black- 
headed  ;  4th,  the  white ;  5th,  the  black 
goldfinch.  These  latter  are  sometimes  en- 
tirely black,  or  they  retain  a  yellow  spot 
upon  the  wing  ;  age*,  or  a  too  constant  feed- 
ing upon  hemp-seed,  will  often  cause  the 
plumage  to  assume  this  sombre  hue.  It  has 
also  been  produced  in  young  birds,  by  a 
careful  exclusion  of  light  from  them ;  but 
at  the  first  moulting,  after  the  cage  was  un- 
covered, they  assumed  their  more  natural 
colours.  Dealers  speak  very  learnedly  about 
these  several  varieties,  and  recommend  this 
or  that  for  certain  good  qualities  peculiar  to 
itself ;  but  it  is  all  a  matter  of  accident,  and 
the  dress  is  no  indication  whatever  of  dis- 
position or  ability,  although  it  may  be,  in 
some  cases,  of  age  or  state  of  health.  If  one 
goes  to  purchase  a  goldfinch,  he  will  most 
likely  hear  of  what  are  called  "speckled 
birds,"  which  have  a  white  spot  under  the 
throat;  of  "  whitethroats,'.'  or  "  eheverels," 
and  "bastard  whitethroats," — the  former 
having  a  white  streak  entirely  down  the 
throat,  and  the  latter  about  half  way  down. 
For  these,  high  prices  will  be  asked,  as  they 
are  scarce  birds ;  but  they  are  no  better,  as 
songsters,  than  others.  Young  goldfinches, 
that  have  not  moulted  have  no  crimson 
about  the  h«ad,  and  in  this  state  are  called 
"  graypates."  "When  they  have  attained 
their  full  age  and  perfect  plumage,  "gold- 
wings"  is  a  term  frequently  applied  to  them. 
If  you  have  a  good  teacher  to  put  them 
under,  it  is  well  to  get  the  younger  birds, 
and,  when  the  moulting  season  comes  on,  to 
cover  the  cage  with  flannel,  so  as  to  keep 
them  very  warm ;  they  will  then  throw  off 


A   MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


&9 


their  old  and  assume  their  now  feathers 
quickly,  and  be  fresh  and  vigorous  for  their 
educational  fatigues.  ''Stopping,"  "back- 
ing," or,  more  properly,  "  pushing  l  biit) 
on,"  is  the  n:ime  given  to  the  process  above 
described.  In  the  wild  state  the  goldfinch 
feeds  upon  all  kinds  of  seeds,  more  especially 
those  of  the  cruciform  plants;  beetles  and 
other  insects  it  takes  occasionally  ;  like  the 
pigeon,  it  prepares  in  the  crop  the  food 
intended  for  its  young.  In  confinement  it 
should  have  canary,  rape,  maw,  or  poppy- 
Beed,  and  hemp-seed  now  and  then,  espe- 
cially when  breeding  or  moulting.  It  should 
also  be  supplied  with  green  food,  and  have 
plenty  of  water  for  bathing  as  well  as  drink- 
ing. It  is  a  voracious  eater,  and  when  put 
with  other  birds  will  often  mount  guard 
over  the  feeding-trough,  and  drive  away  all 
comers ;  yet  it  is  not.  quarrelsome,  but  lives 
in  harmony  with  its  companions,  especially 
if  they  belong  to  its  own  genus.  The  health 
of  the  bird  is  very  much  promoted  by  an 
occasional  treat  of  thistle-seed,  which  it 
likes  to  pick  out  itself.  It  is  rather  subject 
to  epilepsy,  and  to  bad  and  swollen  eyes. 
The  former  should  be  treated  according  to 
the  directions  given  for  the  canary,  and  the 
latter  anointed  with  fresh  butter.  Captive 
goldfinches  have  been  known  to  live  to  the 
age  of  twenty-four  years.  When  old  they 
lose  the  bright  red  and  yellow  of  their 
plumage,  and  frequently  become  blind.  A 
goldfinch's  cage  should  not  be  less  than  nine 
or  ten  inches  long,  by  seven  broad,  and 
about  the  same  in  height ;  its  breeding  ac- 
commodations should  be  the  same  as  those 
provided  for  the  canary. 

IONIC  ORDER.  Invented  by  the  Ionians, 
and  applied  to  the  temple  of  Diana,  at 
Ephesus,  and  the  height  of  its  column  is 


nine  times  the  diameter.  Its  capital  is 
adorned  with  volutes,  or  ram's  horns,  but 
it  has  no  leaves  of  the  acanthus,  like  the 
Composite. 


ROTTEN  -  STONE.      Rotten  -stono,    or 
tripoli,  is  used   in    the   arts  for  polishing 

metallic  and  other  surfaces.  It  consists 
entirely  of  the  remains  of  animals,  whose 
bodies  were  covered  with  an  envelope  of 
earthy  matter,  and  whose  siliceous  coverings 
have  been  preserved.  The  following  are 
sketches  of  the  fossil  remains  of  animaculea, 


2) 


and  are  drawn  from  a  microscopic  view  of 
the  particles  of  rotten-stone.  The  above 
are  specimens  of  the  Diatomacea  still  more 
highly  magnified.  "With  the  siliceous  shells 
has  been  entombed,  in  some  instances,  so 
much  of  animal  matter,  that,  in  the  berg, 
or  mountain  meal  of  Sweden,  there  is  nu- 
tritious quality  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
render  the  mineral  production  edible  with 
bread  and  flour. 

RED  SEALING  WAX  (TO  MAKE). 
Shell-lac,  4oz. ;  cautiously  melt  in  a  bright 
copper  pan  over  a  clear  charcoal  fire,  and 
when  fused,  add  Venice  turpentine,  1J  oz.  ; 
mix,  aud  add  vermilion  3  oz.  :  remove  the 
pan  from  the  fire,  cool  a  little,  weigh  it  into 
thin  pieces,  and  roll  them  into  circular 
sticks  on  a  warm  marble  slab;  or  pour  into 
moulds  while  in  a  state  of  fusion.  Fine  wax 
is  made  by  using  the  very  best  ingredients. 
The  addition  of  a  little  camphor,  or  spirita 
of  wine,  makes  it  burn  more  readily. 


TOO 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


DOMESDAY  BOOK.  This  book  is  a 
register  of  tlie  lands  of  England,  framed  by- 
order  of  William  the  Conqueror.  It  was 
sometimes  termed  Rotulus  JFt'ltonioe,  and 
was  the  book  from  which  judgment  was  to 
be  given  upon  the  value,  tenures,  and  ser- 
vicer of  the  lands  therein  described.  The 
original  is  comprised  in  two  volumes,  one  a 
large  folio,  the  other  a  quarto.  The  first 
begins  with  Kent  and  ends  with  Lincoln- 
shire, aud  is  written  on  three  hundred  and 
eighty-two  double  pages  of  vellum,  in  one 
and  the  same  hand,  in  small  but  plain  cha- 
racters, each  pa«;e  having  a  double  column. 
It  contains  thirty-one  counties.  After 
Lincolnshire  the  claims  arising  in  the  three 
ridings  of  Yorkshire  are  taken  notice  of  and 
settled ;  then  follow  the  claims  in  Lincoln- 
shire, and  the  determination  of  the  jury 
upon  them ;  lastly,  there  is  a  recapitulation 
of  every  wapentake  or  hundred  in  the 
three  Hidings  of  Yorkshire,  of  the  town  in 
each  hundred,  what  number  of  carncates 
and  ox-gangs  are  in  every  town,  and  the 
names  of  the  owners  placed  in  very  small 
characters  above  them.  The  second  volume, 
ill  quarto,  is  written  upon  four  hundred  and 
fifty  double  pages  of  vellum,  but  in  single 
column,  and  in  a  large  fair  character,  and 
contains  the  counties  of  Essex,  Norfolk,  and 
Suffolk.  In  these  counties  the  liberi  homines 
are  ranked  separate ;  there  is  also  a  title  of 
invasiones  super  regem.  The  two  volumes 
are  preserved,  with  other  records  of  the  p]x- 
chequer,  in  the  Chapter  House  at  West- 
minster ;  and  at  the  end  of  the  2nd  is  the 
following  memorial,  in  capital  letters,,  of 
the  time  of  its  completion: — "Anno  Mil- 
lesimo  Octogesimo  Sexto  ab  incarnatione 
Domini,  vigesimo  vero  regni  Willielmi  facta 
est  ista  descriptio,  non  solum  per  nostres 
comitatus,  sed  etiam  per  alios."  From 
internal  evidence,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  same  year,  1086,  is  assignable  as 
the  date  of  the  first  volume. 

EAST  INDIA  COMPANY.  This  asso- 
ciation originated  from  the  subscriptions 
(trifling  in  amount)  of  a  few  private  indi- 
viduals. It  gradually  became  a  commercial 
body,  with  gigantic  means ;  and  next,  by 
the  force  of  unforeseen  circumstances,  as- 
sumed the  form  of  a  sovereign  power,  while 
those  by  whom  it  was  directed  continued, 
in  their  individual  capacities,  to  be  without 
power  or  political  influence,  thus  presenting 
an  anomaly  without  a  parallel  in  the  history 
of  the  world.  The  company  was  formed  in 
London,  in  1599,  when  its  capital,  amount- 
ing to  £30,000,  was  divided  in  one  hundred 
and  one  shares.  In  1600  the  adventurers 
obtained  a  charter  from  the  crown,  under 


which  they  enjoyed  certain  privileges,  and 
were  formed  into  a  corporation  for  fifteen 
years,  with  the  title  of  "The  Governor  and 
Company  of  Merchants  of  London  Trading 
to  the  East  Indies."  Under  this  charter, 
the  management  of  the  company's  affairs 
was  entrusted  to.  twenty- four  members  of  a 
committee,  chosen  by  the  proprietors  from 
among  their  own  body ;  and  this  committee 
was  renewed  by  election  every  year.  The 
first  adventure  of  the  association  was  com- 
menced in  1601.  In  the  month  of  May,  in 
that  year,  five  ships,  with  cargoes  of  mer- 
chandise and  bullion,  sailed  from  Torbay, 
to  India.  The  result  was  encouraging; 
and  between  1603  and  1613  eight  other 
voyages  were  performed,  all  of  which  were 
highly  profitable,  with  the  exception  of  the 
one  undertaken  in  the  year  1607.  In  the 
other  years  the  clear  profits  of  the  trade 
varied  from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  per 
cent,  upon  the  capital  employed.  The 
charter  of  the  company  was  renewed  for  an 
indefinite  period  in  1609,  subject  to  dissolu- 
tion, on  the  part  of  the  government,  on 
riving  three  years'  notice  to  that  effect. 
In  1611,  the  company  obtained  permission 
from  the  Mogul  to  establish  factories  at 
Surat,  Abmedabad,  Cambya,  and  Goga :  in 
consideration  of  which  permission  it  agreed 
to  pay  to  that  sovereign  an  export  duty 
upon  all  his  shipments  at  the  rate  of  three- 
and-a-half  per  cent.  The  functions  of 
government  were  first  exercised  by  the  com- 
pany in  1624,  when  authority  was  given  to 
it  by  the  king,  to  punish  its  servants  abroad, 
either  by  civil  or  martial  law ;  and  this 
authority  was  unlimited  in  extent,  embrac- 
ing even  the  power  of  taking  life.  A  rival 
association  was  formed  in  1636,  but,  after 
two  years  competition,  was  united  with  the 
former  company,  and  the  new  company  as- 
sumed the  title  of  M  The  United  Joint  Stock." 
In  1652  the  compan}'  obtained  license  for 
carrying  on  unlimited  trade  throughout  the 
province  of  Bengal,  without  payment  of 
duties.  The  first  factory  of  the  English 
was  at  Bantam,  in  Java,  established  in  1602. 
At  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
three  presidencies,  Bengal,  Madras,  and 
Bombay,  were  distinguished,  as  they  still 
are;  but  it  was  not  till  1773  that  Bengal 
became  the  seat  of  the  supreme  government. 
The  first  occasion  on  which  the  company 
was  brought  into  hostile  collision  with  any 
of  the  natives  of  India  occurred  in  the  be- 
ginning of  1664.  A  serious  dispute  arose 
in  Parliament  upon  the  powers  of  the  com- 
pany in  1666.  In  1682-3  a  project  was  set 
on  foot  for  the  establishment  of  a  rival  com- 
pany, but  it  did  not  obtain  the  sanction  ot 


A   MISCELLANY   OP  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


101 


government.  A  new  charter,  to  have  effect 
for  twenty-one  years,  was  granted  in  L693. 
The  home  government  of  the  company  con- 
sists of— tirst,  the  court  of  proprietors; 
second,  the  court  of  directors ;  and  third, 
the  board  of  control.  The  board  of  control 
consisted,  formerly,  of  six  privy  councillors: 
and  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  ami 
principal  secretaries  of  state,  were,  by 
virtue  of  their  office,  members  of  the  board; 
but,  by  ;»n  act  passed  in  1793,  this  became 
no  longer  necessary.  By  an  act  of  Anne's 
Parliament,  the  company  had  the  exclusive 
right  of  trading  to  all  places  eastward  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  to  the  Straits  of  ACagal- 
haens;  and  these  privileges  were  continued 
by  successive  acts  of  Parliament  till  1814, 
but  were  afterwards  modified.  In  1833,  the 
charter  was  renewed  for  twenty  years,  but 
by  an  act  which  took  away  from  the  com- 
pany the  right  of  exclusive  trading  to  its 
own  territories,  or  to  the  dominions  of  any 
native  power  in  India  or  China,  and  threw 
the  whole  open  to  the  enterprise  of  indivi- 
dual merchants. 

HONEYMOON.  The  word  "honey- 
moon1' is  traceable  to  a  Teutonic  origin. 
Among  the  Teutones  was  a  favourite  drink 
called  metheglin.  It  was  made  of  mead  of 
honey,  was  mcruh  like  the  mead  of  European 
countries  The  same  beverage  was  also  in 
use  among  the  Saxons,  but  flavoured  with 
mulberries.  These  honeyed  drinks  were 
Used  more  especially  at  marriage  festivals 
and  which  were  kept  up  among  the  nobility 
one  lunar  month ;  the  festive  board  being 
well  supplied  with  metheglin.  "Honah 
Moon,"  signified  the  moon  or  moonath  of  the 
marriage  festival.  Alaric  the  Goth,  cele- 
brated by  Southey's  poem,  died  on  his  wed- 
ding-night, from  a  too  free  indulgence  in 
the  honeyed  drink. 

INDIGO.  Indigo  is  obtained  from  an 
Asiatic  and  American  plant,  which  is 
bruised  and  fermented  in  vats  of  water. 
During  the  process,  a  blue  powder  is  de- 
posited, which  is  collected  and  dried  so  as  to 
form  the  cubic  cakes  in  which  it  occurs  in 
commerce.  Indigo  is  quite  insoluble  in 
water;  when  heated  it  yields  a  purple 
vapour,  which  condenses  in  the  form  of 
deep  blue  acicular  crystals  When  it  is  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  certain  deoxidizing 
agents,  it  becomes  soluble  in  alkaline  solu- 
tions, losing  its  blue  colour,  and  forming  a 
given  solution,  from  which  it  is  precipitated 
white  by  the  acids ;  but  it  becomes  blue  on 
exposure  to  air.  This  white  indigo  has  been 
termed  indigogene,  and  indigo  appears  to  be 
its  oxide.  When  indigo  is  dissolved  in  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid  it  forms  a  deep- 


blue  liquid,  known  to  the  dyers  under  the 
Dame  u  ftwren  blue.  Bengal  is  the  great 
mart  for  this  drug. 

GOLD  FISH.  Great  care  must  be  taken 
of  gold  fish,  as  they  are  very  susceptible ; 
and  hence  a  loud  noise,  strong  smell,  violent 
or  even  slight  shaking  of  the  vessel,  will 
oftimes  destroy  them.  Small  worms  which 
are  common  to  the  water,  suffice  for  their 
food  in  general :  but  the  Chinese,  who  bring 
gold  fish  to  great  perfection,  throw  small 
balls  of  paste  into  the  water,  of  which  they 
are  very  fond  ;  they  give  them  also  lean  pork 
drieel  in  the  sun,  and  reduced  to  a  very  fine 
and  dedicate  powder.  Fresh  river- water 
must  be  given  them  every  day.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  collect  the  spawn,  when  seen 
floating  on  the  water,  as  otherwise  it  will 
be  destroyed  by  the  Hsh  themselves.  This 
spawn  is  put  into  a  vessel,  and  exposed  to 
the  sun,  until  vivified  by  the  heat.  Gold 
fish,  however,  seldom  deposit  spawn  when 
kept  in  vases.  In  order  to  procure  a  supply, 
they  must  be  put  into  reservoirs  of  con- 
siderable depth,  in  some  parts  at  least  well- 
shaded  at  intervals  with  water-lilies,  and 
constantly  supplied  with  fresh  water.  At 
a  certain  time  of  the  year  numerous  baiks 
are  seen  in  the  great  river  of  Yangft-se- 
Keang,  which  go  thither  to  purchase  tho 
spawn  of  gold  fish.  This  is  obtained  with 
no  small  care,  for  towards  the  month  of 
May  the  inhabitants  close  the  river  in 
several  places  with  mats  and  hurdles,  which 
extend  nine  or  ten  leagues,  and  leave  only  a 
space  in  the  middle  sufficient  for  the  passage 
of  boats.  The  spawn  is  stopped  by  these 
hurdles,  and  the  water  being  afterwards 
drawn  up,  and  put  into  large  vessels,  is  sold 
to  merchants,  who  send  it  to  all  parts.  Gold 
fish  were  introduced  into  England  about  the 
year  1 69 1,  but  remained  exceedingly  scarce 
till  1728,  when  a  great  number  were  brought 
over,  and  presented  to  Sir  Matthew  Decker, 
by  whom  they  were  generally  distributed 
round  London. 

LEECHES  (TO  MAKE  THEM  BITE). 
Leeches  may  usually  be  induced  to  tate 
more  readily  than  otherwise  by  rubbing  the 
surface  to  which  they  are  applied  with  a 
little  milk.  Previous  to  their  application 
the  skin  should  be  carefully  cleansed,  not 
with  soap,  but  with  plain  warm  water.  A 
wine-glass  is  the  best  thing  to  keep  them 
over  the  spot  where  they  are  to  be  applied. 
When  they  have  performed  their  office,  they 
may  be  made  to  disgorge  the  blood  by  put- 
ting a  few  grains  of  salt  upon  them.  'I  hey 
are  often  killed  bv  the  application  of  too 
much  salt.  Probably,  were  they  put  into  salt 
and  water  for  a  little  time  it  would  be  better. 


102 


FACTS  FOR.  EVERYBODY! 


FROST  AND  SNOW.  Occasionally  in 
Lapland  the  phenomenon  of  the  formation 
of  snow  is  witnessed  when  the  door 
of  an  apartment  in  which  persons  are 
assembled  is  suddenly  opened  and  a  blast 
of  cold  air  admitted,  the  watery  vapour 
exhaled  by  their  respiration  being  instantly 
frozen  into  flukes.  Snow  is  a  bad  conductor 
of  1'eat,  or  cold,  and  therefore  acts  as  a  most 
valuable  covering  for  vegetables  and  seeds ; 
wheat  continues  to  grow  beneath  its  cover- 
ing, though  every  blade  would  be  cut  off' if 


lit 


exposed  to  the  frosty  air.  Let  us  not  forget 
how  beautiful  and  varied  are  the  forms  of 
its  flakes,  when  looked  at  through  a  magni- 
fying glass,  or  microscope.  (See  Heat  and 
Cold,  p.  42). 

MARBLES.  You  may  tell  your  boys  that 
the  marbles  with  which  they  play  are  mostly 
imported  from  Holland,  where  they  ure 
made  by  breaking  various  kinds  of  stone 
into  pieces  of  a  suitable  size ;  these  pieces 
arc  put  into  an  iron  mill,  worked  either  by 
water  or  stesun  ;  there  are  several  divisions 
in  the  mill,  with  rasps,  which  turn  round 
with  great  swiftness;  thus  they  are  made 
round,  and  then  they  fall  out  of  the  mill. 
They  are  brought  from  Nuremburg  to  Rot- 
terdam, down  the  Rhine,  and  from  thence 
distributed  over  America,  The  "  allies"  are 
cut  from  superior  marble. 


MAGNETIC  NEEDLE.  A  small  bar  of 
iron,  to  which,  by  artificial  means,  the 
peculiar  arrangement  of   the  magnet  has 


been  transferred,  by  which  it  points  in  the 
magnetic  meridian ;  and,  the  direction  of 
this  meridian  being  known,  the  course  of 
ships  at  sea  is  thereby  determined.  It,  also 
dips  or  inclines  from  the  plane  of  the  horizon, 
pointing  in  the  northern  hemisphere  down- 
ward at  the  North  Pole  of  the  magnet,  and 
in  the  Southern  hemisphere  contrarily. 

HOTCHPOT.  The  word  has  thus  been 
quaintly  explained  by  Littleton:  —  "It 
seemeth  that  this  word  hotchpot  is,  in  En- 
glish, a  pudding,  for  in  a  pudding  is  not 
commonly  put  one  thing  alone,  but  one 
thing  with  other  things  together."  It  was 
a  rule  of  the  common  law,  that  where  a 
daughter,  to  whom  lands  had  been  given  in 
frank  marriage,  claimed  a  portion  of  the 
lands  descending  upon  her  together  with 
her  sisters  from  the  father  in  fee  simple,  she 
should  not  take  any  share  unless  she  mixed 
and  blended  the  lands  given  to  her  in  frank 
marriage  with  the  descended  estate,  so  that 
they  might  be  equally  divided  among  all 
the*  daughters.  The  statute  22  and  23 
Chas.  II.  c.  10,  s.  5  (the  Statute  of  Distri- 
bution), provides  that.in  making  distribution 
of  the  personal  estate  of  intestates,  advance- 
ments made  by  them  in  their  lives  to  their 
children  shall  be  brought  into  hotchpot. 

LIBRA,  OR  THE  BALANCE.  This  is  the 
first  of  the  autumnal  signs,  and  the  seventh 
amongst  its  brethren.  Emblematic  of  that 
equality  which  subsists  between  the  day 
and  night,  its  denotive  character  =^=  is 
aptly  represented  by  a  pair  of  scales  in 


Libra,  or  the  Balance. 
eguilibrio,  because  the  days  and  nights  aro 
nearly  equal,  except  at  the  poles.  In 
poetic  fiction,  the  Balance  belongs  to  the 
goddess  Astraea,  and  is  referred  to  by  Homer, 
Virgil,  and  Milton. 


A  MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


101 


RADIATED  ANIMALS.  Our  illustra- 
tion represent!  the-  figure  of  a  common  Star- 
fish, or  "Fivo-1'inm  is."  The  limb9,  or 
arms,  are  arranged  like  rays  proceeding  from 


a  centre,  and  from  this  circumstance  it  is 
termed  a  "  rayed,"  or  "radiated  animal." 
All  with  this  rayed  appearance  have,  of 
course,  the  same  appellation,  and,  along 
with  others,  constitute  class  Radiata.  The 
rayed  appearance  is  not,  however,  so  obvious 
in  many  of  these  animals  as  in  the  Star- 
fish. Radiated  animals  are  divided  into 
four  classes,  viz  — 

Infusoria,  or  Infusory  Animalcules. 

£utozoa,  or  Internal  Parasites. 

Zoophyta,  or  Polype*. 

Radiaria,  or  Raved  Animals. 

HUW  TO  BLEED.  In  cases  of  great 
emergency,  such  as  the  strong  kind  of 
apoplexy,  and  when  a  surgeon  cannot 
possible  be  obtained  for  some  considerable 
time,  the  life  of  the  patient  depends  almost 
entirely  upon  the  fact  of  his  being  bled  or 
not.  We  therefore  give  instructions  how 
the  operation  of  bleeding  is  to  be  performed, 
but  caution  the  reader  only  to  attempt  it  in 
cases  of  the  greatest  emergency.  Place  a 
handkerchief,  or  piece  of  tape,  rather  but  not 
too  tightly  round  the  arm,  about  three  or 
four  inches  above  the  elbow.  This  will 
cause  the  veins  below  to  swell,  and  become 
very  evident.  If  this  is  not  sufficient,  the 
hand  sbould  be  constantly  and  quickly 
opened  and  shut  for  the  same  purpose. 
There  will  now  be  seen,  passing  up  the 
middle  of  the  fore-arm,  a  vein  which,  just 
below  the  bend  of  the  elbow,  sends  a  branch 
inwards  and  outwards,  each  branch  shortly 
joining  another  large  vein.  It  is  from  the 
outer  branch  that  the  person  is  to  be  bled. 
The  right  arm  is  the  one  mostly  operated  on. 


The  operator  should  take  the  lancet  in  his 
right  hand,  between  the  thumb  and  first 
finger,  place  the  thumb  of  his  left  hand  on 
the  vein  below  the  part  where  he  is  going 
to  bleed  from,  and  then  gently  thrust  the 
tip  of  the  lancet  into  the  vein,  and,  taking 
care  not  to  push  it  too  deeply,  cut  in  a 
gently  curved  direction,  thus  ^_y  and  bring 
it  out,  point  upwards,  at  about  half  an  inch 
from  the  part  of  the  vein  into  which  he  had 
thrust  it.  The  vein  must  be  cut  length- 
ways, and  not  across.  When  sufficient 
blood  has  been  taken  away,  remove  the 
bandage  from  above  the  elbow,,  and  place 
the  thumb  of  the  left  hand  firmly  over  the 
cut  until  all  the  bleeding  ceases.  A  small 
pad  of  lint  is  then  to  be  put  over  the  cut, 
with  a  larger  pad  over  it,  and  the  two  kept 
in  their  places  by  means  of  a  handkerchief 
or  linen  roiler  bound  pretty  tightly  over 
them  and  round  the  arm.  When  a  person 
is  bled,  he  should  always  be  in  the  standing, 
or  at  any  rate  in  the  sitting,  position ;  for 
if,  as  is  often  the  case,  he  should  happen  to 
faint,  he  can,  in  most  cases  at  least,  easily 
be  brought  to  again  by  the  operator  plac- 
ing him  fiat  on  his  back,  and  stopping  the 
bleeding.  This  is  of  the  greatest  import  mice. 
GALVANIC  BATTERY  (TO  FORM). 
For  quickly  forming  a  good,  cheap,  and 
powerful  galvanic  battery,  we  believe  uo 
method  to  be  more  available,  than  that  on 
Mr.  Grove's  principle,  first  given  by  Dr. 
Goldingbird.  "  Procure  the  bowls  of  six 
tobacco-pipes,  and  stop  up  the  holes,  left  by 
breaking  off"  the  pipes,  with  sealing  wax. 
Place  on  the  table  six  small  glass  tumblers, 


^ 


^ 


mwm 


a,  glass  tumbler ;  I,  zinc  cylinder ;  c,  pipe 
bowl ;  d,  platinum  foil, 
each  an  inch  high,  like  those  used  by  chil- 
dren as  toys;  place  in  each  a  cylinder  of 
amalgamated  zinc  ;  let  a  pipe-bowl  rest  in 
each  cylinder,  and  place  in  everv  one  a  slip 
of  thin  platinum  toil,  one  and  a-quarter 
inches  long  and  half  an  inch  wide,  'jonnccfed 
at  the  zinc  cylinder  by  platinum  wire;  fill 
the  pipe-bowis  with  nitric  acid,  and  the 
tumblers  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and  an 
energetic  current  of  electricity  will  be  set 
free,  capable  of  rapidlv  decomposing  water, 
igniting  wire,  charcoal  points,  &c. 

RESPIRATION  (AGENTS  WHICH 
INCREASE).  Walking  and  running  at 
various  amounts  of  speed,  walking  in  the 


104 


FACTS  FOll  EVERYBODY 


sea,  riding  on  horseback  in  the  various 
paces,  riding  in  carriages  and  on  the  rail- 
.  way  in  different  classes,  and  on  the  engine 
at  various  rates  of  speed,  the  labour  of  the 
tread-wheel,  ascending  and  descending 
steps;  rowing,  swimming,  (Marshall Hall's 
ready  method),  reading  and  singing,  car- 
rying various  weights  at  a  certain  speed, 
cold  bathing,  albumen  (egg),  gelatine,  beef- 
steak, oatmeal,  wheaten  bread,  potatoes, 
milk,  suet  and  milk,  sugar,  rum,  tea,  coffee, 
ether,  sunlight,  heat. 

Aufnts  which  Decrease  the  Quan- 
tity of  Am  Breathed.  Darkness,  cold 
air  inspired,  all  fats,  as  cod  liver  oil,  olive 
oil,  butter,  beef  fat,  arrowroot,  brandy, 
wine,  kirchen-wasser,  compound  and  foetid 
spirits  of  ammonia,  opium,  morphia,  hydro- 
cyanic acid,  tartar  emetic,  and  salines,  as 
chloride  of  sodium,  and  febrifuge  medi- 
cines. 

Agents  which  have  a  Mixed  Effect. 
Chloroform,  chloric  ether,  and  amylene. 
Digitalis  first  increases  and  then  decreases 
the  quantity. 

STRUPS.  Although  these  preparations 
are  so  little  used  in  America  there  is  no 
reason  why  they  should  not  become  a  regular 
article  in  the  housekeeper's  store-room;  they 
are  easy  to  prepare,  and  are  very  agreeable 
to  the  palate ;  also  economical,  as  they  su- 
persede the  use  of  ardent  spirits  and  wine. 
With  Frenchmen  it  is  a  common  practice  to 
drink  simple  syrup  (which  is  called  eau 
Sticree,  but  which  we  term  capillaire)  diluted 
with  water,  to  the  taste  of  the  drinker. 

Capillaiiie  is  made  thus  :  —  Dissolve 
about  two  pounds  of  the  best  refined  white 
sugar  in  one  pint  of  water ;  boil  the  mix- 
ture for  five  or  ten  minutes,  then  strain  it 
through  lawn,  or  a  hair  sieve  j  when  cold, 
it  is  fit  for  use. 

Syrup  of  Cloves.  Proceed  in  the  same 
way  as  for  making  capillaire,  but  with  the 
sugar  add  thirty  or  forty  cloves  that  have 
been  broken  or  ground. 

All  the  syrups  of  spices,  as  cinnamon, 
nutmeg,  ginger,  &c,  can  be  made  in  the 
6am  e  way. 

Syrups  of  Fruit.  These  are  prepared 
in  a  similar  manner  to  capillaire,  substi- 
tuting the  juices  of  the  fruit  in  place  of  the 
water ;  in  this  way,  it  is  very  easy  to  make 
Sy '■•up  of  Oranges.  Before  the  oranges  are 
squeezed,  to  express  their  juice,  each  orange 
should  be  well  rubbed  or  grated  with  the 
lump  sugar ;  by  so  doing  the  fine  flavour  of 
the  rind  is  preserved.  All  these  syrups  are 
drank  by  diluting  them  with  water  ;  about 
a  wineglassful  of  syrup  to  a  tumbler  of  water 
will  be  found  to  make  a  pleasant  draught. 


Syrtjp  of  Coffee.  Take  about  an  ounce 
of  the  finest  coffee,  ground,  and  a  pint  of 
cold  water;  allow  them  to  stand  together 
for  twelve  or  more  hours,  then  strain,  and 
add  one  pound  and  a  half  of  sugar ;  boil  for 
one  or  two  minutes,  not  longer,  and  again 
strain. 

Syrup  of  Tea.  One  pint  of  water,  two 
pounds  of  sugar,  an  ounce  of  black  tea; 
boil  together  for  five  minutes,  or  rather  less; 
strain.  A  wineglassful  to  half  a  pint  of  cold 
water  makes  very  good  cold  tea. 

INSECTS  (TO  PREPARE  FOR  CABI- 
NETS). The  mode  adopted  for  killing  in- 
sects for  preservation  in  cabinets  varies  with 
the  dilferent  tribes.  Dark  coloured  beetles 
may  be  plunged  as  captured  into  a  bottle 
containing  spirits  of  wine,  and,  on  reaching 
home,  they  may  be  dipped  for  an  instant 
into  scalding  water,  dried  on  blotting-paper, 
and  are  ready  for  the  cabinet.  Those  of 
delicate  colours  may  be  fixed  in  a  tight  tin 
box,  which  may  be  plunged  for  a  few  mo- 
ments in  boiling  water.  Butterflies,  moths, 
and  dragon-flies,  may  be  killed  by  sharply 
pressing  the  thorax  without  injuring  the 
wings,  and  then  pinned  ;  or  the  pin  may  be 
dipped  in  a  strong  solution  of  oxalic  acid 
before  being  used.  Large  moths  and  dra- 
gon-flies, which  are  exceedingly  tenacious 
of  lifo,  may  be  instantly  killed  by  holding 
the  wings  above  the  back,  and  dipping 
merely  the  under  surface  of  the  body  for  an 
instant  into  scalding  water ;  or  they  may  be 
fixed  to  a  cork,  tightly  wedged  into  the  bot- 
tom of  a  gallipot,  which  is  to  be  then  in- 
verted, and  plunged  mouth  downwards  into 
boiling  water.  By  far  the  greater  number 
of  insects  are  killed  immediately,  if  a  few 
bruised  laurel  leaves,  which  exhale  prussic 
acid,  are  kept  in  the  collecting  box.  The 
fumes  of  burning  sulphur  should  not  be  em- 
ployed, as  they  injure  the  colours  of  insects 
considerably.  Parasites,  which  infest  birds, 
and  others  of  small  size,  may  be  conve- 
niently put  into  a  quill,  which,  after  corking, 
may  be  dipped  into  boiling  water. 

INTEREST.  Interest  is  the  money  paid 
for  the  loan  of  a  sum,  denominated  the 
principal,  for  a  given  time  according  to  a 
fixed  rate.  Interest  is  distinguished  as 
simple  and  compound.  Simple  interest  is 
that  which  is  paid  for  the  principal,  or  sum 
lent,  at  a  certain  rate  or  allowance  made  by 
law  or  agreement  of  parties,  whereby  so 
much  as  $5,  $6,  or  any  other  sum  is  paid  for 
$100  lent  out  for  a  year;  and  the  same 
amount  of  interest  per  cent,  per  annum 
for  any  longer  time.  Compound  interest  is 
that  which  accumulates  when  the  simple 
interest  is  added  to  the  principal,  and  the 


A   MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


105 


subsequent  interest  calculated  on  the  con- 
stant accumulation.  In  this  manner  the 
principal  nearly  doubles  every  fourteen 
years.  The  accumulation  of  money  when 
placed  at  compound  interest,  after  a  certain 
number  of  years  is  exceedingly  rapid,  and, 
in  some  cases,  truly  astonishing.  One  penny 
put  out  at  live  percent,  compound  interest, 
at  the  birth  of  Christ,  would,  in  1810,  have 
amounted  to  a  sum  exceeding  in  value 
357,000,000  of  solid  globes  of  standard 
gold,  each  in  magnitude  as  large  as  this 
earth. 

REFLECTING  TELESCOPES.  The 
refracting  astronomical  telescope  is  formed 
of  two  convex  lenses  in  a  tube,  and  is  the 
simplest  form  of  telescope.  In  the  Galillean 
telescope  a  concave  eye-piece  is  used.  Re- 
fracting telescopes  for  land  objects  are  a 
compound  form  of  the  first-named,  and  are 
so  constructed  as,  by  the  use  of  different 
qualities  of  glass,  to  prevent  the  decompo- 
sition of  the  light  rays  at  the  edges  of  the 
picture  presented  to  the  eye.  When  this  is 
accomplished  perfectly,  such  instruments 
are  called  achromatic  (without  colouring). 
Telescopes  are  not  difficult  to  construct,  and 
some  of  the  finest  have  been  made  by  ama- 
teur opticians. 

OYSTER  GROTTOES.  The  grottoes  of 
ovster-shells,  built  by  children  at  the  street 
sides,  were  formerly  erected  on  the  festival 
of  St.  James.  They  were  originally  set  up 
by  poor  persons,  who  solicited  alms  from  the 
pious  persons  that  were  unable  to  visit  the 
celebrated  shrine  at  Compostella. 

WALLFLOWER,  OR  GILLIFLOWER. 
There  has  been  a  curious  confusion  with 
respect  to  the  clove-pink  and  the  wallflower. 
The  former  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Ca- 
ryophyllw.  the  latter  to  Crucifera.  The 
clove-pink  (not  the  cultivated  double  flower 
of  the  garden)  grows  upon  old  walls  and 
ruins,  as  at  Norwich,  and  on  the  castles  of 
Deal,  Sandown,  and  Rochester,  flowering  in 
July;  hence  it  was  said  to  be  a  "wall- 
flower," and  a  "  July-flower."  Chaucer 
calls  it  "  clove-gilofre,"  or,  "  clove-gilli- 
flower."  Thus  the  clove-pink,  Dianthns 
caryophyllus,  came  to  be  named  "gilli- 
flower"  (July-flower),  and  "wallflower." 
The  true  wallflower  belongs  to  the  same 
tribe  of  plants  as  the  stock,  mustard,  cress, 
&c,  which  have  their  petals  arranged  in  the 
form  of  a  cross,  and  hence  named  Crueiferm 
(cross-bearers).  It  grows  on  old  walls,  and 
begins  flowering  in  April,  having  a  delicious 
scent.  It  has  been  improperly  called  "gilli- 
flower,"  and  "sweet-william,"  neither  of 
which  it  resembles. 

ANNEALING.     Annealing  is  a  process 


by  which  the  extreme  brittlencss  common 
to  glass  and  some  metals,  when  cooled  sud- 
denly after  melting,  is  avoided  or  removed. 
Such  brittlencss  appears  to  be  occasioned 
by  some  disturbance  in  the  regular  arrange- 
ment of  the  constituent  particles  in  rapid 
cooling,  and  is  remedied  by  cooling  very 
slowly  and  regularly.  Glass-houses  aro 
furnished  with  large  annealing -ovens,  in 
which  this  object  may  be  attained  by  the 
gradual  removal  of  the  glass  articles  from  a 
hotter  to  a  cooler  part,  or  by  allowing  the 
heat  of  the  oven  to  subside  slowly.  Ana- 
logous operations  are  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  cast-iron  and  other  metals. 
Some  malleable  metals  which  crystallize  on 
cooling  are  brittle  in  their  crystalline  state 
but  are  rendered  tough  by  heating  and 
rolling.  Zinc,  for  example,  though  in- 
capable of  more  than  very  slight  extension 
under  the  hammer,  without  cracking, 
becomes  almost  as  flexible  and  tough  as 
copper  after  being  rolled  at  a  moderate 
heat. 

CHIROMANCY.  Chiromancy,  or  Palm- 
istry, the  art  of  foretelling  future  events,  or 
deciphering  a  person's  disposition  by  the 
lines  naturally  impressed  on  the  human 
hand,  has,  in  ail  ages,  received  the  implicit 
faith  of  numbers  of  mankind.  Aristotle 
taught  that  the  duration  of  life  depended  on 
the  length  of  the  lines  on  the  hand ;  the 
Pythagoreans  were  of  the  same  opinion; 
and  in  ancient  Rome  it  was  the  most  im- 
portant branch  of  the  Angur's  mysterious 
profession.  In  the  credulous  middle  ages  it 
was  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  a  science ; 
and  such  men  as  Cardan  and  Melanchthon 
were  not  ashamed  to  practise  it. 

We  will  now  submit  a  conversation  be- 
tween a  sceptic  and  a  believer  in  the  science 
of  chiromancy,  and  leave  our  readers  to 
form  their  own  opinions  as  to  the  amount 
of  truth  involved  in  it  . — 

"Your  last  proposition,"  I  observed, 
"  approaches  very  closely  to  the  chiromancy 
of  the  ancients;  if,  indeed,  it  be  not  chi- 
romancy itself." 

"  It  matters  little  by  what  term  you  de- 
signate a  knowledge  of  the  relations  which 
exist  between  the  hand  of  an  individual, 
and  his  intelligence,  temperament,  pas- 
sions, and  diseases.  It  is  sufficient  for  me 
to  know  that  there  are  such  relations,  and 
that  to  learn  them  only  require*  patience 
and  penetration.  From  the  earliest  anti- 
quitv,  man  has  ever  given  his  open  hand  to 
a  friend,  but  presented  it  closed  towards  an 
enemy.  The  open  hand  has  ever  been  the 
emblem  of  friendship ;  the  closed  hand,  the 
svmbol  of  hostility.    I  tell  you  that  all 


IOC 


FACTS  FOR  ETEErBODYI 


physiology,  all  psychology,  and  even  patho- 
logy is  written  in  legible  characters  upon 
the  human  hand.  Here,"  he  continued, 
taking  some  plaster  casts  out  of  a  glass 
case,  "is  the  cast  of  the  hand  of  an  in- 
telligent  man,  of   a  philosopher   (fig.    1). 


Fig.  1. 

Observe  the  regularity  of  its  form  and  the 
harmony  of  its  lines.  The  disengagement 
of  the  thumb  permits  it  to  be  opposed  to 
all  the  fingers ;  and  it  rises  in  height  to 
nearly  the  second  joint  of  the  fore-finger. 
The  lingers  are  ail  of  different  lengths; 
but  close  your  fingers  upon  your  palm,  or 
grasp  a  cricket  ball,  and  you  will  find  that 
they  all  appear  equal.  Thus  it  is  that  the 
hand  of  an  intelligent  man  can  use  the 
Bword,  pen,  pencil,  hammer,  needle,  graver, 


and  creases  there  are  in  the  palm — like  the 
elevated  intelligence  it  appertains  to,  it  is 
neither  empty  nor  broken.  Compare  this 
hand  of  an  idiot  (fig.  2)  with  the  former. 
Observe  its  general  thickness  and  clumsi- 
ness of  form,  and  the  great  depth  of  its 
lines.  The  muscles  of  the  thumb  being 
rendered  useless  by  callosities,  it  cannot  be 
opposed  to  the  fingers.  Thus  deprived  of 
its  principal  function,  that  of  prehension, 
this  hand,  incapable  of  grasping  material 
objects,  well  represents  the  brain  of  an  idiot 
incapable  of  sustaining  an  idea. 

"If  lunacy  really  be,  as  it  is  generally 
supposed,  an  undue  elevation  of  the  intel- 
lectual faculties,  even  to  their  perversion 
and  overthrow,  this  hand  of  a  lunatic 
(fig.  3)  admirably  exemplifies  such  a  state 


and  other  tools  which  the  intelligent  mind 
has  invented.    Observe,  also,  how  few  lines 


Fig.  3. 
of  the  mind.  "What  confused  and  irregular 
lines  cross  each  other  in  all  directions  !  Do 
they  not  seem  like  the  confused  imagina- 
tions of  a  madman  ?  Observe  particularly 
the  clumsy  thickness  of  the  hand,  like  that 
of  the  idiot,  a  sure  token  of 
the  loss  of  the  reasoning 
faculties. 

"  Here,  again,  is  the 
hand  of  a  monomaniac 
(fig.  4),  whose  intelligence 
is  not  totally  obscured,  but 
whose  every  faculty  is  con- 
centrated upon  one  single 
object.  Observe  how  it  is 
traversed  by  only  one  line, 
deeply  marked,  like  the 
one  predominating  idea  of 
the  maniac.  All  the  fingers 
are  involuntarily  inflected 
to  that  one  line,  as  all  the 
faculties  of  the  maniac  are 


A   MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


107 


towards  the  one  object  of  his  mania.  But 
nature  shows  that  this  unhappy  mind 
still  retains  a  certain  degree  of 'sanity. 
W«  see  none  of  the  clumsy  thickness  which 
the  hands  of  the  idiot  and  lunatic  exhibit ; 
yet,  at  the  same  time,  the  shortness  of  the 
thumb  and  little  tinker  proves  that,  like  the 
mind  of  the  maniac,  his  baud  is  abnormal 
and  incomplete. 

"As  nature  has  marked  the  intellectual 
gradations  from  the  intelligent  man  to  the 
idiot,  so  she  has  established  in  the  confor- 
mation of  the  hands  of  all  men  infinite 
shades  of  distinction,  which  faithfully  re- 
present the  innumerable  shades  of  mental 
energy  that  distinguish  the  characters  of 
mankind  one  from  another.  It  would  be 
impossible  for  me  to  go  farther  into  this 
subject  at  present,  as  it  would  occupy 
several  hours  to  explain  even"  a  few  of  those 
nice  shades  of  distinction.  I  shall  therefore 
proceed  to  show  you  two  more  links  in  the 
chain  of  degradation.  This  brings  me  back 
to  zoology," — he  continued,  as  he  spread  on 
the  table  a  number  of  specimens, — "Be- 
tween the  first  and  second  links  of  the 
animal  chain — that  is  to  say,  between  the 
intelligent  man  and  the  monkey  tribe, 
nature  has  placed  an  intermediate  race, 
whose  forms  resemble  man,  but  whose 
6avage  instincts  approach  the  inferior  ani- 
mals. This  double  similitude  is  portrayed 
in  their  hands.  Here  is  a  cast  (fig.  5) 
from  the  hand  of  a  Bosjesman.  Compare  it 
with  this  preserved  hand  of  a  Chimpanzee 
(fig.  6)  and  this  other  cist  .fig.  1),  the 
first  I  showed  you  of  a  civilized  European. 
In  the  hands  of  the  Bo?jesman  and  Chim- 
panzee the  thumbs  are  shorter  than  in  the 
hand  of  an  intelli- 
g<  nt  man.  Observe, 
they  barely  reach  to 
the  first  joint  of  the 
fore-finger,  an  inva- 
riable si>;n  of  want 
of  intelligence.  The 
narrowness  of  these 
two  hands  also  indi- 
cates an  instinct  of 
theft  and  rapine. 
Yet  the  Bosjesman, 
"being  more  nearly 
allied  to  the  intelli- 
gent man  than  to 
the  Chimpanzee,  the 
hand  of  the  former 
does  not  present  the 
rude  energy  of  the 
latter,  constructed  to 
climb  the  loftiest 
trees  of  a  tropical  forest. 


"The  farther  we  penetrate  into  the  study 

of  animals,  we  shall  find  mure  and  more  of 
the  irregularities  of  zoological  classification. 


Fig.  e. 
Here  are  five  paws  of  animals  placed  by 
naturalists  in  the  same  order — the  carni- 
vorous. This  order,  which  is  considered  one 
of  the  most  natural,  is  at  the  same  time  full 
of  contradictions.  True,  it  has  been  sub- 
divided into  classes  and  families  ;  but  even 
in  those  subdivisions  nature  is  not  better 
respected.  Even  with  the  little  knowledge 
we  possess  of  the  habits  aud  instincts  of 
animals,  who  can  \vitness  without  astonish- 
ment such  dissimilar  creatures  as  the  mole, 
lion,  dog,  bear,  and  cat,  placed  in  the  same 
order  ?  How  much  more  plainly  than  their 
teeth  do  the  paws  of  those  animals  pro- 
claim their  proner  classification  ?  At  the 
first  sight  of  this  paw  (fig.  7),  short  and 


Fig.  7. 

thick,  with  claws  long  and  hooked,  cfm 
you  not  read  the  history  of  the  enimal 
it  belongs  to  ?  You  require  no  book  — 
no  long,  finely-worded  description.  You 
see  that  it  is  constructed  to  scrape  and 
burrow  in  the  earth,  or  to  seek  food  and 
a  shelter  from  its  enemies.  In  short,  the 
whole  history  of  the  mole  is  legibly  in- 
scribed on  this  one  solitary  claw.  Again, 
examine  these  paws,  belonging  to  the 
four  best-known  species  of  the  carnivora, 
whom  man  has  placed  together  in  one 
family  group,  though  nature  has  most  difl« 


108 


PACTS  FOH  everybody: 


tinctly  separated  them.  Admire,  in  this 
paw  of  a  iion  (fig.  8), 
the  striking  provision  of 
nature,  which  applies  a 
tendon  to  ench  claw  to 
prevent  them  being 
blunted  by  contact  with 
the  earth.  Does  rot 
this  arrangement  pro- 
claim to  us  that  the 
lion  tears  his  prey  be- 
fore he  devours  it.  On 
the  contrary,  the  claws 
of  the  bear  (fig.  9)  are 
Bunk  in  a  clumsy  mass  Fig.  8. 

of  flesh;  decidedly  that  animal  does  not 
tear  its  prey.    Observe  this  paw  of  a  cat 


Fig.  9. 

(fig.  10)  ;  the  toes  and  claws  are  partly 
concealed  by  hair.  You  know  a  cat  has  a 
velvet  paw,  but  its  claws  are  sharp  and 


cntting- 


Fig.  lo. 
-a  significant  proof  of  the  dissimu- 


lation and  cunning  of  the  animal.    In  the 
paw  of  the  dog  (fig.  11),  the  friend    and 


Fig   11. 

companion  of  man,  the  claws  are  blunt  and 
harmless,  and  the  length  of  the  toes  denote 
his  docility  and  intelligence. 

"  If  time  permitted,  I  could  detail  a  great 
many  traits  in  the  character  of  these  ani- 
mals, clearly  pointed  out  in  the  forms  of 
their  fore-paws ;  but  you  must  be  satisfied 
with  this  hasty  sketch  at  present,  and  I  will 
pass  on  to  the  well-known  order  termed  by 
naturalists,  from  the  peculiar  form  of  their 
incisor  teeth,  the  rodents.  All  the  animals 
of  this  order  have  four  toes  on  their  anterior 
paws,  though  seme  have  as  many  as  five, 
and  others  only  three  on  their  hind  feet. 
This  regularity  of  conformation  in  the  fore- 
paws  of  so  manv  animals  is  an  evident 
proof  of  the  importance  attached  by  nature 
to  those  organs.  Now,  notice  these  three 
paws,  and  tell  me  if  the  animals  to  which 
they  beiong  can  have  the  same  habits  or 
the  same  intelligence?  Decidedly  not! 
With  the  exception  of  some  slight  analogy 
in  th  eir  teeth,  naturalists  have  no  grounds 
for    placing    the     squirrel    (fig.    12),  the 


Fig.  10- 


A    MISCELLANY   OF  T7SF.FIJL    KNOWLEDGE. 


109 


jerboa  (fig.  13),  and  the  marmot  (§5.  H), 
in  tin-  same  nlass.  Destined  to  live  in 
forests,  to  leap  from  bough  to  bough  at  a 


Fig.  13.  Fig.  14. 

great  height,  the  squirrel  exhibits  a  paw 
admirably  adapted  for  such  a  state  of 
existence.  Its  crooked  claws  can  be  easily 
inserted  into  the  bark  of  the  hardest  tree  ; 
and  the  length  of  the  hinder  part  of  the 
paw  permits  the  animal  to  suspend  itself 
from  the  thickest  branch.  Moreover,  as  if 
nature  wished  to  show  that  it  was  the  most 
intelligent  animal  of  its  class,  it  is  furnished 
with  the  rudiments  of  thumbs.  No  appear- 
ance of  such  organs  can  be  detected  on  the 
paws  of  the  jerboa  or  marmot,  and  their 
toes  being  united  by  a  ligament,  as  far  as 
the  tirst  joiut,  clearly  indicates  that  their 
intelligence  is  likewise  contracted." 

"Excuse  me  for  a  moment,"  I  said,  in- 
terrupting him.  <l  If  the  junction  of  the 
toes  indicates  a  want  of  intelligence,  prav, 
then,  explain  how  the  amphibious  mam- 
malia, with  toes  deeply  impacted  in  a  fleshy 
web.  are  so  much  superior  to  the  rodents  in 
intelligence  ?" 

"  Undoubtedly  they  are,"  my  friend 
triumphantly  exclaimed;  "but  you  must 
not  overlook  one  essential  circumstance  in 
the  study  of  the  relations  of  the  paw  with 
the  intelligence,  and  that  is  the  number  of 
the  linger-s.  The  seal,  the  walrus,  and 
other  amphibious  mammalia,  are  certainly 
more  intelligent  than  the  rodents ;  and  this 

vv 

•  ^ 


Fi&.  15. 
superiority    is    plainly    indicated    by   the 
number  of  their  fingers,  which  is  five. ' 
6 


Hire,  with  an  air  of  triumphant  ph  a-uro, 
he    counted    the  five   toes,  01  fingers,   as  he 

termed  them,  of  a  preserved  paddle  of  a 

.  15)  tiiat  lay  upon  the  table. 

■•  According  to  your  doctrine,  then,"  I 
rejoined,  pointing  to  some  hoofs,  "the 
elephant  must  be  loss  intelligent  than  the 
seal,  and  the  horse  inferior  to  the  cow  and 
other  ruminating  animals,  which  is  con- 
trary to  well-known  facts." 

"I  understand  your  objection,"  he  re- 
plied, with  a  smile ;  "  and  it  is  utterly 
worthless.  Among  all  living  beings,  the 
organs  are  valued  according  to  the  functions 
they  are  called  upon  to  fulfil.  In  the  ani- 
mals I  brought  under  your  notice,  the 
functions  of  touch  and  prehension  are  exe- 
cuted by  the  extremities  of  the  two  fore 
limbs,  and  I  attempted  to  demonstrate  that 
the  more  or  less  imperfect  state  of  those 
organs  is  in  strict  accordance  with  the  more 
or  less  imperfect  development  of  intelli- 
gence,— in  other  terms,  that  the  functions 
of  touch  and  prehension  always  correspond 
with  the  intellectual  faculties.  You  object 
to  my  argument  by  referring  me  to  the 
feet  of  hoofed  animals.  Remember,  they 
are  never  termed  paws,  and,  in  this  in- 
stance, the  vulgar  tongue  is  strictly  in  ac- 
cordance with  science;  for  the  extremities 
of  the  anterior  limbs  of  hoofed  animals  are 
not  organs  of  touch  and  prehension, — they 
are  merely  organs  of  locomotion.  As  such", 
I  have  nothing  to  do  with  them,  and  seek 
elsewhere  for  the  organs  I  require.  In  the 
elephant  I  find  them  in  the  trunk  :  in  tho 
horse,  and  the  ruminating  animals,  I  find 
them  in  the  upper  lip.  Here,  however, 
there  is  still  the  same  general  law.  The 
elephant,  whose  sagacity  is  so  remarkable, 
has,  in  its  proboscis,  an  admirably-con- 
structed instrument  for  its  relations  with 
the  exterior  world,  to  examine  and  take 
hold  of  any  object  it  may  desire.  The 
horse,  in  its  upper  lip,  has  a  less  perfect 
organ,  and  consequently,  its  intelligence  is 
inferior  to  that  of  the  elephant.  If  we 
descend  the  scale  of  the  hoofed  animals, 
each  step  will  more  and  more  confirm  the 
great  truth  that  the  sense  of  touch  is  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  faculty  of  in- 
telligence." 

'•  Ves,"  he  continued,  after  a  moment's  ' 
pause,  il  the  intelligence,  habits,  instincts, 
of  all  living  creatures,  are  not  the  only 
things  portrayed  in  the  organs  of  touch  and 
prehension;  the  temperament  and  diseases 
can  also  be  read  in  them.  You  smile  at  my 
assertion  ;  but  if  you  were  a  medical  man 
you  would  not  do  so  You-  would  know- 
that  some  physicians,  from  the  form  of  the 


110 


FACTS  FC-ll   etehyeody: 


hand  alone,  can  foretel  consumption  twenty 
years  before  the  insidious  disease  appears  in 
the  lungs.  Consumption  is  not  the  only 
disease  that  cm  be  thus  anticipated  and 
guarded  against.  The  lower  animals  have 
also  the  same  privilege  of  indicating  their 
diseases.  Ah!"  he  abstractedly  continued, 
"it  is  a  new  science,  and  has  yet  to  be 
created ;  but  its  boundless  horizons  are 
worthy  to  tempt  the  ambition  of  the  most 
venturous  explorers  of  the  most  elevated 
minds." 

"  And,  pray,  what  do  you  term  this  new 
science  ?" 

"  It  is  Comparative  Chiromancy." 

My  friend  then  fell  into  a  deep  reverie, 
under  cover  of  which  I  ventured  to  take  my 
leave. 

BUTTERCUPS  AND  DAISIES.  Let  us 
consider  these  two  familiar  friends  atten- 
tively. In  the  buttercup  the  natural  leaves 
consist  of  many  divisions,  while  in  the 
daisy  the  leaf  is  in  one  piece ;  in  both  leaves, 


however,  we  find  the  veins,  or  fibres,  of  the 
leaf  distributed  upon  a  somewhat  similar 
plan,  viz.,  a  central,  or  principal  fibre,  from 
■which  smaller  fibres  arise,  and  form  a  net- 


work of  veins  on  either  side.  On  cutting 
the  stalks,  moreover,  and  examining  them 
with  a  magnifying  glass,  we  discover  a 
further  similarity  of  structure;  for  we  see 
that  there  are  bundles  of  woody  tissues  sym- 
metrically arranged  around  a  central  pith 
(d)  Above  the  bracts  we  find  the  blossom, 
which  consists  of  the  following  parts:  — 
1.  Calyx;  2.  Corolla;  3.  Stamens;  4.  Pis- 
til. If  we  look  at  the  base  or  back  of  the 
buttercup,  we  shall  observe  five  small  green 
leaves,  as  it  were,  supporting  the  yellow 
leaves  of  the  blossom,  (fag.  2,  b).  Ea^h  of 
these  green  leaves  is  called  a  sepal,  and  the 
five  sepals  together  form  what  is  called  the 
calyx,  because  they  are  frequently  united 
at  their  edges,  and  thus  constitute  a  cup 
(calyx)  for  the  flower.  Within  or  above  the 
calyx  we  have  five  yellow  petals  which  to- 
gether form  the  corolla,  a  word  that  signifies 
in  Latin  a  little 
crown  orgarland,and 
has  been  applied  to 
this  part  because  the 
petals  (the  parts  of, 
the  corolla)  are  usu- 
ally of  a  brilliant 
colour,  and  give 
beauty  to  the  flower. 
If  we  remove  these 
yellow  petals,  we 
shall  find  at  the  base 
of  each  (fig.   1,  p)   a  Tig.  2. 

small  scale,  or  gland,  which  was  at  one  time 
called  the  nectary,  from  the  idea  that  it  was 
the  organ  which  secreted  honey.  It  may 
here  be  appropriately  pointed  out,  that  in 
nearly  all  plants  with  branched  stems  and 
reticulated  (net-veined)  leaves,  there  is  a 
curious  relation  in  the  number  of  their  parts. 
In  the  buttercup  befoce  us,  we  found  a 
calyx  consisting  of  five  sepals,  then  a  corolla 
of  Jive  petals ;  and  in  the  section  of  the  stem 
we  count  five  bundles  of  woody  tissue ;  in 
the  other  parts  of  the  flower  we  shall  find 
also  the  number  five,  or  a  multiple  of  it. 
In  all  such  growths  the  numbers  four 
and  five,  or  their  multiples,  predominate. 
Within  the  corolla  are  smaller  organs, 
which,  though  more  difficult  to  distinguish, 
are  more  important  agents  in  the  production 
of  fruit  or  seed.  These  will  require  the  use 
of  a  lens  to  be  minutely  examined,  but  can 
be  distinguished  in  theirgeneral  outlines  by 
the  naked  eye.  Indeed,  at  first  sight,  the 
distinction  between  the  stamens,  which  are 
outermost,  and  of  a  deeper  yellow — and  the 
pistils,  which  are  the  innermost,  and  have 
a  greenish  appearance — will  be  obvious. 
In  the  common  wallflower,  the  ehei  ry- 
blossom,  and  poppy,  the  difference  between 


A   MIRCTLLAXY   OF  USEFUL   KNOWLI'lx.'K. 


in 


the  stamens  and  the  pistils  is  very  remark- 
able. Let  the  stamens  be  removed,  and  the 
mode  of  their  attachment  to  the  stem  noted  ; 
the  pistils,  with  the  ovaries,  or  unripe  fruit, 
will  then  be  seen.  In  the  natural  process 
Of  growth  the  petals   and   stamens  fall  from 

the  Bower,  and  the  unripe  fruit  goes  on  in- 
creasing without  them  (tig.  1,  o).  In  the 
daisy  the  parts  of  the  flower  are  not  so  dis- 
tinct m  in  the  buttercup;  but  the  blos- 
som is  a  type  of  a  large  number  of  plants, 
amongst  which  are  the  dandelion,  sunflower, 
china-aster,  and  other  flowers  having  a 
Central  disc  with  white  or  coloured  rays 
around.  These  are  called  composite  flowers, 
because,  in  fact,  a  great  many  flowers  com- 
pose each  blossom.  It  was  explained  that 
the  green  leaflets  at  the  back  of  the  flower 
in  the  daisy  were  not  sepals,  but  bracts;  and 
the  pupil  is  therefore  prepared  to  find  calyx, 
corolla,  stamens,  and  pistils,  within  and 
above  them.  Gently  pull  away  one  of  the 
white  leaves  of  the  flower,  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  bring  away  with  it  all  the  parts 
attached  to  its  base.  Upon  careful  exami- 
nation it  will  be  found  that  a  complete 
floret  is  thus  removed;  and  by  continuing 
the  operation,  it  will  be  manifest  that  the 
whole  of  the  head  of  the  blossom  consists  of 
a  series  of  flowers  crowded  together  upon 
the  expanded  top  of  the  flower-stalk,  which 
is  named  the  receptacle. 

VIBG1NIAN  TOBACCO.  A  plant,  the 
leaves  of  which,  when  dried  and  cut,  or 
ground  to  powder,  constitute  superior  to- 
bacco and  suuff. 


DRESDEN  CHINA.    The  fine  porcelain 


ware  known  as  Dresden  china  was  dis- 
covered by  M.  Boeticher,  who  was  at  the 
time  only  an  apothc<  ai  y's  boy—  1700.  Ser- 
vices of  this  ware  have  cost  many  thousands 
of  pounds  each.  A  costly  service,  each  piece 
exquisitely  painted,  and  the  battles  repre- 
sented and  subjects  all  different;  was  pre- 
sented to  the  ih.ke  of  Wellington  by  the 
King  of  Prussia  in  181G,  and  is  the  finest  in 
England. 

COMPOSITE  ORDER.  A  rich  combina- 
tion of  the  other  four  orders  of  architec- 
ture, represented. 


Warm 

EAR  RINGS.  Among  the  Athenians  the 
perforation  of  the  ears  was  a  mark  of  nobi- 
lity; among  the  Hebrews  and  Remans  it 
indicated  servitude.  Pendants  from  the 
ears  are  at  this  day  sometimes  used  by  the 
men  in  France,  Italy,  and  other  countries, 
even  the  most  civilized  in  Europe. 

VOICE  LOZENGE.  A  little  common 
sugar-candy  dissolved  in  water  is  econo- 
mical, and  has  proved  efficacious  in  clearing 
the  voice  when  singing.  To  strengthen  the 
solution,  a  very  small  portion  of  gum 
arable  may  be  added.  The  uht'te,  or  clari- 
fied sugar-candy,  is  not  so  efficacious. 

MISTS.  There  is  a  certain  quantity  of 
water  existing  in  a  purely  gaseous  and  "in- 
visible form  in  all  states  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  higher  the  temperature  of  the  air  the 
more  water  in  this  form  it  is  capable  of 
holding  in  solution.  If  the  air  is  fully  satu- 
rated with  moisture  (which  it  always  is  over 
the  course  of  a  river),  and  the  temperature 
be  reduced,  the  water  in  it  is  condensed  in 
the  form  of  mist,  which  lias  been  aptly, 
though  quaintly,  called  '4  water-dust."  The 
radiation  of  heat  from  off'  the  surface  of 
water  is  almost  always  greater  than  off  the 
surface  of  land.  Thus,  after  sunset,  the 
water  rapidly  cooling,  cools  the  air  imme- 
diately in  contact  with  it,  in  which  the 
water  hitherto  gaseous  becomes  condensed, 
and  visible  as  mist.  ThiF,  in  turn,  cools  the 
air  above  it. 


112 


FACTS  FOR  ETEItTBODY  I 


COSMETICS.  This  term  is  usually 
applied  to  any  article  used  in  beautifying 
the  complexion,  hair,  or  teeth;  or  that  in 
any  way  contributes  to  enhance  personal 
appearance. 

Milk  of  Roses,  to  Cool  the  Skin  oe 
the  Face.  Take  sweet  almonds,  five 
ounces;  bitter  almonds,  one  ounce;  rose- 
water,  two  pints  and  a  half;  white  curd 
soap,  half  an  ounce ;  oil  of  almonds,  half 
an  ounce;  spermaceti,  two  ounces;  white 
wax,  half  an  ounce  ;  English  oil  of  lavender, 
twenty  drops;  otto  of  roses  twenty  drops; 
rectified  spirit,  a  pint.  Branch  the  almonds, 
and  beat  them  with  the  soap  and  a  little 
of  the  rose  water  Melt  together  the  oil 
of  almonds,  spermaceti,  and  white  wax, 
and  mix  with  the  former  into  a  cream,  and 
strain  it  through  fine  muslin.  Then  add 
gradually  the  remaining  rose  water,  and, 
lastly,  the  spirit,  with  the  essential  oils 
dissolved  therein. 

Pomatum  for  the  Hair.  Srak  half  a 
pound  of  clear  beef-marrow,  and  a  pound  of 
unsalted  fresh  lard,  in  water  two  or  three 
days,  changing  and  beating  it  every  day. 
Put  it  into  a  sieve ;  and  when  dry,  into  a 
jar,  and  the  jar  into  a  sauce-pan  of  water. 
When  melted,  pour  it  into  a  basin,  and  beat 
it  with  two  spoonfuls  of  brandy  ;  drain  off 
the  brandy;  and  then  add  essence  of  lemon, 
bergamot,  or  any  other  scent  that  is  liked. 

White  Pomatum.  Take  an  ounce  of 
Florentine  orris-root,  half  an  ounce  of  ca- 
lamus aromaticus  and  as  much  gum  ben- 
jamin, a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  rosewood, 
and  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  cloves.  Bruise 
the  whole  into  a  gross  powder,  tie  it  up  into 
a  piece  of  linen,  and  simmer  it  in  a  jar 
placed  in  a  saucepan  with  two  pounds  and 
a  half  of  hog's  lard  well  washed.  Add  a 
couple  of  pippins,  pared  and  cut  into  small 
bits ;  four  ounces  of  rose-water ;  and  two 
ounces  of  orange-flower  water.  After  the 
ingredients  have  simmered  together  a  little 
while,  strain  off  the  liquor  gently,  and  let 
the  pomatum  stand  till  cold ;  then  put  it 
away  for  use  in  the  same  way  as  other 
pomatums. 

Hair  Oil.  Melt  together  over  the  fire 
a  pint  of  oil  of  sweet  almonds,  ami  an  ounce 
of  spermaceti.  When  cold,  stir  in  a  table- 
spoonful  of  oil  of  bergamot,  and  two  grains 
of  civet. 

Cold  Cream.  Lard,  six  ounces;  sper- 
maceti, one  oun3e  and  a  drachm  and  a  half; 
white  wax,  three  drachms;  rose-water, 
three  ounces;  carbonate  of  potass,  fifteen 
grains ;  spirits  of  wine,  three-quarters  of 
an  ounce;  essential  oil  of  bergamot,  three 
drachms.     Melt  the  three  first,  then  add 


the  rose-water,  carbonate  of  potass,  and 
spirits  of  wine,  stirring  well,  and  when 
nearly  cold  add  the  perfume. 

Or, — Take  half  an  ounce  of  white  wax, 
half  an  ounce  of  spermaceti,  and  three 
ounces  of  almond  oil ;  put  these  into  a  basin, 
which  place  into  hot  water  until  melted  ; 
then  gradually  add  three  ounces  of  either 
rose-water,  elder-water,  or  orange-flower 
water,  stirring  all  the  while  with  a  fork  or 
small  whisk.  Any  perfume  may  be  put  in; 
but,  medicinally,  it  is  better  without.  When 
cold  it  is  fit  for  use. 

Elder-Flower  Water  is  commonly 
prepared  by  distillation,  using  about  one 
pound  of  flowers  to  every  gallon  of  water 
required.  As,  however,  this  plan  cannot 
be  put  into  operation  by  the  majority  of 
our  readers,  we  suggest  the  following  more 
simple  method.  Take  of  elder-flower  oil 
three  ounces:  rectified  spirit,  three  ounces; 
place  them  together  in  a  bottle,  and  shake 
well,  twice  a  day  for  a  week.  After  stand- 
ing, the  spirit  will  rise  and  float  on  the  oil, 
from  which  it  may  be  poured  off  quite  clear. 
One  ounce  of  this  spirit  of  elder-flowers,  added 
to  one  quart  of  soft  water  (rain  or  distilled 
water  is  the  best),  will  make  very  excellent 
elder  flower  water. 

Pomade,  to  prevent  baldness,  is  made 
thus: — Beef  suet,  one  ounce;  tincture  of 
cantharides,  one  teaspoon fn I;  oil  of  orig- 
anum and  bergamot,  of  each  ten  drops. 
Melt  the  suet,  and,  when  nearly  cold,  stir 
in  the  rest  of  the  ingredients  until  set. 

To  Dye  the  Skin  Olive.  Use  walnut- 
juice  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  Spanish 
anonatto.  The  tint  required  may  be  as- 
certained by  dipping  the  finger  into  it. 

To  Clear  a  Tanned  Skix.  Take  some 
unripe  grapes  and  soak  them  in  water, 
sprinkle  them  with  alum  and  salt,  then 
wrap  them  up  in  paper  and  roast  them  in 
hot  ashes;  squeeze  out  the  juice,  and  wash 
the  face  with  it  every  morning :  it  will  soon 
remove  the  tan.  ^ 

For  Removing  the  Scurf-skin  on  Facb  [n 
and  Hands.  This  appearance  is  often  pro- 
duced on  delicate  skins,  by  sudden  changes  of 
temperature.  A  good  preventive  is  clarified- 
honey  rubbed  well  into  the  part  affected 
after  washing,  and  allowed  to  remain. 

Dyeing  the  Hair.  Dyeing  the  hair  is 
pernicious,  whatever  the  medium  may  be 
that  is  employed.  In  cases  were  cosmetics 
become  necessary,  from  fashion  or  defect  in 
the  hair,  the  simplest  and  most  harmless  are 
always  the  best.  The  hygienic  treatment 
of  the  hair  consists  in  its  cleanliness  and 
that  of  the  scalp,  and  especially,  as  Dr. 
Burgess  says,  in  the  strict  observance  of  a 


A   MISCELLANY   OF  T7SFFUL   ffNOWLEDriE. 


113 


precept,  which  applies  to  everything  con- 
nected with  the  management  of  the  hu- 
man frame.     We,  however,  give  •  receipt 

Oi   two. 

To  Dtb  Hair-Black.   Take  two  drachm* 

of  silver,  half  an  ounce  of  steel- tilings,  and 

an  ounce  of  nitric  arid,  and  eight  ounces 
of  vain  water.  Pour  off  the  supernatant 
liquor,  which  constitutes  the  dye.  Apply 
by  brushing  with  a  close  brash.  Although 
there  is  a  great  objection  to  nitrate  of  silver 
as  a  dye,  from  its  liability  to  darken  the 
skin,  nevertheless  it  is  very  far  preferable 
to  caustic  earths,  from  their  almost  certainty 
to  act  as  depilatories.  One  said  to  be  free 
from  any  injurious  effect  and  now  in 
general  use,  is  composed  of  the  follow- 
ing:—  Powder  well  in  a  mortar  some 
litharge  or  vitrified  oxide  of  lead,  with  some 
lime;  these  mix  in  water,  in  the  proportion 
of  eighty-five  parts  by  weight  of  the  former 
to  fifteen  parts  of  the  latter.  The  manner 
of  using  it  is  as  follows: — Wash  the  hair 
with  warm  water  and  soap  to  free  it  from 
grease,  then  dry  it  well.  The  hair  is  then 
to  he  covered  with  this  mixture  of  the  con- 
sistence of  cream,  beginning  at  the  roots. 
Four  folds  of  soft  brown  paper  are  then  to 
be  placed  over  the  whole,  and  secured  by  an 
oil-skin  cap.  The  hair  must  remain  in  this 
condition  from  three  to  six  or  eight  hours, 
according  to  the  depth  of  shade  required ; 
and  th"  cap  may  then  he  removed.  Some 
of  the  dye  will  fall  out,  and  the  rest  must 
be  combed  and  brushed  out  when  the  hair 
is  dry.  Do  not  wash  the  hair  with  water 
for  three  or  four  days  after,  as  it  irritates 
the  skin.  As  the  hair  grows,  the  parts  next 
the  roots  will  be  undyed,  and  will  require 
the  whole  to  be  re-dyed  every  three  or  four 
months. 

POMATUMS  (Colouring  and  Scent- 
ing). Pomatums  are  seldom  coloured 
of  any  other  tint  than  red  or  pink ; 
this  is 'given  by  alkanet  root,  which  has  the 
peculiar  property  of  imparting  its  colour  to 
oils  and  melted  fats,  but  not  to  water.  Half 
a  dfa<  ham  of  it  may  be  coar-ely  powdered, 
and  steeped  in  oil  or  melted  fat  until  the 
colour  is  extracted;  this  quantity  will  be 
tuffii  ient  to  tint  a  pound  of  pomatum. 

INK  (MARKING).  Lunar  caustic,  two 
drachms;  gum-arabic,  half  a  drachm ;  dis- 
tilled water,  two  drachms.  To  be  well  mixed, 
and  kept  in  a  small  stopper-bottle,  and  in  a 
dark  place,  as  the  lunar  caustic  loses  its 
virtue  by  being  exposed  to  the  light.  The 
linen  to  be  marked  must  be  previously  pre- 
pared with  the  following  mixture:  sub- 
carbonate  of  soda,  half  an  ounce  ;  gum- 
arabic,  one  scruple  ;  dissolved  in  one  ounce 


of  rain-water.  "With  this  mixture  wet  as 
much  of  the  linen  M  is  to  be  written  on. 
Pet  it  become  perfectly  dry;  then  write 
upon  it.  and  dry  t lie  writing  in  the  sunshine 
as  rapidly  as  possible. 

INK  (BLACK).  Take  eight  ounces  of 
Aleppo  gulls  in   coarse  powder  ;   four  ounces 

of  logwood  in  their  chips;  four  ounces  of 

sulphate  of  iron  ;  three  ounces  of  gum- 
arabic  in  powder;  one  ounce  of  sulphate  of 
copper  ;  and  one  ounce  of  sugar  candy.  Boil 
the  galls  and  logwood  together  in  twelve 
pounds  of  water  for  one  hour,  or  until  half 
the  liquid  has  evaporated.  Strain  the  de- 
coction through  a  hair-sieve  or  cloth,  then 
add  the  other  ingredients  ;  stir  the  mixture 
until  the  whole  is  dissolved,  more  especially 
the  gum  ;  after  which  leave  it  to  parboil  for 
twenty-four  hours ;  then  decant  the  ink, 
and  preserve  it  in  bottles  of  glass  or  stone 
ware,  well  corked. 

INK  (BLUE).  Two  drachms  oxalic  acid, 
two  ditto  Prussian  blue,  to  be  mixed  in 
half  a  pint  of  water,  make  as  good  a  blue 
ink  as  we  have  seen,  and  is  very  simple. 

INK  (GREEN).  Dissolve  six  drachms  of 
the  crystals  of  verdigris  in  a  pint  of  dis- 
tilled water,  and  add  five  drachms  of  gum- 
arabic  and  two  drachms  of  white  sugar.  A 
tine  green  ink  may  be  made  with  a  strong 
decoction  of  elm  bark,  to  which  green  vitriol 
is  added  when  cold. 

LOOS  (TO  PRESERVE).  Prepare  a  box 
or  cask  of  a  sufficient  size  to  contain  the 
eggs  to  be  preserved.  Let  it  be  quite  dry ; 
spread  a  layer  of  wood- ashes  about  two 
inches  in  depth  over  the  bottom,  and  upon 
this  place  the  eggs  on  their  side,  as  many 
as  the  space  will  admit,  but  be  careful  that 
they  do  not  touch  one  another.  Then  throw 
in  more  ashes  and  form  another  bed,  and 
lay'down  the  eggs  as  before.  In  this  way 
the  cask  or  box  may  be  filled,  and  if  set  by 
in  a  dry  cool  place,  the  eggs  will  keep  sweet 
all  through  the  scarce  season. 

BOOKS  (TO  PRESERVE).  A  few  drops 
of  any  perfumed  oil  will  secure  libraries 
from  the  consuming  effects  of  mould  and 
damp.  Russian  leatht  r,  which  is  perfumed 
with  the  tar  of  the  birch  tree,  never  moul- 
ders; and  merchants  suffer  large  bales  of 
this  leather  to  remain  in  the'  London  docks, 
knowing  that  it  cannot  sustain  any  injury 
from  d  imp.  This  manner  of  preserving 
books  with  perfumed  oil  was  known  to  the 
ancients.  The  Romans  used  oil  of  cedar  to 
preserve  valuable  manuscripts.  Hence  the 
expression  used  by  Horace,  '"  (lirjna  ttdro" 
meaning  any  work  worthy  of  being  anointed 
with  cedar-oil,  or,  in  other  words,  of  being 
preserved  and  remembered. 


114 


FACTS  FOU  everybody: 


AIR  (ELASTICITY  OF).  Suppose  the 
two  tight-bottomed  hollow  cylinders  a  and  b, 
in  the  annexed  figure,  to  be  tilled  with  air  : 


if  we  fit  a  plug  so  tightly  to  the  sides  of  both, 
that  no  air  can  pass  between  it  and  the  sides 
of  the  cylinder,  and  then  try  to  force  down 
this  plug  by  pressure  on  the  "stem,  we  shall 
find  a  resistance  to  its  downward  motion. 
The  plug,  or  piston,  as  it  is  called,  descends 
indeed,  but  with  increasing  resistance  as  it 
goes  down  ;  and  if  the  pressure  be  removed, 
it  returns  to  its  former  position,  suddenly 
and  with  force.  We  have  thus  demonstrated 
not  only  that  the  air  is  a  material  substance, 
offering  resistance;  but  also,  that  it  is  an 
elastic  substance,  capable  of  compression  to 
an  indefinite  extent,  and  of  restoration  to  its 
former  condition  on  the  withdrawal  of  the 
pressure. 

GUILLOTINE  (THE).  This  instrument 
derives  its  name  from  a  Dr.  Guillotin,  a  dis- 
tinguished physician  in  Paris,  and  a  person 
who  embraced  with  ardour  the  cause  of  the 
revolution,  and  was  elected  one  of  the  depu- 
ties to  the  National  Assembly.  After  it 
had  been  decided  that  crimes  were  per- 
sonal, Guillotin  proposed  to  substitute 
decapitation  for  other  punishments,  on 
the  ground  that,  in  the  opinion  of 
Frenchmen,  that  species  of  death  did  not 
attach  infamy  to  the  family  of  the  criminal. 
The  proposition  was  adopted:  its  author 
then  pointed  out  a  machine,  which  had  been 
long  known,  as  proper  for  the  infliction  of 
death  without  giving  any  pain  to  the 
sufferer.  Unfortunately  for  Guillotin,  some 
wags  gave  his  name  to  the  machine,  of 
which  he  was  not  the  inventor,  and  which 
he  had  only  brought  into  notice.  Still 
more  unfortunately,  this  machine  became, 
in  the  hands  of  the  ruffians  who  were  masters 
of  Fiance  during  two  years — the  duratioD  of 


which  was  eqxiivalent  to  more  than  two 
centuries — the  instrument  of  the  most  hor- 
rible vengeance,  of  the  most  odious  crimes: 
and  Guillotin  had  a  thousand  times  to  grieve 
at  seeing  his  name  attached  to  the  devastat- 
ing axe  with  which  the  monsters  had  armed 
their  executioners.  After  the  termination 
of  his  political  career,  Guillotin  resumed  l  he 
functions  of  a  physician,  which  it  would 
hare  been  better  for  his  own  repose  if  he 
had  never  quitted.  He  enjoyed,  up  to  the 
last  moments  of  his  life,  the  esteem  of  all 
who  knew  him.  Dr.  Guillotin  died  on  the 
26th  of  May,  1814,  aged  seventy-six. 

PEPPER.  We  have  three  kinds  of  pepper 
— the  white,  the  black,  and  the  long.  Black 
pepper  {piper  nigrum)  is  the  fruit  of  a  shrub 
of  the  creeping  kind,  growing  in  Sumatra, 
Java,  Ceylon,  and  other  Asiatic  countries. 
The  berries  are  produced  in  clusters,  and 
change  as  they  ripen  from  green  to  red,  and 
afterwards  to  black.  White  pepper  differs 
from  the  black  only  in  being  stripped  of  its 
corticle,  or  covering.  To  strip  them,  the 
black  berries  are  steeped  in  salt  water,  and 
after  they  have  been  exposed  to  the  sun  for 
several  days,  the  chaff'  is  rubbed  off  with  Jhe 
hands.  In  this  operation  the  pepper  loses 
much  of  its  original  warmth.  The  long 
pepper  is  a  fruit  of  a  different  species,  also 
from  the  East  Indies,  and  consists  of  nu- 
merous grains  attached  to  a  common  foot- 
stalk. Cayenne  pepper  is  derived  from  an 
entirely  different  class  of  plants,  called 
Capsicum. 

PALM  OF  GILEAD.  The  Palm  of 
Gilead,  or  Balsam  of  Mecca,  is  the  dried 
juice  of  a  small  tree  or  shrub  growing  in 
Syria.  It  has  a  warm  aromatic  taste,  and 
exquisitely  aromatic  smell.  It  is  very  scarce, 
and  is  seldom  brought  to  this  country  except 
as  a  curiosity. 

ACIDULATED  DROPS.  There  are  two 
methods  of  preparation.  The  first  is  the 
plan  recommended  in  the  Edinburgh  Phar- 
macopoeia ;  the  second  that  adopted  by  con- 
fectioners.— 1.  Take  of  tartaric  a;  id  a  quarter 
of  an  ounce,  white  sugar  eight  ounces,  and 
beating  them  to  a  fine  powder  in  a  mortar, 
add  oil  of  lemon  ten  drops,  mix  thoroughly, 
beating  into  a  mass  with  strong  gum  water; 
then  form  into  lozenges,  which  must  be  put 
aside  to  dry. — 2.  Pound  and  sift  eight 
ounces  of  double  refined  sugar,  and  put  it 
into  a  clean  pan,  and  add  gradually  as  much 
water  as  will  render  the  sugar  sufficiently 
moist  not  to  stick  to  the  stirring-spoon.  The 
pan,  which  should  not  be  more  than  three 
parts  filled  with  the  sugar-paste  thus  made, 
should  be  placed  on  a  small  stove  or  slow 
fire,  and  the  contents  carefully  stirred  with 


A  MTSCELLANY   OF  USEFUL  •KNOWLEDGE. 


115 


a  l>one  spatula,  or  paper-knife,  and  watched 
till  it  nearly  boils.  The  pan  then  being  re- 
moved from  the  fire,  •  quarter  of  an  ounce 
of  tartaric  acid  may  bestirred  in,  till  a  com- 
plete mixture  is  effected,  Place  it  upon  the 
tire  again  for  half  a  minute,  and  then,  with  a 
or  wire  dipping  out  small  quantities 

from  the  pan,  let  them  fall  us  (hops  upon  a 
clean  tin  plate;  in  two  hours  the  drops 
should  be  loosened  with  the  blade  of  a  knife, 
and  will  be  ready  for  use  in  twenty-four 
Lours. 

OPTICAL  EFFECTS.  The  following 
diagram  will  perhaps  explain  why  the  in- 
side part  of  a  spoon  represents  an  inverted 
image,  and  the  back  being  the  reverse. 
G  11  is  an  object  placed  at  some  distance 
from  a  concave  mirror  A  B,  whose  centre  is 
C,  and  whose  principal  focus  is  E.  The 
rays  from  (i  fall  diverging  upon  the  mirror, 
and  are  reflected  to  a  locus  at  ff,  where  they 
A  «■ 


form  an  image  of  the  extremity  at  G ;  in 
the  same  way,  a  repre>entation  of  the  ex- 
tremity  II  will  be  formed  at  h,  so  that  a 
complete  but  inverted  image  of  C  II  will  be 
thus  formed.  The  above  will  explain  the 
inverted  image  formed  in  the  hollow  part  of 
the  spoon.  The  rays  from  the  external  parts 
of  the  arrow  A  B  flow  converging!)'  along 


^\ 


AflE/t  upon  the  mirror,  and  are  reflected 

long  a  E  and  the  ray  B  b  along  b  E,  and 

^s  the  image  of  the  object  is  always  seen 

in  the  direction  in  which  the  rays  approach 

the  eye,  the   reflected  image  of  A  1!  is  seen 

along-  the   lines  Y.  A  and   E  A   behind    the 

E  is  supposed  to  be  the    eye   of  a 

tor,  and  1'  is  the  point  where  the  rays 

from  A  B  would  meet  if  the    -lass  had   not 

reflected   them,  or,  properly,  had   not   been 

there.    Convex  mirrors  always  form  mirrors 

of  diminished   size,  the   rays    from    them 


coming  convergent  to  the  eye  of  the  spec- 
tator; or,  in  other  words,  the  rays  from  the 
object  proceed  to  a  virtual  or  imaginary 
focua  behind  the  mirror;  theme  the  image 
seems  to  be  reflected  to  the  eye;  this  will 
explain  the  reflection  on  the  convex  pari  of 
the  spoon.  Two  images  are  seen  upon  the 
canafestiok  in  consequence  of  the  concavities 
and  convexities  of  its  surface,  eacb  part 
acting  as  a  concave  or  convex  mirror.  Bays 
passing  through  a  convex  surface,  diverge, 
or  spread  them,  and  a  concave  one  con- 
verges them,  or  brings  them  to  a  point. 
When  a  ray  of  light  falls  upon  any  body, 
it  is  reflected  so  that  the  angle  of  incidence 
is  equal  to  the  angle  of  reflection  ;  and  this 
is  a  fundamental  fact,  upon  which  all  the 
properties  of  mirrors  depend.  Let  a  ray  of 
light,  passing  through  a  small  hole  in  a 
dark  room,  be  reflected  upon  a  plain  mirror 
at  equal  distances  from  the  point  of  reflec- 
tion, and  the  incident  and  reflected  rays 
will  be  at  the  same  height  from  the  surface; 
the  same  will  happen  when  the  rays  are 
reflected  from  a  convex  or  concave  surface. 
(See  Optical  Illusion,  p.  122). 

BATHS  are  arranged  thus :— The  very 
cold  bath,  when  the  temperature  of  the  water 
is  below  50  deg.  ;  the  cold  bath,  above  50 
deg. ;  the  cool  bath,  from  60  to  75  deg. ;  the 
temperate  bath,  from  75  to  85  deg.;  the 
tepid  bath,  from  85  to  92  deg. ;  the  warm 
bath,  from  92  to  98  deg. ;  the  hot  bath,  from 
98  to  112  deg.  The  most  useful  bath  is 
u  the  warm  bath,"  but  the  temperature 
must  be  varied  in  accordance  with  the  dif- 
ferent constitution  of  each  patient. 

GENDARMERIE.  Gendarmerie  (from 
Gens  d'Armrs,  men-at-arms)  was  a  chosen 
corps  of  cavalry  under  the  old  monarchy  of 
France.  The  gendarmerie  were  afterwards 
formed  into  a  body  of  soldiers  intrusted  with 
the  police  all  over  France ;  it  furnishes 
patrols,  arrests  criminals,  examines  the  pass- 
ports of  travellers,  and  contributes  to  the 
maintenance  of  good  order.  They  are 
divided  into  foot  and  horse.  They  form  a 
distinct  corps  in  the  army,  under  their  own 
superior  officers,  who  are  under  the  orders 
of  the  ministers  of  the  interior  and  of  police; 
but,  in  ease  of  war,  they  may  be  called  into 
active  service  like  the  other  corps  of  the 
army.  The  gendarmerie  is  mostly  recruited 
from  old  and  deserving  soldiers  of  other 
regiments,  who  consider  it  as  a  promotion, 
as  they  have  better  pay  and  enjoy  greater 
Lib  rty.  This  explains  why  the  gendarme*; 
generally  speaking,  are  remarkably  well- 
behaved  and  trust v  men.  The  same  de- 
Bcripti  n  of  troops  exists  in  the  Italian  states, 
where  they  are  called  Carabineers. 


116 


FACT3  FOR  EVERYBODY 


NILE  (SOURCE  OF  THE).  This  great 
river  rises  in  the  Mountains  of  the  moon,  in 
about  ten  degrees  of  N.  lat.,  and  in  a  known 
course  of  1,250  miles  receives  no  tributary 
streams.  The  travels  of  Bruce  were  under- 
taken to  discover  the  source  of  the  Nile  ;  lie 
set  out  from  England  in  June,  i?08  ;  on  the 
14th  November,  1770,  he  obtained  the  great 
object  of  his  wishes,  and  returned  home  in 
1773.  The  Nile  overflows  regularly  every 
year,  from  the  15th  of  June  to  the  17th  of 
September,  when  it  begins  to  decrease, 
having  given  fertility  to  the  land;  audit 
must  rise  16  cubits  to  ensure  that  fertility. 
In  1829  the  inundation  of  the  Nile  rose  to  23 
instead  of  22  cubits,  by  which  30,000  people 
were  drowned,  and  immense  property  lost. 

ENIGMA.  Not  necessarily  given  in  the 
form  of  a  query,  though  it  may  be  so,  and 
is  written  either  in  verse  or  prose.  It  is 
more  complicated  than  a  riddle,  involving 
greater  contrasts  and  more  propositions,  and 
is  solved  by  one  letter  or  word :  not  a  sen- 
tence.   For  example : — 

'Twas  born  in  affliction,  'twas  cradled  with  care, 
And  has  lived  ever  since  in  the  midst  of  despair. 
It  dwells  in  the  valley,  it  glides  on  the  wave, 
And  is  highly  respected  by  those  who  are  brave. 
It  darkens,  not  brightens,— in  sunshine  it  dies, 
And  far  from  the  smile  of  enjoyment  it  (lies. 
In  the  rainbow  it  sits,  in  the  stars  it  has  birth, 
And  with  angels  descending  it  visits  the  earth. 
With  Adam  it  dwelt,  and  to  Paradise  came, 
But  Eve  knew  it  not,  tho'  it  sh  .red  in  her  shame. 
From  the  dream  of  our  childhood  it  ne'er  can  depart, 
Having  fixed  its  abode  in  the  core  of  our  heart. 
By  the  wandering  peasant  'tis  carried  along,  [song. 
And  the  nightingale  loves  it,  though  strange  toner 
From  the  .joy  of  our  mortal  existence  'tis  driven, 
To  find  an  enchanting  asylum  n  heaven. 
It  mingles  in  war — as  if  bound  by  a  spell, 
And  it  comes  to  my  lips  as  1  utter — farewell ! 

[.4ms.— The  letter  A. 
CHARADE.  This  is  quite  distinct  from 
a  riddle  or  an  enigma;  and  is  made,  or 
acted,  as  the  case  may  be,  by  taking  the 
several  syllables  of  a  given  word,  each  having 
a  different  meaning,  and  describing  them 
separately,  and  afterwards  the  whole  word. 
As,  per  example  : — 

If  you  have  watched  the  rolling  seas,  or  gazed  upon 
the  sky,  [searching  eye. 

My  firgt  cannot  have  failed  to  meet  your  ever- 
Beneath  the  brow — the  noble  brow  —or  yon  stu- 
pendous tower,  [proaching  hour. 
My  second's  seen— a  warning  true  of  night's  ap- 
My  whole  is  found  in  wood  and  dale— a  pretty  iittie 

gem, 
That  is,  in  my  opinion,  fit,  to  grace  a  diadem. 

[Am  —  Blue-bell. 

RIDDLE.  A  complicated  question,  in- 
volving one  or  more  ideas,  which  can,  how- 
over,  be  solved  by  one  reply.  The  oldest  on 
record  is  in  the  book  of  .Judges,  chap.  xiv. 


verse  18.  We  are  told  by  Plutarch  that  the 
girls  of  his  time  worked  at  netting  and 
sewing,  while  the  most  ingenious  "  made 
riddles."     The  following  is  an  example  . — 

Formed  half  beneath  and  half  above  the  earth, 
We  sisters  owe  to  art  a  secon  1  birth: 
Th  ■  smith's  and  carpenter's  adopted  daughters, 
Id  .ile  on  the  earth  to  travel  o'er  the  waters. 
Swifter  we  move  as  lighter  we  are  bound, 
Y  't  neither  touch  the  water,  air,  nor  ground. 
We  serve  the  poor  for  use,  the  rich  tor  whim  : 
Sink  when  it  rains,  and  when  it  freezes  swim, 

[Arta.—Paix  of  Skates. 
REBUS.    Not  intended  to  be  guessed  or 
revealed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  above  ; 
but  is,  on  the  contrary,  as  its  name  implies, 
a  saying  with  its  rejoinder;  as  the  following 
example  will  bear  out : — 
One  hundred  and  fifty,  if  rightly  applied 
To  a  place  where  the  living  did  once  all  residej 
Or  a  consonant  joined  to  a  sweet  singing  bird, 
Will  give  you  a  name  that  you've  oftentimes  heard, 
And  one  which,  I've  no  doubt,  some  friend  of 

your's  owns, — 
'Tis  the  rival  of  Smith,  and  as  common  as  Jones. 
[Am  —  (Cl-ark,  C-lark,)  Clark. 
ANAGRAM.  The  transposition  of  the 
letters  of  any  particular  word  or  name  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  striking  contrast, 
or  an  apt  commentary  on  the  original  word. 
For  example  : — 

An  article  famous  for  lightness  transpose, 
And  a  substance  of  infinite  weight  'twill  disclose. 
'  [ dns.— Cork,  ltock. 
PUZZLE.     Anything   intricate,   embar- 
rassing, or  difficult  to  put  right.    The  under- 
mentioned will  serve  as  an  example  : — 
One-third  of  twelve  if  you  divide 

Hy  just  one-fifth  of  seven, 
The  true  result  -which  has  been  tried — 
Is  sure  to  be  eleven. 

[Am. — One-third  of  twelve  is  lv. 
or  55;  one-filth  of  seven  ia 
v.  or  5 ;  and  55  divided  by  5, 
gives  11. 

CONSANGUINITY.  Consanguinity  is 
a  term  which  implies  the  relation  which 
subsists  between  persons  who  are  sprung  ' 
from  the  same  stock  or  common  ancestor, 
in  distinction  from  affinity  or  relation  by 
marriage.  It  terminates  "in  the  sixth  or 
seventh  degree,  except  in  the  succession  to 
the  crown,  in  which  case  it  is  continued  to 
infinity.  Marriage  is  prohibited  by  the 
ecclesiastical  law  to  the  fourth  degree  of 
consanguinity  inclusive. 

RO  X&L  Mi ) T  !0  ES.  Lieu  ct  mon  Droit 
was  first  .used  by  Richard  I.  a.d.  1193.  The 
Bohemian  crest,  viz.  throe  ostrich  feathers, 
and  the  motto  Ich  Dicit,  "I  serve,"  was 
adopted  by  Edward  the  Black  Prince  at  the 
battle  of  Cressy,  the  king  of  Bohemia  being 
slain  in  the  battle,  1316.   Honi  soit  qui  mai 


A    IflSCBLLANY   OP   T78EEUL    KNOWLEDGE. 


117 


y  pm»e,  was  made  the  motto  of  the  Garter. 
1319-50.  Js  maintiendrai.  "I  will  main- 
tain,'1 was  adopted  by  William  III..  1688. 
And  Semper  tadtm  was  ordered  by  Queen 
Anne  t«»  be  used  as  her  motto. 

CHICORY.  Chicory  is  usually  obtained 
from  'lie  roots  of  the  wild  endive  [chioorium 
Intybus,  Linn.)  It  is  not  the  same  plant 
as  the  common  dandelion  (taraxacum  dent 

.    bat    belongs    to    the    same    family. 
The  dandelion  possesses  similar  properties, 

but  its  roots  are  not  so  large,  and,  con- 
sequently, not  so  well  adapted  for  the  uses 
to  which  chicory  is  applied.  The  wild  en- 
dive may  be  found  growing  by  the  road- 
side, upon  dry  stony  places.  Its  roots  may 
be  laid  up  in  winter  in  a  warm  cellar,  and 
if  preserved  from  the  frost,  will  soon  send 
out  a  crop  of  blanched  leaves,  from  which  a 
salad  tor  the  table  may  be  obtained.  For  this 
purpose  it  is  often  taken  on  ship-board  ;  the 
mots  are  put  into  a  cask,  with  sand,  the 
sides  of  the  cask  being  pierced  with  nume- 
rous holes,  the  leaves  make  their  way 
through.  A  common,  loosely-made  hamper 
will  do  as  well  as  a  cask.  This  method  of 
forcing  is  extensively  carried  on  in  France, 
where  the  salad  is  much  esteemed. 

SILK-WORMS'  EGGS.  Place  the  eggs 
in  drawers  made  of  wood,  or  strong  paper; 
and  when  the  leaves  of  the  mulberry  are 
f/tl-f/roicn,  hatch  them,  either  by  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  or  in  a  small  room  where  there 
is  a  fire.  In  about  six  or  seven  days  the 
silk-worm  will  issue  from  the  eggs,  in  the 
of  a  small  black  hairy  caterpillar.  In 
feeding  them,  take  great  care  that  the  mul- 
berry leaves  are  dvy ;  for  this  purpose 
gather  a  quantity  required  for  two  or  three 
days,  if  the  weather  looks  showery,  and  lay 
them  in  an  earthen  vessel  in  a  cool  airy 
place,  but  not  exposed  to  draught.  Keep 
everything  about  silk-worms  as  clean  as 
posMble,  and  remove  all  extraneous  sub- 
stances. When  the  silk-worm  refuses  its 
food,  and  makes  silky  traces  on  the  leaves, 
pin  together  papers  in  the  .hape  of  inverted 
cones,  open  at  the  top,  and  fix  them  against 
the  wall.  ITace  a  worm  in  each,  and  leave 
them  to  spin. 

GLUE  THAT  WILL  RESIST  MOIS- 
TURE. Dissolve  gumsandarac  and  mastic, 
of  each  two  ounces,  in  a  pint  of  spirit  of 
wine,  adding  about  an  oun  e  of  clear  tur- 
pentine. Then  take  equal  parts  of  isinglass 
and  parchment  glue,  and  having  beaten  the 
isinglass  into  small  bits,  and  reduced  the 
glue  to  the  same  state,  pour  the  solution 
of  the  gums  upon  them,  and  melt  the  whole 
in  a  vessel  well  covered,  avoiding  so  great  a 
heat  as  that  of  boiling  water.  When  melted, 
6* 


strain  the  glue  through  a  coarse  linen  cloth, 
and  then  put  it  again  OVeT  the  tire,  adding 
:ihniit    iii!    ounce    of   powdered   glass.       Tins 

preparation  may  he  best  managed  by  hang- 
ing the  vessel  in  boiling  water,  whii 
prevent  the  matter  burning  to  the  i 

or  the  spirit  of  wine  taking  tire;  ami.  in- 
deed, it  is  better  to  use  the  same  method  lor 
all  the  evaporations  of  nicer  glues  and 
hut,  in  that  case,  less  water  than  the  pro- 
portion directed  should  be  added  to  the 
materials. 

GOBELIN  TAPESTRY.  Gobelin  Ta- 
pestry is  so  called  from  a  noted  house  in 
Paris',  in  the  suburb  of  St.  Marcel,  formerly 
possessed  by  famous  wool-dyers,  whereof 
the  chief,  called  Giles  Gobelin,  who  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Francis  I.,  is  said  to  have 
found  the  secret  of  dyeing  scarlet,  which 
was  from  him  called  the  scarlet  of  the 
Gobelins :  the  house  and  river  that  runs  by 
it  also  took  the  same  name.  This  house  was 
purchased  by  Louis  XIV.  for  a  manufactory 
of  all  manner  of  curious  works  for  adorning 
the  royal  palaces,  under  the  direction  of 
Mons.  Colbert,  especially  tapestry,  designs 
for  which  were  drawn  by  the  celebrated 
Le  Bran,  by  appointment  of  the  king,  a.d. 
1666. 

AMETHYST.  When  this  stone  was 
first  prized  is  not  known;  it  was  the  ninth 
in  place  upon  the  breastplate  of  the  Jewish 
high  priests,  and  the  name  Iuoehar  was 
engraved  upon  it.  It  is  of  a  rich  violet 
colour,  and,  according  to  Plutarch,  takes 
its  name  from  its  colour,  resembling  wine 
mixed  with  water.  One  worth  2oO  rix- 
dollars  having  been  rendered  colourless, 
equalled  a  diamond -in  lustre,  valued  at 
18,000  gold  crowns.  -De  Boot  Hist. 
Gcmmarum.  Amethysts  were  discovered  at 
Kerrv,  in  Ireland,  in  1?5.5. 

KNIGHTHOOD.  The  institution  of  the 
"  Order  of  the  Bath"  originated  in  the 
custom  of  the  Franks,  who,  when  they  con- 
ferred knighthood,  bathed  before  the; 
formed  the  ceremony,  and  from  this  habit 
came  the  title  of  the  '"'Knights  of  the  Bath." 
Henry  IV.  instituted  a  degree  of  knighthood 
of  the  Bath,  and  on  his  coronation,  in  the 
Tower,  he  conferred  the  order  upon  forty- 
six  esquires,  who  had  watched  the  night 
before,  and  had  bathed. 

HAIR-BRUSHES  (TO  WASH).  Never 
use  soap.  Take  a  piece  of  soda,  dissolve  it 
in  warm  water,  stand  the  brush  in  it,  taking 
care  that  the  water  only  covers  the  bristles  ; 
it  will  almost  immediately  become  white  and 
I  clean  ;  stand  it  to  dry  in  the  open  air  with 
the  bristles  downwards,  and  it  will  be  found 
to  be  as  firm  as  a  new  brush. 


118 


FACTS  FOE  EVERYBODY 


JJB  E AD-FRUIT-TREE.  A  native  of  the 
South-Sea  Islands.  It  grows  to  the  thickness 
of  a  man  and  upwards  of  40  feet  high.  The 
fruit  is  the  size  and  shape  of  a.  child's  head. 
the  surface  reticulated,  covered  with  a  thin 
skin,  with  a  core  the  size  of  a  small  knife- 
handle  ;  the  eatable  part  is  between  the  skin 
and  core,  as  white  as  snow,  and  of  the  con- 
sistence of  new  bread.  When  perfectly 
ripe,  it  is  pulpy,  sweetish,  putrescent,  and, 


^mi£i\ 


by  some,  thought  to  be  too  laxative;  but 
when  green  it  is  farinaceous,  and  esteemed 
very  wholesome  food,  either  baked  under 
the  coals,  or  roasted  over  them. 

BANDANAS,  OR  BANDANNAS.  This 
name,  originally  applied  to  a  peculiar  kind 
of  silk  handkerchief  made  by  the  Hindoos, 
is  now  given  to  silk  and  cotton  handker- 
chiefs manufactured  in  this  country  de- 
corated with  patterns  of  similar  character, 
though  by  a  very  different  process.  A 
bandana  handkerchief  has  a  dyed  ground, 
usually  of  bright  red  or  blue,  ornamented 
with  circular,  lozenge-shaped,  or  other 
simple  figures,  either  white,  or,  in  some 
cases,  of  a  yellow  colour.  These  spots  are 
said  to  be  produced,  in  real  Indian  bandanas, 
by  tying  up  the  parts  intended  to  be  white 
or  yellow  with  bits  of  thread  before  ex- 
posing the  hankderchief  to  the  action  of  the 
dve,  and  thus  protecting  them  from  it.  In 
the  process  followed  by  British  manufac- 
turers, which  was  invented  in  1810  by 
M.  Kochlin,  of  Mulhausen,  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  handkerchief  is  dyed  of  one 
uniform  eolmr;  a  number  of  pieces  thus 
dyed  are  laid  between  two  leaden  plates, 
perforated  with  holes  wherever  white  spots 


are  intended  to  be,  and  while  the  several 
thicknesses  of  cloth  are  compressed  in  this 
manner  by  the  power  of  an  hydraulic  press, 
a  fluid  capabie  of  discharging  the  dye  is 
caused  to  percolate  through  the  holes  in  the 
leaden  plates,  removing,  in  its  passage,  the 
dye  from  such  parts  of  the  cloth  as  are  ex- 
posed to  its  action.  By  varying  the  dis- 
charging fluid  the  spots  may  be  made  yellow 
instead  of  white;  and  arrangements  are 
sometimes  made  for  combining  white  and 
yellow  spots  in  the  same  handkerchief. 

BISSEXTILE,  OR  LEAP-YEAR.  An  in- 
tercalary day  was  thrown  into  every  fourth 
year  to  adjust  the  calendar,  and  make  it 
agree  with  the" sun's  course.  It  originated 
with  Julius  Caesar,  who  ordered  a  day  to  be 
counted  before  the  24th  of  February,  which 
among  the  Romans  was  the  sixth  of  the 
calends,  and  which  was  therefore  reckoned 
twice,  and  called  bissextile  :  this  added  day 
we  name  the  29th  of  February  every  fourth 
year,  forty-five  years  B.C. 

FARTHING.  Farthings  were  one  of  the 
earliest  of  the  English  coins.  Farthings  in 
silver  were  coined  by  King  John  ;  the  Irish 
farthing  of  his  reign  is  of  the  date  1210,  and 
is  valuable  and  rare.  Farthings  were  coined 
in  England  in  silver  by  Henry  VIII.  ;  first 
coined  in  copper  by  Charles  11.  1665 ;  and 
again  in  1672,  when  there  was  a  large  coin- 
age of  copper  money.  Half- farthings  were 
first  coined  in  the  reign  of  Victoria,  1843. 

CLOUDS.  The  varied  forms  of  the  clouds 
depend  upon  the  modes  of  their  formation — 
that  is,  whether  they  are  condensed  into 
visible  forms  in  a  quiet  or  a  disturbed  atmo- 
sphere. It  is  likely  also  that  the  electrical 
condition  of  the  vapour  itself  may  have  an 
influence  upon  the  shape  it  may  assume. 
The  cloud  is  a  collection  of  vapours  sus- 
pended in  the  atmosphere,  and  consists 
chiefly  of  water  converted  into  the  gaseous 
form  by  heat.  The  round  massive  cloud 
which  looks  like  a  distant  mountain  is  called 
cumulus.  The  name  is  a  Latin  work,  sig- 
nifying a  heap,  and  is  the  derivative  of  09- 
cumulation^  The  flat  long  cloud  is  called 
strains,  a  layer  (hence  the  word  stratifica- 
tion, <fco.)  The  feathery  cloud,  like  a  colt's 
tail,  is  called  cirrhus,  a  beard.  When  the 
stratus  intersects  the  cumulus,  the  combined 
form  is  called  nimbus  (a  shower),  from  its 
producing  rain. 

CLIMATE.  Climate  does  not  depend 
entirely  upon  latitude,  though  the  poles  are 
the  coldest,  the  tropics  the  hottest,  and  the 
intermediate  latitudes  maybe  said  generally 
to  be  colder  or  hotter  as  they  are  near  or 
distant  from  the  ecliptic,  or  the  equator. 
But  the  climate  depends  somewhat  uponthe 


A  MISCELLANY   OP  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


119 


difference  of  the  infernal  beat  of  the  earth  ; 

and  England  rejoioea  in  a  wanner  climate 

than  the  sun-raya  of  its  latitude  oould  eon* 

f<r  upon  it.     These  differences  of  tempera* 

ture  have  been  mapped  out,  and  are  round 

to  indicate  curious  but  somewhat  ir 

i  f  heat,  uained  "  thermal  lines."    1  he 

moisture    and    state    of   cultivation    of  a 

country  Will,  of  course,  affect  the  climate ; 

ological  peculiarities,  and  the 

larities  of  its  surface,    will   give    a 

titer  to  it. 

DISTILLED  WATERS.  These  are  made 
by  introducing  vegetables  in  a  still  with 
drawing  oil'  as  much  as  is  found  to 
retain  certain  properties  of  the  plants.  These 
Waters  are  often  more  efficacious,  externally 
or  internally  applied,  than  the  vegetables 
themselves,"  which  might  be  unsuitcd  for 
exhibition  in  their  normal  states. 

CHESTS.  Ancient  warriors  wore  crests 
to  terrify  their  enemies  by  an  exhibition  of 
Punic  ferocious  shapes  emblematical  of  the 
foes  they  had  conquered.  Subsequently, 
the  practice  became  modified,  and  crests 
were  adopted  as  marks  of  family  dignity 
and  distinction. 

'  i "  M 1!  K  US.  Cucumbers  are  certainly 
nutritious;  but  they  are  slightly  so  com- 
pared with  other  vegetables.  They  are 
difficult  of  digestion,  especially  when  full- 
grown  and  seedy.  They  formerly  grew  in 
great  abundance  in  Palestine  and  Egypt, 
■where,  it  is  said,  they  constituted  a  great 
part  of  the  food  of  the  poor  and  slaves. 
The  plant  was  brought  from  the  Nether- 
lands about  1538. 

SMOKING  OP  A  LAMP  (TO  PRE- 
VENT). Soak  the  wick  in  strong  vinegar, 
and  dry  well  before  you  use  it ;  it  will  then 
burn  sweet  and  pleasant,  and  amply  com- 
pensate for  the  trilling  trouble  of  prepar- 
ing it. 

COMPOSITION  FOR  SHOP  TICKETS. 
Gum-arabic  powdered  very  fine,  common 
writing  ink,  and  a  portion  of  Indian  ink, 
Round  in  water.  The  above  preparation 
is  often  made  and  used.  Isinglass  dissolved 
in  hot  water,  mixed  with  the  ink,  would 
give  the  glazed  appeara.ice  as  well  as  the 
gum ;  but  the  latter  answers  the  purpose, 
and  is  cheaper. 

CHERRIES.— Cherries  were  first  planted 
in  Britain  one  hundred  years  before  Christ ; 
and  afterwards  brought  from  Flanders,  and 
planted  in  Kent  with  such  success,  that  an 
on-hard  of  thirty- two  acres  produced,  in 
the  year  1640,  £1,00).  Miller  has  enume- 
rated a  great  variety  ;  but  since  his  time, 
their  culture  has  much  increased. 

SPASMS.    For  these  distressing  and  dan- 


gerous attack^,  there  is  no  better  remedy 
than  the  following: — Take  eight  drops  of 
laudanum,  and  eight  drops  Of  Hoffman's 
BSther;  and  in  the  morning  one  or  two 
Seidlitz'a  powders,  or  castor  oil,  or  any 
other  mild  aperient.  In  the  summer,  saline 
draughts  are  best. 

FOUNTAIN  (HOW  TO  MAKE  A 
CH  EAP).  The  following  is  a  plan  adopted 
some  time  ngo  with  perfect  success: — First 
of  all  procure  a  good-sized  water-butt,  marked 
A,  and  place  it  behind  a  wall  B,  then  carry 


jmaMj 


I 


#& 


a  one-inch  pipe  C,  underneath  the  ground 
(at  a  depth  of  two  feet),  to  the  fountain  D. 
This  costs  $15.  The  only  trouble,  if  it  be 
such,  attending  it,  is  the  filling  of  the  butt ; 
although  even  this  is  easily  done  away  with 
if  you  should  chance  to  have  a  pump  near  at 
hand. 

UNICORN.  The  unicorn  is  a  fabulous 
beast.  There  is  a  fish  with  a  horse-like 
head  which  is  termed  the  sea-unicorn, 
having  a  horn  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead. 
The  lion  and  the  unicorn  in  the  British 
arms  are  termed  supporters.  In  this  country 
none  under  the  degree  of  Baronet  are  allowed 
the  honour  of  supporters.  King  James  in- 
troduced the  royal  unicorn  as  the  supporter 
for  Scotland,  companion  to  the  British 
lion. 

CHURCHING.  The  usage  of  "  Church- 
ing" originated  in  the  Jewish  rite  of  purifi- 
cation. Churching  is  the  act  of  returning 
thanks  in  a  place  of  worship  for  any  great 
deliverance.  It  was  a  Jewish  law  that  a 
woman  should  keep  within  her  house  forty 
days  after  confinement,  if  she  had  a  son,  and 
eighty  if  she  had  a  daughter.  At  the  expi- 
ration of  that  time,  she  was  to  go  to  the 
Temple  and  offer  a  lamb  with  a  young  pigeon 
or  turtle,  or,  in  case  of  poverty,  two  pigeons 
or  two  turtles. 

CEMENTS     (MANUFACTURE     AND 

USE  OF).     The  term  cement  includes  all 

ihstances  employed  for  the  purpose 

of  causing   the  adhesion   of  two   or    more 

bodies,    whether    originally    separate,    or 


120 


PACTS  foe  everybody: 


divided  by  an  accidental  fracture.     As  the 
substances  that  are  required  to  be  connected 
together  are  exceedingly  various,  and  differ 
very  much  in  their  properties  as  to  texture, 
&c.  &c,  and  as  the  conditions  under  which 
they  are  placed,    with   regard  to  heat  and 
moisture,   are  also    exceedingly  variable,  a 
number  of  cements,   possessed  of  very  diffe- 
rent properties,  are  required  ;  for  a  cement 
that  answers  admirably  under  one  set  of 
circumstances  may  be  perfectly  useless  in 
others.     A    vast   number    of    cements  are 
known  and  used  in  the  various  arts;  but 
they  may  all  be  referred  to  a  few  classes, 
and  our  object  in  this  paper  will  be  to 
describe   the   manufacture   and  use  of  the 
best  of  each  class,  and  also  to  state  what  are 
the  general  principles  upon  which  thesuccess 
or  failure  of  cementing  usually  depends. — 
The    different  parts  of  a    solid   are  held 
together   by   an   attraction    between    their 
several   particles,    which  is  termed  the  at- 
traction of  cohesion,  or  cohesive  attraction. 
The  amount  of  this  varies  with  the  sub- 
stances ;  thus,  the  cohesion  of  the  particles 
of  iron  to  one  another  is  enormously  great, 
whilst  that  between  those  of  chalk  is  but 
small.     This  attraction  acts  only  when  the 
particles  are  in  the  closest  possible  contact ; 
even  air  must  not  be  between  them.     If, 
after   breaking    any  substance,    we   could 
bring  the  particles  into  as  close  contact  as 
before,  and  remove  the  air,  they  would  re- 
unite, and  be  as  strongly  connected  as  ever. 
But,   in  general,  this  is  impossible ;  small 
particles  of   grit    and    dust    get   between 
them  ;  the  film  of  interposed  air  cannot  be 
removed ;    and    thus,   however    firmly   we 
press  the  edges  of  a  broken  cup  together, 
it  remains  cracked  china  still.     Perfectly 
flat,  clean  surfaces,   like   those  of  freshly- 
ground  plate-glass,  may  sometimes  be  made 
to  cohere,  so  that  the  two  pieces  become 
one,    and     cannot    be    separated   without 
breaking.     The  attraction  of  cohesion  takes 
place  between  the  parts  of  the  same  sub 
stance,   and  must  not  be  confounded  with 
that  of  adhesion,  which  is  the  attraction  of 
different    substances  to  one  another;    for 
example,   the    particles  of  a  piece  of  wood 
are  united  by  cohesive    attraction,   whilst 
the.  union  of  glue  and  wood  to  each  other 
depends  on  adhesive  attraction.     And  it  is 
important    that    this   distinction  be  borne 
in  mind,  for,  in  almost  all  cases,  the  cohe- 
sion between  the  particles  of  the  cement 
is  very  much   less    than    the   adhesion  of 
the   cement  to  other  bodies;    and  if  torn 
apart,  the  connected  joint  gives  way — not 
by  the  loosening  of  the  adbesion — but  by 
the  layer  of   cement  splitting  down    the 


centre.  Hence  the  important  rule,  that, 
the  less  cement  in  a  joint,  the  stronger  it  is. 
Domestic  manipulators  usually  reverse  this, 
by  letting  as  much  cement  as  possible 
remain  in  the  joint,  which  is,  therefore, 
necessarily  a  weak  one.  A  thick,  nearly 
solid  «rjment,  which  cannot  be  pressed  out 
of  the  joint,  is  always  inferior  to  a  thinner 
one,  of  which  merely  a  connecting  film 
remains  between  the  united  surfaces. 

Mouth  Glue  affords  a  very  convenient 
means  of  uniting  papers,  and  other  small 
light  objects;  it  is  made  by  dissolving,  by 
the  aid  of  heat,  pure  glue,  as  parchment 
glue,  or  gelatine,  with  about  one-quarter 
or  one-third  of  its  weight  of  coarse  brown 
sugar  in  as  small  a  quantity  of  boiling 
water  as  possible;  this,  when  perfectly 
liquid,  should  be  cast  into  thin  cakes  on  a 
flat  surface  very  slightly  oiled,  and  as  it 
cools,  cut  up  into  pieces  of  a  convenient 
size.  "When  required  for  use  one  end  may 
be  moistened  by  the  mouth,  and  is  then 
ready  to  be  rubbed  on  any  substances  it 
may  be  wished  to  join  ;  a  piece  kept  in  the 
desk  or  work-box  is  exceedingly  conve- 
nient. 

Paste  is  usually  made  by  rubbing  up 
flour  with  cold  water,  and  boiling;  if  a 
little  alum  is  mixed  before  boiling  it  is 
much  improved,  being  less  clammy,  work- 
ing more  freely  in  the  brush  and  thinner  ; 
a  less  quantity  is  required,  and  it  is  there- 
fore stronger.  If  required  in  large  quan- 
tity, as  for  papering  rooms,  it  may  be  made 
by  mixing  one  quartern  of  flour,  one-quarter 
pound  of  alum,  and  a  little  warm  water; 
when  mixed,  the  requisite  quantity  of 
boiling  water  should  be  poured  on  whilst; 
the  mixture  is  being  stirred.  Paste  is  only 
adapted  to  cementing  paper;  when  used 
it  should  be  spread  on  one  side  of  the  paper, 
which  should  then  be  folded  Avith  the  pasted 
side  inwards,  and  allow- ed  to  remain  a  few 
minutes  before  being  opened  and  used ;  this 
swells  the  paper,  and  permit  its  being 
more  smoothly  and  securely  attached. 
Kept  for  a* few  days,  paste  becomes  mouldy, 
aud  after  a  short  time  putrid.  This  incon- 
venience  may   be   obviated    by   using  the 

Permanent  Paste,  made  by  adding  to 
each  half-pint  of  flour-paste,  without  alum, 
fifteen  grains  of  corrosive  sublimate,  pre- 
v;ously  rubbed  to  powder  in  a  mortar,  the 
wuole  to  be  well  mixed  ■  this,  if  prevented 
from  drying,  by  being  kept  in  a  covered  pot, 
remains  good  any  length  of  time,  and  is 
therefore  convenient;  but  unfortunately  it 
is  exti°mely  poisonous,  though  its  exces- 
sively nauseous  taste  would  prevent  its 
being  sw  allowed  accidentally ;  it  possesses 


JL  MISCELLANY  OF   USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


121 


the  great  advantages  of  not  being  liable  to 
tin1  attacks  of  in- 

LIQUID  Ci.uk.  Several  preparations  are 
much  in  rogue.    The  liquid  glue  of  the 

6hops,  however,  is  a  totally  different  prepa- 
.  being  inodorous,  and  very  much 
cheaper.  It  is  made  by  dissolving  shell-lac 
in  water,  by  boiling  it  along  with  borax, 
which  possesses  the  peculiar  property  of 
causing  the  solution  of  the  resinous' lac. 
This  preparation  is  convenient  for  its  cheap- 
ness and  freedom  from  smell,  but  it  gives 
way  if  exposed  to  long-continued  damp, 
which  that  made  with  naphtha  resists. 

Common  Glue  should  always  be  prepared  in 
aglue-pot  or  double  vessel  to  prevent  its  being 
burned,  which  injures  it  very  materially  ; 
the  objection  to  the  use  of  this  contrivance 
is,  that  it  renders  it  impossible  to  heat  the 
glue  in  the  inner  vessel  to  the  boiling  point; 
this  inconvenience  can  be  obviated  bv  em- 
ploying in  the  outer  vessel  some  liquid, 
which  boils  at  a  higher  temperature  than 
pure  water,  such  as  saturated  solution  of 
salt,  ('made  by  adding  one-third  as  much 
salt  as  water) .  This  boils  at  224°  Fahr.,  12° 
above  the  heat  of  boiling  water,  and  enables 
the  glue  in  the  inner  vessel  to  be  heated  to 
a  much  higher  temperature  than  when  pure 
water  is  employed.  If  a  saturated  solution 
of  nitre  is  used,  the  temperature  rises  still 
higher. 

Limb  and  Ego  Cement  is  frequently 
made  by  moistening  the  edges  to  be  united 
with  white  of  vgg,  dusting  on  some  lime 
from  a  piece  of  muslin,  and  bringing  the 
edges  into  contact.  A  much  better  mode  is 
to  slake  some  freshly-burned  lime  with  a 
small  quantity  of  boiling  water  ;  this  occa- 
sions it  to  fall  into  a  very  fine  dry  powder, 
if  excess  of  water  has  not  "been  added.  The 
white  of  egg  used  should  be  intimately  and 
thoroughly  mixed,  by  beating,  with  an 
equal  bulk  of  water,  and  the  slaked  lime 
added  to  the  mixture,  so  as  to  form  a  thin 
paste,  which  should  be  used  speedily,  as 
it  soon  sets.  This  is  a  valuable  cement, 
possessed  of  great  strength,  and  capable  of 
withstanding  boiling  water.  Cements  made 
with  lime  and  blood,  scraped  cheese,  or 
curd,  may  be  regarded  as  inferior  varieties 
of  it.  Cracked  vessels,  of  earthenware  and 
may  often  be  usefully,  though  not 
ornamentally  repaired  by  white  lead  spread 
on  strips  of  calico,  and  secured  with  binds 
of  twine.  But  in  point  of  strength,  all 
ordinary  cements  yield  the  palm  to 

Jeffeky's  Patented  Marine  Glue,  a 
compound  of  Indian-rubber,  sl.e'.l-lac,  and 
coal  tar  naphtha.  Small  quantities  can  be 
purchased  at  most  of  the  tool  warehouses, 


at  cheaper  rates  than  it  can  be  made. 
When  applied  to  china  or  glaM,  the  sub- 
stances should  be  cautiously  made  hot 
enough  to  melt  the  glue,  whit  h  should 
be  then  rubbed  on  the  edges  so  as  To  be- 
come fluid,  and  the  parts  brought  into  eon- 
tact  immediately.  When  well  applied,  t ho 
mended  stem  of  a  common  tobacco-pipe  will 
break  at  any  other  part  in  preference  to 
the  junction.  The  colour  of  the  glue  un- 
fortunately prevents  its  being  use.'. 

Red  Cement,  which  is  employed  by 
instrument  makers  for  cementing  glass  to 
metals,  and  which  is  very  cheap,  and  ex- 
ceedingly useful  for  a  variety  of  purposes, 
is  made  by  melting  five  parts  of  black  resin, 
one  part  of  vellow  wax,  and  then  stirring 
in,  gradually,  one  part  of  red  ochre  or 
Venetian  red,  in  fine  powder,  and  previously 
well  dried.  This  cement  requires  to  be 
melted  before  use,  and  it  adheres  better  if 
the  objects  to  which  it  is  applied  are 
warmed.  A  soft  cement,  of  a  somewhat 
similar  character,  may  be  found  useful  for 
covering  the  corks  of  preserved  fruit,  and 
other  bottles,  and  it  is  made  by  melting 
yellow  wax  with  an  equal  quantity  of  res  n, 
or  of  common  turpentine  (not  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, but  the  resin.),  using  the  latter  for 
a  very  soft  cement,  and  stirring  in,  as  be- 
fore, some  dried  Venetian  red.  Bearing  in 
mind  our  introductory  remarks,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  uniting  broken  substances 
with  a  thick  cement  is  disadvantageous, 
the  object  being  to  bring  the  surfaces  as 
closely  together  as  possible.  As  an  illus- 
tration of  a  right  and  a  wrong  way  of 
mending,  we  will  suppose  a  plaster  of  Paris 
figure  broken  ;  the  wrong  way  to  mend  it 
is  by  a  thick  paste  of  plaster,  which  makes, 
not  a  joint,  out  a  botch.  The  right  way 
to  mend  it  is  by  means  of  some  well-made 
carpenter's  glue,  which,  being  absorbed 
into  the  porous  plaster,  leaves  merely  a 
film  covering  the  two  surfaces,  and,  if  well 
done,  the  figure  is  stronger  there  than  else- 
where. 

Mastic  Cement  is  used  for  making  a 
superior  coating  to  inside  walls,  and  which 
must  not  be  confounded  with  the  resin 
ma.slic.  It  is  made  by  mixing  twenty  parts 
of  well-washed  and  sifted  sharp  sand  with 
two  parts  of  litharge  and  one  of  freshly 
burned  and  slaked  quicklime  in  fine  dry 
powder.  This  is  made  into  a  putty,  by 
mixing  with  linseed  oil ;  it  sets  in  a  few 
hours,  having  the  appearance  of  light  stone  ; 
and  we  mention  it,  as  it  maybe  frequently 
employed  with  advantage  in  repairing  broken 
stonework  (as  stairs)  by  filling  up  the  miss- 
ing parts. 


122 


FACTS  FOE   EVERYBODY 


OPTICAL  ILLUSION.  Ships  floating 
in  the  air  is  an  optical  illusion,  which  may 
be  thus  explained: — On  the  1st  of  August, 
1798,  Dr.  Vince  observed  at  Ramsgate  a 
ship  which  appeared  as  in  the  subjoined 
illustration,  the  top-mast  being  the  only 
part  of  it  seen  above  the  horizon.  An  in- 
verted image  oJ  it  was  seen  at  B,  imme- 
diately above  the  real  ship  at  A,  and  an 
erect  image  at  C,  both  of  them  being  com- 
plete and  well  defined.  The  sea  was  dis- 
tinctly seen  between  them,  as  at  V  W.  As 
the  ship  rose  to  the  horizon,  the  image,  C, 
gradually  disappeared;  and  while  this  was 
going  on,  the  image  B  descended,  but  the 


mainmost  of  B  did  not  meet  the  mainmast 
of  A.  The  two  images,  B  C,  were  perfectly 
visible  when  the  whole  ship  was  actually 
below  the  horizon.  These  singular  appear- 
ances, which  have  often  given  rise  to  super- 
stitious legends,  may  be  imitated  artificially. 
Thus,  if  we  take  a  long  mass  of  hot  iron, 
and,  look  along  the  upper  surface  of  it 
at  an  object  not  too  distant,  we  shall  see 
not  onlv  the  object  itself,  but  also  an  in- 
verted image  of  it  below  ;  the  second  image 
being  caused  by  the  refraction  of  the  rays 
of  light  passing  through  the  stratum  of  hot 
air,  as  is  the  case  of  the  milage.  (See  Op- 
tical Effects,  p.  115). 

GELATINE.  This  substance  consists  of 
that  part  of  meat  which,  when  extracted, 
forms  a  jelly  when  cold.  It  is  found  abun- 
dantly in  the  skins,  flesh,,  and  bones  of  all 
animals.  Glue  is  a  rough  gelatine  extracted 
from  the  skin,  bones,  and  other  parts  of  in- 
ferior animals — it  is  unsuited  for  food.     The 


best  gelatine  for  invalids  is  obtained  from 
calves'  feet,  &c.  It  is  both  nutritive  and 
strengthening. 

CORINTHIAN  ORDER.  The  third  of  the 
five  orders  of  architecture,  the  capital,  as  in 
the  engraving,  consisting  of  two  rows  of 
leaves,  with  stalks  between,  forming  sixteen 
volutes,  or  ram's  horns. 


PARACHUTE  (THE),  A  machine  by 
which  aeronauts  may  descend  from  a  balloon 
to  the  ground  in  safety.  It  bears  a  general 
resemblance  to  an  umbrella,  and  consists  of 
a  strong  but  light  surface,  a  a,  from  which 
a  car,  b,  is  suspended.  When  it  is  detached 
i/ 


from  the  balloon,  it  descends  at  first  with  an 
accelerated  velocity  ;  but  this  is  soon, 
checked  by  the  resistance  of  the  air,  and  the 
machine  then  falls  at  a  rate  nearly  uniform, 
and  very  moderate.  A  very  simple  experi- 
ment will  enable  any  person  to  illustrate 
the  principle  of  the  parachute.  Take  a  piece 
of  paper  about  three  feet  square,  and  attach 
a  piece  of  thread  to  each  corner  of  it;  then 
fasten  a  proportionate  weight  to  the  lower 
part,  and  let  it  drop  from  a  window,  or  even 
from  vour  hand,  held  as  high  as  you  can. 
It  will  descend  slowly  to  the  ground. 


A   MISCELLANY   OP  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


123 


MARCH.  This  month  was  named  by 
Romulus,  in  honour  of  his  supposed  father — 
Mars,  the  heathen  God  of  w  ar.  Until  Ja- 
nuary ami  February  were  added  to  the  calen- 
dar, "the  Romans  made  it  the  first  month  of 
the  year,  and  it  was  not  even  reckoned  as 
the  third  month  by  the  English  until  17-V2. 

"The  Saxons,"  sa\s  Yerstcgan,  "called 
the  month  liiade  lut/u-Jlonut/t,  to  denote 
its  general  boisterousness  of  character, 
Rhedc  sig  lifying,  in  their  interpretation, 
roughor  rugged.  Many  antiquaries  contend 
that,  the  month  having  been  dedicated  to 
the  idol  lihciia  before  the  conversion  of  the 
Saxons  to  Christianity,  the  etymology  of 
it  thus  given  is  more  correct  The  name 
was  afterwards  changed  to  Lenet-Monat,  or 


^:-X 


length  month,  because  in  this  month  the 
length  of  the  dav  begins  to  excetd  that  of 
jht.  It  has  been  said  that  Lenet 
signifies  spring,  and  that  therefore  it  was 
called  spring  month.  As  our  Saxon  ances- 
tors observed  the  custom  of  fasting  after  they 
embraced  Christianity,  and  as  the  period  of 
the  observance  of  this  custom  usually  fell  in 
the  Lenet- Monai,  it  was  called  the  Lenet 
fast,  and  by  corruption  the  word  Lenet  be- 
came converted  into  Lent." 

Symbol  or  Allegory  of  the  Month. — A 
young  man  of  a  tawny  colour  and  fierce 
.  with  a  helmet  on  his  head,  bein<r  hi- 
lt n  ded  for  Mars,  the  God  of  War.  In  his 
right  hand  he  holds  a  ram,  typical  of  the 
sign  of  Aries,  or  the  Ram,  because  the  sun 
enters  that  constellation  on  the"20th  of  the 
month,  when  Spring  commences.  A  basket 
of  seeds  hangs  upon  his  left  arm,  the  hand 
holding  a  bunch  of  almond  blossoms,  and 
resting  upon  a  spade,  allegorical  of  the  pre- 
paration of  the  ground  by  the  husbandman. 


There  are  some  proverbs  relating  to  the 
month  which  are  based  upon  its  character. 
Thus  it  is  sometimes  said  that  "a  bushel  <>f 
March  dost  is  worth  a  kind's  ransom;"  and 
'•a  dry  March  never  begs  its  bread."  Both 
these  proverbs  signify  thai  a  dry  March  is 
favourable  to  the  agriculturist  and  gardener; 

and  this  is  borne  out  by  another  proverb. 

which  says  that  "March  grass  never  did 
good;"  hence  we  infer  that  a  wet  March, 
which  would  be  necessary  tor  the  grass  to 
grow  so  early,  is  prejudicial  to  the  farmer 
and  florist. 

Our  Calendar  contains  many  days  of  observ- 
ance in  March.  The  1st  is  called  St.  David**- 
day.  St.  David  is  the  patron  saint  of  Welsh 
men.  lie  was  Archbishop  of  Miney,  and  died 
in  644,  his  remains  being  placed  in  the  church 
of  St.  Andrew,  and  afterwards  removed  to 
Glastonbury  Abbey.  The  custom  of  Welsh- 
men wearing  leeks  in  their  hats  on  St.  David's- 
day  is  said  to  owe  its  origin  to  their  having 
gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Saxons,  from 
whom  they  distinguished  themselves  by 
wearing  leeks  during  the  battle. 

2nd.  St.  Chad  was  an  English  bishop, 
educated  at  the  monastery  of  Lindisfame, 
and  was  fifth  bishop  of  the  Mercians  and 
third  bishop  of  Lichfield,  where  he  died  in 
673,  being  buried  with  great  pomp  in  the 
cathedral,  his  shrine  costing  upwards  of 
£2,000  for  decorations. 

7th.  Perpetua  was  a  Roman  saint,  mar- 
tyred in  205,  by  order  of  the  Emperor 
Serverus. 

17th.  St.  Tat rick' s-day.—  St.  Patrick 
is  the  tutelary  saint  of  the  Irish,  who  wear 
a  bunch  of  trefoil,  or  shamrock,  upon  this 
day.  Biographers  do  not  agree  with  respect 
to  the  date  and  place  of  birth  of  Ireland's 
saint.  Usher  and  Tillemont  stating  that  he 
was  born  in  the  year  372,  while  Moore,  in 
his  "History  of  Ireland,"  states  that  he  was 
born  in  the  year  387.  The  same  discrepancy 
occurs  with  regard  to  the  date  of  his  death, 
Usher  fixing  it  on  the  17th  of  March,  493; 
Tillemont,  on  the  same  day  in  455,  Nenius 
in  4G4,  and  Moore  in  405.  Most  biographers 
maintain  that  St.  Patrick  was  born  in  a 
village  called  Bonavon  TaberunB,  supposed 
to  be  the  town  of  Kilpatrick,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Clyde. between  Dumnarton  and  Glasgow; 
hut  Mr.  Moore  states  that  the  saint  was  burn 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Boulogne  in  the  an- 
cient Armoric  Britain,  ami  that  the  Irish 
monarch,  Nial  of  the  Nine  Hostages,  having 
ravaged  some  of  the  maritime  districts  of 
Gaul  in  the  vear  403,  St.  Patrick  was  taken 
prisoner  and  carried  to  Ireland,  where  he 
was  sold  to  a  person  residing  in  Antrim,  who 
employed  him  to  tend  sheep.     Having  con- 


,34 


PACTS   FOK  EVERYBODY: 


timied  in  this  place  for  six  years,  he  made 
his  escape  in  a  vessel  bound,  for  Gaul,  and 
afterwards  entered  a  monastery  at  Tours. 
It  is  said  that  he  constantly  dreamed  that  he. 
was  invited  to  return  to  Ireland  hi  the  name 
of  its  people,  and  accordingly  he  set  sail  for 
that  purpose,  and  landed  at  Dublin  about 
the  year  422.  His  adventures  upon  landing; 
his  conversion  of  Dicho,  a  pagan  chieftain  ; 
his  performance  of  Divine  service  in  a  barn; 
his  celebration  of  Easter,  by  lighting  the 
Paschal  fire  on  Easter-eve  before  the  halls 
of  Tara;  his  conversion  of.  multitudes  of 
King  Logaire's  followers,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  great  Druidical  god,  are  all  points 
of  interest  in  the  life  of  this  saint.  St.  Pa- 
trick ereeted  several  rude  Christian  churches, 
and  occupied  the  see  of  Armagh,  which  was 
founded  to  organize  his  new  system.  The 
origin  of  the  Irish  wearing  the  shamrock  on 
this  day  is  said  to  be  from  St.  Patrick  having 
used  some  of  this  plant  as  an  illustration  of 
the  Trinity,  when  he  was  endeavouring  to 
convert  the  Irish,  after  his  second  landing,  in 
422. 

21st.  St.  Benedict  was  born  in  Umbria, 
about  4S0,  and  sent  to  school  at  Rome.  He 
founded  the  order  of  Monks  of  St.  Benedict, 
and  died  543,  at  the  age  of  sixty-three,  after 
having  performed,  according  to  the  state- 
ments of  his  followers,  a  host  of  extraordi- 
nary wonders  and  cures. 

25th.  Xlt-t  Annunciation-day  of  the  Vir- 
gin Mary,  which  is  kept  as  a  festival  in  the 
Church  of  England,  in  commemoration  of 
the  incarnation  of  our  Saviour. 

APOTHECARY  (Creek  apothek(e,&S\\oy, 
or  Store-room).  This  term  appears  to  come 
from  the  above  root,  although  we  now 
apply  it  chiefly  to  one  who  compounds  or 
prescribes  medicines,  and  not  to  the  vendor 
or  shopkeeper.  The  apothecary  of  our  day 
is  the  regular  "Family  Doctor,"  who, 
having  obtained  a  licence  to  practice  from 
a  chartered  incorporation,  puts  after  his 
name  the  letters  L.A.C.,  meaning  Licentiate 
of  the  Apothecaries'  Company,  of  London, 
incorporated  by  James  L,  in  1606 ;  the 
association  was  then  united  with  the  Grocers' 
Company,  but  in  1617  it  was  formed  into  a 
leparate  company,  with  the  exclusive  right 
of  dealing  in  and  compounding  drugs.  At 
the  close  of  the  17th  century,  the  members 
of  this  association  began  to  prescribe  as  well 
as  dispense  medicines;  they  soon  alter  be- 
came the  common  medical  attendants  of  the 
sick,  and  performed  the  functions  both  of 
the  physicians  and  surgeons  of  our  day. 
As  their  calling  became  gradually  elevated 
into  a  profession,  there  arose  a  new  class  to 
supply  their  place,  those  called  chemists  and 


druggists,  who  now  deal  in  urugs,  and  com- 
pound medicines,  as  the  apothecaries  used  to 
do  ;  of  these  we  shall  have  to  speak  by  and 
by.  Several  Acts  of  Parliament  for  re- 
stricting or  extending  the  power  of  the 
Apothecaries  Company  have  been  passed  at 
different  times ;  the  last  was  in  1815,  and 
this,  as  every  medical  practitioner  is  to  a 
certain  extent  an  apothecary,  gives  the 
company  a  large  amount  of  control  over  the 
profession  throughout  the  kingdom.  No 
person  is  legally  qualified  to  practise  unless 
he  shall  have  served  an  apprenticeship  with 
a  licentiate  of  this  company,  passed  before 
its  board  of  examiners,  and  paid  certain  fees 
which  they  are  empowered  to  demand  for  a 
licence.  The  French  apothecaire,  and  the 
Latin  apotheca,  come  very  close  to  the 
Greek  original  in  sound  and  signification : 
there  is  no  Apothecaries'  Company  across  the 
channel,  and  the  apothecary  there  is  more 
of  a  medicine  vendor  and  compounder  than 
he  is  with  us. 

We  may  observe  here  that  apothesia  in 
Botany  signifies  a  repository,  and  is  applied 
to  the  cases  in  which  the  organs  of  repro- 
duction of  many  of  the  algce,  or  sea- weeds, 
are  contained. 

Apothecaries'  "Weights  and  Measures, 
are  those  which  arc  constantly  used  in  the 
compounding  and  dispensing  of  medicines  in 
this  country.  As  a  knowledge  of  them  is 
essential  to  those  who  would  attempt  Ihe 
domestic  treatment  of  diseases,  we  give 
them  in  extenso. 

Weights.  One  pound  contains  12  ounces, 
or  5760  grains ;  one  ounce  8  drachms,  or  480 
grains;  one  drachm  3  scruples,  or  60  grains; 
one  soruple  20  grains. 

Measures.  One  gallon  contains  8  pints,  or 
70,000  grains  of  water  ;  one  pint  20  ounces, 
or8,750grains;  one  oum-eS  drachms,  or  437*5 
grains;  one  drachm  60  minims,  54-7 grains. 

Symbols  and  Characters,  lb.  represents  a 
pound  ;  §  an  ounce ;  3  a  dnuhm ;  £)  a 
scruple ;  gr.  a  grain  ;  C.  for  congius,  a  gal- 
lon ;  O.  for  Octavius,  a  pint :  the  prefix  fl 
before  3  or  S>  mcans  a  ^hud  drachm  or 
ounce  ;  1T\,  a  fluid  minim  ;  gtt.  for  gutte,  a 
drop.  The  letters  ss  put  after  either  of 
these  characters  signifies  a  half;  thus,  gss 
is  half  an  ounce.  It  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  minim  and  drop  are  not  the 
same  quantities,  the  former  containing 
nearly  half  as  much  more  as  the  latter,  thus 
10  minims-  of  Tincture  of  Opium  are  equal  to 
15  drops  ;  formerly  it  was  customary  to  pre- 
scribe all  medicines  by  drops  as  let  fall  from 
the  mouth  of  a  bottle;  but  the  quantity  in  a 
certain  number  of  these  differed  so  consider- 
ably, according  to  the  density  of  the  fluid,  or 


A.  MISCELLANY  OF   USEFUL   Ktf0v7LFDGE. 


125 


the  vessel  it  was  dropped  from,  Chat  an 
alteration  in  the  plan  whs  found  necessary, 
and  that  of  admeasurement  was  adopted  : 
■we  give  here  a  cut  of  a  minim  measure, 


Minim  Measure, 
and  also  of  one   used  for  larger  quantities. 
These  may  be  purchased  of  any  drug| 
a  low  price;  they  are  made  of  glass,  some 
are  Large  enough  to  contain  a  pint. 


\t 1 

\ 1 

r       "3 

| i 

_^=- 

~1~^ 

yHlF 

of  as  many  different  sizes  ;  m  one  case,  there- 
fore, the  dose  will  be  much  lessened,  and  in 
the  other  considerably  augmented — a  varia- 
tion which  might  iu  many  instances  be  at- 
tended with  had  consequence*. 


2  Ounce  Measure. 
"We  give  also  a  cut  of  a  graduated  medicine 
glass  which  is  a  useful  article  in  the  nursery 
or  sick  chamber;  it  should  be  explained  that 
-spoonful  is  considered  to  be  halt  an 
ounce,  a  tea-spoonful  1  drachm,  a  dessert- 
spoonful is  2|  drachms,  a  wine-glassful  is 
2  ounces.    In  compounding  medicines  mea- 
sures and  weights  should  always  be  used,  as 
articles  of  domestic  use  frequently  vary  so 
much  in  size  and  capacity  that  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  convey  through  them  the  correct  in- 
structions fur  the  various  doses  to  be  taken. 
In  twenty  different    houses  the    tea-spoons, 
po  >ns,  aad  wine-glasses  will  perhaps  be 


Graduated  Medicine  Glass. 

FRUITS  (DIGESTIVE  PROPERTIES 
OF).  With  the  exception  of  strawberries. 
there  is  no  dessert  fruit,  produced  in  a  wild 
state,  easy  of  digestion.  The  crab-apple  an  I 
the  sloe,  the  parentsof  the  cultivated  apple  a  ml 
plum,  are  wholly  unfit  Tor  use,  except  in  the 
shape  of  jams  or  conserves,  having  a  plentiful 
addition  of  sugar  to  correct  their  astringent 
nature. 

Commencing  with  the  Apple—  the  fruit  in 
most  general  use,  of  which  we  have  many 
varieties— the  best  being  suitable  for  different 
purposes,  but  all  containing  more  or  less  of 
saccharine,  acid,  mucilage,  soft  woody  fibre, 
and  water,  the  quality  of  the  fruit  being  de- 
pendent upon  the  proportion  in  which  ono 
or  other  of  these  prevails.  The  aroma  of 
apples,  on  which  their  flavour  seems  to  de- 
pend, is  supposed  to  act  as  a  mild  stimulant, 
and  to  assist  digestion;  therefore,  those 
apples  which  have  the  finest  flavour  are  the 
most  esteemed.  The  American  sorts  and 
the  rennets  abound  in  this  quality,  and  they 
also  contain  a  greater  than  ordinary  pro- 
portion of  sugar  and  mucilage,  consequently 
are  more  nutritive;  while  the  pippins  and 
all  hard  varieties  possess  much  woody  fibre,, 
difficult  of  digestion.  The  dry  mealy  kinds, 
although  not  so  much  relished,  are  highly 
nutritive,  while  the  watery  sorts  are  gene- 
rally crude,  cold,  and  ill-adapted  to  weak 
Stomachs  in  their  raw  stale. 

15ut  apples  of  very  inferior  quality  are 
made  palatcable  and  wholesome  by  the  appli- 


126 


PACTS  FOR  everybody: 


cation  of  heat,  and  the  fruit  of  apple  pie,  if 
not  too  much  spiced,  or  even  the  roasted 
apple,  is  highly  nutritive  and  digestible. 
Before  this  fruit  is  subjected  to  heat,  it  is 
composed  of  a  very  great  number  of  little 
cells  and  vessels,  containing  the  acid  juice 
and  the  pulp — probably  in  a  separate  slate. 
When  heated,  the  juice  expands  and  bursts 
through  the  cells,  and  as  the  temperature 
increases,  the  watery  portion  of  the  moisture 
is  partly  converted  into  steam,  and  evapo- 
rates through  the  rind. 

When  the  acid  and  pulp  of  the  apple  are 
thus  set  free  from  their  confinement,  they 
enter  into  more  intimate  union,  and  the 
taste  of  the  acid  is  mellowed  by  its  mixture 
with  the  pulp,  in  the  same  manner  as  rum 
is  mellowed  by  being  mixed  with  milk  :  as 
the  pulp  also  contains  saccharine,  this  is 
disengaged  by  the  heat,  and  mixes  with  the 
acid. 

Ripe,  sweet,  and  mealy  apples,  produce  a 
laxative  effect  on  the  bowels,  while  those 
which  are  sour  and  astringent  should  be 
avoided  by  the  sedentary,  as  they  are  apt  to 
induce  costiveuess,  griping,  and  flatulency, 
particularly  when  eaten  after  meds  by 
persons  indulging  in  wine  or  spirits. 

Pears  have  but  little  of  the  acid  usually 
found  in  apples,  but  they  generally  possess 
more  saccharine,  and  also  more  woody  fibre, 
which  renders  some  kinds  indigestible. 
Those  which  are  not  hard  and  solid  contain, 
along  with  their  sugar,  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  mucilage,  which — although  nou- 
rishing— is  apt  to  ferment  in  the  stomach, 
and  produce  flatulence.  The  Maria  Louisa 
and  the  Old  Burgundy  are  easy  of  digestion, 
the  former  perhaps  the  best  and  handsomest 
pear  produced,  and  these  when  ripe  may  be 
eaten  freely,  being  sweet,  mellow,  and  laxa- 
tive, and  very  salutary  to  some  constitutions, 
but  heavy  to  cold  stomachs  when  taken  in 
excess.  The  very  hard  sorts  should  be  pro- 
hibited to  the  weak,  and  moderately  in- 
dulged in  by  the  robust,  having  little  nutri- 
ment, and  their  great  quantity  of  woody 
fibre  serving  to  overload  and  fatigue  the 
stomach. 

Strawberries.  The  strawberry  was 
esteemed  by  the  late  Dr.  Abernethyas  the 
most whole?ome  of  all  fruits,  "balsamic  and 
refreshing,  and  one  of 'the  most  precious 
gifts  of  Providence!"  It  is  mildly  acid, 
contains  a  medium  proportion  of  sugar  and 
mucilage,  and  the  seeds  act  on  the  bowels 


imilaily  to  those  of  the  fig.  In  some  cases 
the  seeds  are  said  to  have  accumulated  in 
the  stomach  and  produced  alarming  disease. 
The  occurrence  is  rare,  however,  and  need 
no  more  deter  us  from  eating  strawberries 


than  the  fact  of  a  person  being  choked  with 
a  fish-bone  should  deter  us  from  eating  fish. 
According  to  Linnaeus,  strawberries  are  an 
excellent  prevention  of  gout  and  gravel. 
Wine  is  supposed  to  be  injurious  to  the 
beneficial  action  of  strawberries  when  taken 
in  connexion ;  and  the  usual  appendage  of 
Cream  and  sugar,  although  highly  nourishing 
to  the  robust,  is  not  adapted  to  weak  Btomachs. 
The  fruit  should  not  be  too  freely  indulged 
in  after  dinner,  or  any  other  full  meal.  In 
warm  weather  strawberries  are  very  grateful 
for  breakfast  or  lunch,  and  a  foreign  fashion 
of  preparing  them  has  lately  been  adopted  : 
it  is  as  follows : — Take  off  the  stalks  from  as 
many  berries  as  will  form  one  layer  at  the 
bottom  of  a  dish;  sift  some  fine  loaf-sugar  over 
them,  then  place  another  layer,  and  Bift  again, 
each  layer  being  smaller  than  the  other, 
and  the  heap  raised  in  a  pyramidical  form. 
When  you  have  several  lavers,  squeeze  the 
juice  of  afresh  lemon  over  the  whole.  Before 
they  are  served  out,  they  should  be  gently 
disturbed  so  as  to  receive  the  full  benefit  of 
the  lemon-juice  and  sugar.  They  may  be 
eaten  of  heartily  when  thus  prepared,  without 
danger. 

Raspberries  resemble  strawberries  in 
most  of  their  qualities,  and  may  be  used  in 
the  same  manner ;  but  their  flavour  is  too 
strong  to  be  agreeable  when  eaten  fresh  : 
they  are,  therefore,  mostly  used  for  tarts  or 
preserving.  In  picking,  great  care  must  be 
taken  to  abstract  the  small  worm  which  will 
generally  be  found  on  withdrawing  the  stalk 
when  quite  ripe. 

Gooseberries.  According  to  Dr.  John, 
an  eminent  continental  chemist,  the  ana- 
lysation  of  this  fruit  gave  the  following  sub- 
stances, but  in  what  proportion  he  does  not 
state : — Water,  sugar,  citrate  of  lime,  ditto 
of  potash,  malate  of  lime,  ditto  of  potash, 
resin,  gum,  fibrin,  ammonia,  phosphate  of 
lime,  and  phosphate  of  magnesia.  Next  to 
the  strawberry  the  gooseberry  is  esteemed 
as  the  most  wiaolesome  and  digestible  of  our 
native  fruits.  Like  that,  it  possesses  a  good 
mixture  of  sugar  and  acid,  but  abounds  more 
in  mucilage  and  hard  seeds.  The  skin 
besides  is  astringent,  acid,  fibry,  and  indi- 
gestible;  from  the  latter  of  which  qualities 
it  acts  upon  the  bowels  by  irritation,  and 
proves  laxative;  for  which  reason  some  have 
recommended  the  skins  to  be  eaten.  Of  this 
we  do  not  approve,  for  the  seeds  answer  the 
purpose  sufficiently  well  without  loading 
the  bowels  with  a  mass  of  indigestible  and 
irritable  substances.  Gooseberries  are  re- 
commended in  cutaneous  diseases — being 
cooling  to  the  blood — and  also  in  deficiency 
of  bile.     Heat,   whether    applied   to    the 


A  MISCELLANY  OP  USEFUL  KyniVLFTifiF. 


12- 


stoning  or  baking,  proves  (as  in  the  case  (if 

an  excellent  corrector  of  the  crude 

of  unripe  or  inferior  fruit,  and  the 

shoots  oi  rhubarb,  which  are  likewise 

i  id  and  saccharine,  make  u  wholesome 

n  toques  ami  puddings  in  the  early 

part  of  Bummer. 

(.  i  ui:a.\"is  rank  next  in  quality,  and 
particularly  the  black,  nave  a  much 
r  principle  of  astringencj  than  any 
of  the  preceding  fruits;  consequently, 
though  they  contain  sugar  and  mucilage, 
they  prove  less  laxative  than  strawberries  or 
I  i Ties.      The    seeds   and    skin    being 

nearly  indigestible  should  not  be  swallowed, 
or  if  so  eaten,  with  great  moderation,  and 
the  black  are  considered  the  most  wholesome. 

GRAPES  can  only  be  classed  to  a  certain 
degree  as  a  native  .fruit ;  for  although  vast 
quantities  are  grown  against  walls,  they  do 
not  always  ripen  sufficiently  for  use  in  a  raw 
state  rl  he  grape  contains  the  same  chemical 
principles  as  the  fruits  enumerated,  with  the 
addition  of  super-tartrate  of  potass,  the 
substance  which,  according  to  Maculloch, 
makes  the  chief  difference  between  grape 
wine  and  all  others.  It  has  also  less  of  the 
malic  acid  than  our  native  fruits,  while  it 
-' •>  a  pleasant  and  wholesome  aromatic 
flavour,  and  most  sorts  have  also  a  principle 
oi  astringency  which  counteracts  in  some 
degre<  the  laxative  tendency.  For  this 
reason,  ripe  grapes  may  be  eaten  without 
reserve  even  bj  the  sick  and  convalescent; 
for  although  the  stones  or  seeds  possess  a  very 
strong  astringent  principle,  so  long  as  they 
are  unbroken  it  is  not  brought  into  action, 
and  they  pass  through  the  bowels  without 
producing  any  injurious  effects.  The  large 
portion  of  sugar  in  grapes  renders  them  nu- 
tritive, while  the  acidity  facilitates  their 
digestion  ;  and  for  bilious  complaints  or  dry 
temperaments  they  are  found  to  have  a  very 
beneficial  effect. 

Cherries  differ  exceedingly  in  quality, 
its  containing  much  water  and  sugar, 
which,  from  being  easily  fermented,  occasion 
colic  and  flatulence.  Others  contain  a  large 
portion  of  water  and  acid,  which  slightly 
stimulating  the  stomach,  proves  digestible 
and  wholesome — but  the  most  nutritive  are 
the  pulpy  mucilaginous  sorts.  "When  cher- 
ries are  quite  ripe  they  may  be  eaten  freely 
without  danger,  but  care  'should  be  taken 
not  to  swallow  the  stones,  which  sometimes 
lodge  in  the  bowels,  and  produce  obstruc- 
tions. The  kernel  yields  a  portion  of  that 
deadly  poison  prussic  acid. 

Plums,  Pea  hes,  Nectarines,  and 
Apricots.  TJ  i  ,■  stone-fruits  contain  the 
elements  of  sugar,  water,  mucilage,  acids. 


and    woody   fibre,     varying    in    proportion 

ing  to  their  kind  and  quality.    They 

are  all    highly  injurious   to  the   stomach  in 

!  an  unripe  slate,  in  consequent  e  of  their  acid 

juices  acting  as  astringents,  and  producing 

gripes  and  colic,  tin  '(lore  they  should  never 

Be  ventured  on  until  the  pulp  can  be  easily 

separated  from  the  stone.    When  quite  ripe, 

they  are  wholesome  and  easy  oi  digestion, 
acting  on  the  bowels  as  a  mild  laxative.      It 

sometimes  happens  that  one-half  the  fruit — 

the  sunny  side — is  ripe,  the  other  not,  in 
which  case  the  unripe  part  should  be  re- 
jo,  nd.  It  has  been  generally  remarked 
that  a  plentiful  year  for  plums  is  rife  of 
fevers  and  dysenteries,  which  proceed  doubt- 
less from  incautious  indulgence.  Heat, 
however  applied,  renders  the  fruit  whole  some 
and  digestible,  ltipe  apricots  are  considered 
refreshing  and  laxative,  and  peaches  are 
best  raw  and  stewed  with  sugar;  or,  for 
cold  heavy  stomachs,  stewed  peaches  are 
found  to  be  gratifying. 

Oranges,  Lemons,  and  Limes. — Unfor- 
tunately these  delicious  cooling  productions 
of  warmer  climes  come  in  season  here  during 
the  winter,  whan  their  fragrant  and  re- 
freshing qualities  cannot  be  so  well  appre- 
ciated as  in  sultry  weather.  They  all  abound 
in  water,  acid,  mucilage,  and  woody  libre, 
with  a  very  variable  proportion  of  saccharine. 
The  peel,  "or  rind,  besides  woody  fibre,  con- 
tains a  strong  indigestible  oil,  the  basis 
apparently  of  their  line  aroma.  The  inner, 
or  white  rind,  as  well  as  the  outer,  should 
be  carefully  removed  before  eating,  for  it  is 
proved  to  be  highly  deleterious  to  weak 
stomachs.  The  acids  of  these  fruits,  properly 
corrected  with  sugar,  are  light,  cooling,  and 
wholesome.  Like  other  acid  and  saccharine 
vegetables,  they  are  also  of  a  laxative  nature. 
The  weak  stomach,  however,  may  very 
readily  be  injured  by  too  copious  a  use  of 
them.  When  eaten  in  too  great  quantity 
after  dinner,  they  impede  and  sometimes 
stop  digestion.  In  fever,  these  fruits  are 
very  grateful  and  advantageous.  In  scor- 
butic cases  they  are  good,  and  in  the  sea- 
scurvy  invaluable,  as  a  certain  remedy. 
Oranges  have  been  said  to  produce  a  cure  in 
some  case  of  consumption,  when  eaten  in 
the  proportion  of  at  least  half  a  dozen  a  day, 
acting  on  the  stomach  as  a  mild  tonic,  when 
too  weak  to  bear  elixir  of  vitriol. 

Haisins,  Currants,  Figs,  French 
PLUMB,  and  other  liuits,  imported  in  a  dry 
state,  should  be  indulged  in  with  moderation, 
and  the  skins  invariably  rejected,  being 
highly  indigestible,  and  producing  flatu- 
lency. 

"Walnuts,  Almonds,  Nuts.    The  che- 


128 


FACTS  FOB  EYEEYBODYI 


jmical  elements  of  the  various  species  of  nuts 
differ  considerably  from  that  of  other  fruits. 
In  these  we  have  the  farinaceous  principle 
of  the  grains,  with  an  oil  which  is  rare  in 
other  vegetable  productions.  Both  the  farina 
and  the  oil,  besides  a  small  portion  of  sac- 
charine, are  nutritive;  but  the  oil  renders 
them  hard  of  digestion,   and   fatal   conse- 

2Uf.nces  occur  from  eating  quantities  of  nuts. 
II  nuts  ought  to  be  used  as  fresh  as  possible, 
for  the  oil  becomes  randd  by  keeping.  It 
is  of  great  importance  thai  the  kernel  should 
be  well  chewed,  for  the  unbroken  portion 
cannot  be  digested  by  the  strongest  stomach. 
Salt  is  a  good  condiment,  and  improves  the 
flavour.  The  French  use  pepper  and  verj  uice 
with  new  walnuts. 

Almonds,  more  especially  the  hitter,  and 
all  nuts  which  possess  the  peach-blossom  or 
bay-leaf  flavour,  contain  a  portion  of  that 
deadly  poison  prussicacid,  and  should  there- 
fore be  eaten  with  extreme  caution.  In 
persons  of  weak  digestion,  they  frequently 
produce  griping,  cramp,  nausea,  and  some- 
times fainting.  Sugar  taken  with  them  is 
supposed  to  counteract  this  to  a  certain  de- 
gree, but  the  best  way  is  to  avoid  eating 
substances  of  so  questionable  a  character. 

Pine-Apple.  The  flavour  of  this  fruit  is 
confessedly  exquisite,  but  its  acidity  and 
astringent  qualities  make  it  unfit  for  the 
delicate;  although,  on  account  of  its  rarity, 
most  persons  are  tempted  to  eat  it  when 
attainable.  Ifs  acrid  juices  are  mellowed 
by  dipping  the  slices  in  wine  or  brandy, 
saturated  with  sugar;  but  it  is  generally 
eaten  fresh,  seasoned  with  the  finest  sugar 
en  poudre. 

CONCHOLOGY.  The  natural  history  of 
shells  and  mollusca,  or  zoophytes.  A  is  a 
trochus,  or  top-shaped  shell;  B  is  a  species 
of  whelk. 


READING  ALOUD.  This  is  no  doubt 
an  excellent  exercise,  and  it  has  been  much 
recommended  by  the  ancient  physicians. 
'To  this  also  may  be  joined  that  of  speaking. 
They  are  both  of  great  advantage  to  those 
who  have  not  sufficient  leisure  or  opportuni- 


ties for  other  kinds  of  exercise.  To  speak 
very  loud,  however,  or  exercise  the  voice 
immediately  after  a  meal,  is  hurtful  to  the 
lungs,  as  well  as  to  the  organs  of  digestion. 
Singing,  as  by  the  vibratory  motion  of  the 
air  it  shakes  the  lungs,  promotes  in  a  remark- 
able degree  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 
Hence  those  sedentary  mechanics  who,  from 
habit,  almost  constantly  sing  at  then-  work, 
unintentionally  contribute  much  to  the 
preservation  of  their  health. 

DIADELPHIA.    The  17th  class  of  the 
Linnaean  system  of  plants,  containing  four 


orders,  Pentandria,  Hexaudria,  Octanc'ria, 
and  Decandria,  with  the  stamina  united  into 
two  bodies  by  the  filaments.  ** 

HABERDASHERS.  The  haberdashers 
(hurriers  or  cappers  of  old  time  so  called), 
were  originally  a  branch  of  the  mercers. 
Haberdashersof  small  wares,  siichas  ribands, 
laces,  &c,  were  called  millainers  (milliners), 
an  appellation  derived  from  their  dealing  in 
merchandise  chiefly  imported  from  Milan, 
in  Italy,  such  as  brooches,  agglets,  spurs, 
capes,  glasses,  &c.  Amongst  other  ware3 
also  which  constituted  a  part  of  the  haber- 
dashery of  the  period,  were  pins,  before  the 
introduction  of  which  the  English  ladies 
are  stated  to  have  used  points  or  skewers 
made  of  thorns,  to  fasten  their  garments 
with;  but  long  before  the  decease  of  Eliza- 
beth they  were  manufactured  in  great  num- 
bers in  England.  In  the  reign  of  Henry 
VI.  [1422 — 1461]  there  were  not  more  than 
a  dozen  haberdashers'  6hops  in  the  whole 
city.  The  business  of  the  haberdasher  was 
not,  however,  confined  to  the  lighter  articles 
of  a  lady's  wardrobe,  but  extended  to  the 
sale  of  daggers,  swords,  knives,  spurs,  glasses, 
dials,  tables,  balls,  cards,  puppets,  inkhorns, 
tooth-picks,  fine  earthen  pots,  salt-cellars, 
spoons,  tin  dishes;  and  even  mouse-traps, 
bird-cages,  shoeing-horns,  lanterns,  and 
jews'  harps. 

MUSES  (THE  NINE).  The  Muses  ori- 
ginally consisted  of  three  in  number:  name- 
ly,  Mnemosyne,  memory;  Melete,  medita- 


A  MTSCELLANY   OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


120 


tion;  Acde,  eong.  They  were  augmented 
to  nine,  became  the  inhabitants  of  their 
ancient  town,  being  desirous  of  piecing  in 

the  Temple  of  Apollo  the  statues  ox  the  three 

muses,  and  these  being  of  extraordinary 
beauty,  they  ordered  three  of  the  most  skilful 
Sculptors  to  execute,  each,  the  statues  of 
the  three  muses,  which  made  up  the  number 
of  nine,  and  from  which  it  was  proposed  to  se- 
lect the  three  most  perfect  statues.  But 
•when  the  choice  came  to  be  made,  they  found 
the.  whole  nine  60  beautiful,  that  it  was 
agreed  to  take  them  all,  and  call  them  the 
"nine  muses,"  and  place  them  in  the  Temple 
of  Apollo  as  such.  From  this  accident  (it  is 
thought)  they  derived  their  origin,  and  the 
six  other  attributes  of  poetry  were  given  as 
additional  sisters. 

CERES,  in  heathen  mythology,  the  god- 
dess of  corn,  and  daughter  of  Saturn  and 


Cybele.  Ceres  is  also  a  Bmall  planet  which 
revolves  round  the  sun  in  four  years,  seven 
months,  and  ten  days,  at  the  distance  of 
260,000.000  of  miles. 

BARON.  A  title  of  honour  granted  by 
the  king  or  queen,  and  secured  to  the  re- 
ceiver's descendants;  the  lowest  rank  of  the 


peerage.  His  wife  is  a  baroness.  In  France, 
Germany,  &c.  the  title  of  baron  is  only 
equivalent  to  the  English  baronet. 

HOUSES  ('1  K  AJ SS  POSITION  OF). 
The  annexed  diagram  will  explain  the 
method  by  which  houses  are  removed.  The 
building,  of  course,  must  be  a  detached  one. 
Openings  are  made  in  the  end  walls,  just 
above  the  ground,  large  enough  to  insert 


beams  about  fifteen  inches  square  arross  tho 
building  (1)  ;  the  <  ml  of  each  beam  is  sup- 
ported cm  blocks  of  wood,  fixed  into  the 
ground,  and  clear  of 
the  walls,  and  each 
beam  made  firm  and 
tight  by  driving 
wedges  between  the 
beams  and  the  up- 
right block.  A\*  1  h  n 
this  has  been  done, 
the  foundation  is 
cleared  away,  and 
a  clear  space  left. 
Then  other  beams 
(2)  arc  placed  under 
the  first,  and  resting 
like  them  on  blocks 
of  wood,  and  by  this 
means  the  front  and 
back  walls  are  sup- 
ported ;  and  now  the  whole  foundation  is 
exposed.  The  screws  (3)  are  placed  under 
the  ends  of  the  second  beams  (2),  which  are 
forced  upwards  by  their  means,  and  the 
weight  of  the  whole  building  sustained  by 
them.  The  ground  underneath  being  ail 
removed,  a  set  of  grooved-ways,  or  beams 
(6),  are  placed  where  the  end  walls  formerly 
stood,  and  the  cradles  (5),  which  are  beams 
with  a  projection  corresponding  to  the  groove 
in  the  ways, are  placed  on  them,  both  being 
previously  well  greased.  Largo  beams  (4) 
are  placed  over  the  cradles,  between  them 
and  the  beams  (2)  which  support  the  ends 
of  the  house,  and  wedges  driven  in  to 
render  the  whole  tight  and  secure,  which 
is  also  effected  by  additional  blocks  (7)- 
The  screws  are  now  removed,  and  being 
placed  horizontally,  are  made  to  act  to- 
gether against  the  cradles,  and  move  them 
i  along  the  ways,  at  the  rate  of  four  feet  a 
day,  to  the  place  the  house  is  to  occupy. 
Then,  by  inverting  the  operations,  the 
beams  are  removed,  and  the  house  firmly 
fixed,  without  sustaining  any  injury,  and 
often  without  even  moving  us  much  as  a 
chair  from  the  house. 

CHEMICAL  TRANSMUTATIONS. 
Linen  can  be  converted  into  sugar;  sugar 
into  alcohol  (spirits)  and  carbonic  acid ; 
alcohol  canbechanged  intoethortmd  water; 
sugar,  can  also  be  converted  into  oxalic  acid, 
also  into  pure  charcoal  (carbon)  and  water. 
Alcohol  (spirit*)  will  readily  change  into 
vinegar  (acetic  acid)  Starch  may  be  trans- 
muted either  into  gum,  alcohol,  sugar,  acetifl 
or  oxalic  acid,  as  well  as  many  other  sub- 
stances, to  which,  however,  the  chemists 
have  given  such  hard  names  that  we  cannot 
find  a  pen  strong  enough  to  write  them. 


130 


FACTS   FOR   EVERYBODY: 


TOOTHACHE.  The  cause  of  toothache 
may  be  thus  explained  : — Within  the  tooth 
is  a  cavity  filled  with  a  nervous  pulp — of 
course  highly  sensitive— and  under  the  in- 
fluence of  injury,  exposure,  and  disease, 
affords  one  of  the  sources  of  "  toothache." 
The  roots  of  the  tooth  are  surrounded  by  a 
membrane,  a  similar  one  to  which  lines  the 
socket  into  which  they  are  planted."  In- 
flammation in  these  membranes  is  another 
source  of  toothache.  They  become  filled 
with  blood,  but  cannot  expand,  and  conse- 
quently compress  the  nerve  with  the  power, 
almost,  of  an  hydraulic  press,  causing  most 
severe  agony. 

SHILLING.  This  word  is  supposed  by 
Bome  to  be  derived  from  the  Latin — silicas, 
■which  signifies  a  quarter  of  an  ounce,  or  the 
forty-eighth  part  of  a  .Roman  pound.  At  the 
time  of  the  Conquest,  the  shilling  was  worth 
fourpence.  Afterwards,  the  French  tottdus 
of  twelve-pence  was  called  by  the  name  of 
shilling,  and  the  Saxon  shilling  of  fourpence 
took  the  name  of  groat,  ox  great  coin,  because 
it  was  the  largest  English  coin  then 
known. 

-MUSK.  Of  all  odours  the  most  intoler- 
able to  those  who  do  not  use  it  is  musk. 
Many  persons  are  inconvenienced  by  it  to 
such  a  degree  that  they  could  not  stay  for 
five  minutes  in  a  room  containing  the  mi- 
nutest quantity  of  it.  It  is  also  the  odour 
jyhich  adheres  the  longest.  A  coat  upon 
•which  musk  has  been  thrown  will  smell  of 
it  at  the  end  of  two  years,  though  it  may 
have  been  during  the  whole  time  exposed  to 
the  open  air;  but  in  apartments  it  will  en- 
dure almost  for  ever.  The  Empress  Josephine 
was  very  fond  of  perfumes,  and,  above  all, 
of  musk.  Her  dressing-room  at  Malmaison 
was  filled  with  it,  in  spite  of  Napoleon's  fre- 
quent remonstrances.  Twenty-five  years 
after  her  death,  M.  Hagerman,  who  became 
the  owner  of  Malmaison,  had  the  walls  of 
that  dressing-room  repeatedly  washed  and 
painted;  but  neither  scrubbing,  aquafortis, 
nor  paint,  were  able  to  remove  the  smell  of 
the  good  Empress'  musk. 

W E I ) I) IN ( x  RINGS  (ORIGIN  OF) .  The 
singular  custom  of  wearing  wedding-rings 
appears  to  have  taken  its  rise  among  the 
Jtornans.  Before  the  celebration  of  their 
nuptials  there  was  a  meeting  of  friends  at 
the  house  of  the  lady's  father,  to  settle  arti- 
cles of  the  marriage  contract,  when  it  was 
agreed  that  the  dowry  should  be  paid  down 
on  the  wedding-day,  or  soon  after.  On  this 
occasion  there  was  commonly  a  feast,  at  the 
conclusion  of  which  the  man  gave  to  the 
woman,  as  a  pledge,  a  ring,  which  she  put 
on  the  forth  finger. 


TURPENTINE.  Common  turpentine 
is  the  natural  resinous  juice  which  exists 
in  trees  of  the  fir  tribe.  It  is  obtained  in 
large  quantities  from  the  wild  pine,  or  Scotch 
fir,  but  it  is  brought  to  us  phieflv  from  the 
northern  countries  of  Europe.  To  procure 
the  turpentine,  the  trees  are  stripped  of  their 
outer  bark  in  the  month  of  May,  to  the  ex- 
tent of  about  six  inches,  so  as  to  expose  the 
inner  smooth  bark,  near  the  foot  of  the  tree, 
where  an  incision  is  made. 

VENTBILOQUISM.  The  main  secret 
of  ventriloquism  simply  consists  in  first 
making  a  strong  and  deep  inspiration,  by 
which  a  considerable  quantity  of  air  is  intro- 
duced into  the  lungs,  to  be  afterwards  acted 
upon  by  the  flexible  powers  of  the  larynx, 
or  cavity  situated  behind  the  tongue  and 
the  windpipe ;  thus  prepared,  the  expiration 
should  be  slow  and  gradual.  Any  person, 
by  practice,  can,  therefore,  obtain  more  or 
less  expertness  in  this  exercise,  in  which, 
though  not  apparently,  the  voice  is  still  mo- 
dified by  the  mouth  and  tongue  ;  and  it  is 
in  the  concealment  of  this  aid  that  much  of 
the  perfection  of  ventriloquism  lies. 

PORCELAIN.  The  name  of  porcelain  is 
derived  from  the  Portuguese  word  porcelana, 
which  signifies  a  cup.  It  was  adopted  from 
the  'circumstance  that  the  Portuguese  were 
the  first  importers  of  porcelain  from  China. 
In  America  the  term  China,  or  China-ware 
is  more  commonly  used. 

OATMEAL.  The  oat,  though  not  much 
cultivated  in  America  as  an  article  of 
food  for  man,  still  furnishes  one  of  the  most 
important  and  productive  crops  of  the  farm. 
Its  scientific  Latin  name  avena  is  of  doubt- 
ful interpretation ;  from  it  the  French  derive 
their  word  /'avoine.  The  native  country  of 
the  oat  is  also  considered  quite  unknown; 
though  it  appears  certain  that  all  the  culti- 
vated species  flourish  most  in  cold  climates. 
In  Scotland,  for  example,  it  arrives  at  great 
perfection,  as  well  as  in  the  northern  coun- 
ties of  England  To  the  Scots  its  meal  is 
important:  they  use  it  in  great  quantities, 
not  merely  in  the  form  of  water-gruel,  but 
in  porridge  and  puddings.  But  Scotch  oat- 
meal is  a  very  different  thing  from  the  poor 
perishable  article  which  is  sold  in  America ; 
the  grain  is  dried  and  husked  by  a  peculiar 
process;  and  then  is  ground  to  three  degrees 
of  fineness  It  will  keep  and  improve  in 
qualify  during  any  length  of  time:  and  the 
more  it  is  pressed  the  better. 

.M 0.1  AIR.  This  is  the  hair  of  a  variety 
of  the  common  goat,  famous  for  being  as 
soft  and  fine  as  silk,  and  of  a  silvery  white- 
ness It  is  not  produced  anywhere  but  in 
the  vicinity  of  Angora,  in  Asia  Minor. 


A    MISCELLANY   OF   TTSEFEL   KNOWLEDGE. 


131 


THIRST  (CAUSE  OK).  Intense  thirst 
la  said  to  be  caused  by  the  extreme  dryness 
o\'  the  air  when  the  temperature  u  low.  In 
ii.is  state  it  abeti  nets  a  large  amount  of  mois- 
ture from  the  human  body.  The  soil  ami 
extensive  surface  which  the  Lungs  expose 
twentj  -fire  times  or  oftener  every  minute  to 
nearly  two  hundred  cubic  inches  of  dry  sir, 
must  yield  a  quantity  of  vapour  which  one 
can  hardly  spare  with  impunity'.  The  hu- 
man Bkin  throughout  its  whole  extent,  even 
where  it  was  brought  to  the  hardness  of  horn, 
as  well  as  the  softest  and  most  dedicate  parts, 
is  continually  exhaling  vapour,  and  tins  ex- 
halation creates  in  due  proportion  a  demand 
for  water.  Let  a  person  out  examine  the 
inside  of  his  boots  aftei  a  walk  in  the  open 
air  at  a  low  temperature,  and  the  accumula- 
tion of  condensed  vapour  which  he  finds 
there  will  convince  him  of  the  active  state 
of  the  skin.  In  cold  countries,  the  stockings 
have  been  found  adhering  to  the  soles  of  the 
boots  after  a  walk  of  a  few  hours.  The  hoar 
frost  and  snow  which  they  contained  could 
not  have  been  there  by  any  other  means  ex- 
cept exhalation  from  the  skin. 

CELERY.  In  earthing  up  celery  the 
greatest  care  is  necessary  to  prevent  any 
portion  of  the  earth  from  falling  into  the 
heart,  of  the  plant,  which  would  prevent  the 
upright  growth  of  the  inside  leaves,  and 
•noil  its  appearance  for  the  table;  nor  should 
the  earth  be  pressed  too  closely  round  the 
Upper  part  of  the  plant,  as  frequently,  when 
such  is  the  case,  it  bulges  out  below.  The 
best  practice  is  to  tie  each  plant  up  loosely 
•with  matting  (having  previously  removed 
the  suckers  and  small  leaves),  and  then  a 
little  earth  can  be  added  every  week,  as  the 
plant  increases  in  height.  Another  common 
error  arises  from  earthing  celery  up  too  soon. 
It  should  be  allowed  to  grow  to  a  consider- 
able size  before  earthing  up  is  attempted, 
and  be  frequently  soaked  with  water,  as  but 
little  rain  will  reach  the  roots  afterwards;  it 
should  likewise  never  be  touched  when  the 
plants  are  at  all  damp. 

E\RLY  RISING.  Dr.  Wilson  Philip,  in 
his  "Treatise  on  Indigestion,"  says — '•  Al- 
though it  is  of  consequence  to  the  debilitated 
to  go  early  to  bed,  there  are  few  things  more 
hurtful  to  them  than  remaining  in  it  too 
long.  Getting  up  an  hour  or  two  earlier 
often  gives  a  degree  of  vigour  which  nothing 
else  can  procure.  For  those  who  are  not 
much  debilitated  and  sleep  well,  the  best 
rule  is  to  get  out  of  bed  soon  after  waking  in 
the  morning.  This  at  first  may  appear  too 
early,  for  the  debilitated  require  more  sleep 
than  the  healthy ;  but  rising  early  will  gra- 
d  aally  prolong  "the  sleep  on  the  succeeding 


night,  till  the  quantity  the  patient  enjoyd  is 
equal  to  his  demand  fur  it.  Lying  late  is 
Hot  only  hurtful  by  the  relaxation  it  occa- 
sions, DUt  also  by  occupying  that  part  of  'he 

■  hich  exercise  is  mosl  benefioial." 
HOSIERY.    All  hosier}  is  to  be  judged 
by  the  fineness  of  the  thread  and  the 
ness  of  the     texture,  which,    in  the   ft  I 

stockings  especially,  may  be  partly  apre- 
ciated  by  weighing,  as  it  were,  the  articles 
in  the  hand,  in  ribbed  stockingsa  deception 
is  sometimes  practised,  against  which  it  is 
necessary  to  guard.  The  spaces  between  the 
ribs,  which  ought  to  be  formed  by  an  inver- 
sion of  the  Stitch,  contains  no  st'itch  at  all, 
but  an  open  range  of  threads  pervious  to  the 
weather,  and  utterly  destitute  of  durability. 
As  the  ribs  of  stockings  exposed  to  sale  are 
necessarily  almost  in  contact,  the  fault  can- 
not be  detected  without  introducing  the  hand 
and  opening  the  tissue,  when  it  will  be  in- 
stantly apparent;  and,  indeed,  will  exactly 
resemble  the  Haw  caused  by  a  dropped  stitch 
in  a  stocking  in  wear.  In  cheap  cotton 
stockings  the  feet  are  often  cut  out  and  sewed 
together,  but  these  seams  invariably  hurt  the 
foot. 

TAINTING  ON  VELVET.  Among  the 
various  accomplishments  of  the  present  day, 
no  fancy-work  is  j  erhaps  more  elegant,  pro- 
duces a  better  effect,  and  is,  at  the  same 
time,  more  easily  and  quickly  performed, 
than  painting  on  velvet.  Possessing  all  the 
beauty  of  colour  of  a  piece  of  wool-work,  it 
is  in  every  way  superior,  as  the  tints  used 
in  this  style  of  painting  do  not  fade;  and  an 
article  which  it  would  take  a  month,  at 
least,  to  manufacture  with  the  needle,  may 
be  completed  in  four  or  six  hours  on  white 
velvet,  with  the  softest  and  most  finished 
effect  imaginable. 

The  first  thing  necessary  to  be  done,  after 
obtaining  the  colours  and  the  velvet  (which 
should  be  cotton,  or  more  properly  vel- 
veteen, as  most  common  cotton  velvets  are 
not  sufficiently  thick,  and  silk  velvet,  be- 
sides the  expense,  is  not  found  to  answer), 
is  to  prepare  the  formula  for  the  group  in- 
tended to  be  painted.  Get  a  piece  of  tracing 
or  silver-paper  the  size  of  the  cushion,  mat, 
or  screen  you  wish  to  paint,  then  lay  it 
carefully  upon  the  group  you  wish  to  copy 
and  trace  through.  Should  the  paper  slip, 
the  formula  will  be  incorrect ;  it  will  be 
therefore  well  to  use  weights  to  keep  all  flat. 
Having  traced  your  flowers,  remove  the 
thin  paper,  and  laying  it  on  a  piece  of 
cartridge  paper  the  same  size,  go  over  the 
pencil-marks  by  pricking  them  out  with  a 
fine  needle,  inserted  in  a  cedar  stick.  Now 
that  you  have  your  whole  pattern  pricked 


132 


FACTS  FOE  EVERYBODY! 


out  clearly  upon  a  stiff  paper,  take  eight  or 
nine  more  pieces  of  cartridge  paper,  of  the 
game  size  as  the  first,  and  laying  them,  one 
by  one,  in  turn,  under  the  pricked  pattern, 
shake  a  little  powdered  indigo  over,  and 
then  rub  with  a  roll  of  list  or  any  soft  ma- 
terial. The  indigo,  fulling  through  the 
punctures,  will  leave  the  pattern  in  blue 
Bpots  on  the  sheet  of  paper  beneath;  then 
proceed  in  like  manner  with  the  remaining 
formulas  until  you  have  the  self-same  pat- 
tern neatly  traced,  in  blue  dots,  on  them 
all.  Next,  with  a  sharp  penknife,  you 
mutt  cut  out  the  leaves,  petals,  and  calices 
of  the  group,  taking  care  to  form  only  a 
few  on  each  formula,  and  those  not  too 
near  together,  lest  there  should  not  be  suf- 
ficient room  to  rub  between  the  spaces,  and 
that,  for  in-tame,  the  green  tint  intended 
for  the  leaf  should  intrude  on  the  azure  or 
crimson  of  the  nearest  convolvulus  ;  for  in 
this  sort  of  work  erasure  is  impossible. 

The  following  diagrams  will  show  how 
the  formulas  should  be  cut,  so  as  to  leave 
proper  spaces,  as  above-mentioned.  The 
shading  denotes  the  parts  cut  out. 


Formula  1. 

Some  leaves  may  be  cut  out  in  two  halves, 
as  the  large  ones  in  the  pattern  ;  others  all 
in  one,  as  the  small  leaf :  but  it  is  chiefly  a 
matter  of  taste.  The  large  leaves  should, 
however,  generally  be  divided.  In  each 
formula  there  should  be  two  guides — one  on 
the  top  of  the  left-hand  side,  the  other  at  the 
bottom  of  the  right-hand  corner — to  enable 
the  formulas  always  to  be  placed  on  the 
same  spot  in  the  velvet.  For  instance,  as 
in  Formula  2,  A  and  B  are  the  two  guides, 
and  are  parts  cut  out,  in  Formula  2,  of  leaves, 
the  whole  of  which  were  cut  out  in  No.  1  ; 
and  therefore,  alter  No.  1  is  painted,  and 
No.  2  applied,  the  ends  of  the  painted  leaves 
will  show  through,  if  No.  2  be  put  on 
straight ;  if,  when  once  right,  the  formula 
is  kept  down  with  weights  at  the  corners,  it 
cannot  fail  to  match  at  all  points.    Care 


should,  however,  be  taken  never  to  put 
paint  on  the  guides,  as  it  would  necessarily 
leave  an  abrupt  line  in  the  centre  of  the 
leaf.  "While  cutting  out  the  formulas,  it  is 
a  good  plan  to  maik  with  a  cross  or  dot 
those  leaves  which  you  have  already  cut  out 
on  the  formulas  preceding,    so  that  there 


Formula  2. 

will  be  no  confusion.     When  your  formulas 
are  all  cut,  wash  them  over  with  a  prepara- 
tion made  in  this  manner  :  put  into  a  wide- 
mouthed  bottle  some  resin  and  shell-lac — 
about  two  ounces  of  each  are  sufficient;  on 
this  pour  enough  spirits  of  wine  or  naphtha 
to   cover  it,    and  let  it  stand  to   dissolve, 
shaking  it  every  now  and  then.    If  it  is  not 
quite  dissolved  as  you  wish  it,  add  rather 
more    spirits    of     wine ;     then    wash    the 
formulas  all  over  on   both  sides  with   the 
preparation,   and  let  them  dry.  Now  taking 
Formula  No.  1,  lay  it  on  the  white  velvet, 
and  place  weights  on  each  corner  to  keep 
it  steady ;  now  pour  into  a  little  saucer  a 
small   quantity  of  the  colour  called  Saxon 
green,  shaking  the  boitle  first,  as  there  is 
apt  to  be  a  sediment ;  then  take  the  smallest 
quantity  possible  on  your  brush  (for  if  too 
much  be  taken,  it  runs,  and  flattens  the  pile 
of  the  velvet;  the  brush  should  have  thick 
short  bristles,   not  camel-hair,   and    there 
ought  to  be  a  separate  brush  for  each  tint : 
they  are    sold    with    the    colours).     Now 
begin  on  the  darkest  part  of  the  leaf,  and 
work  lightly  round  and  round  in  a  circulai 
motion,  taking  care  to  hold  the  brush  up- 
right, and  to  work  more  as  it  were  on  the 
formula  than  on  the  velvet.     Should  you 
find  the  velvet  getting  crushed  down  and 
rough,  from  having   the  brush   too  damp, 
continue  to  work  lightly  till  it  is  drier,  then 
brush  the  pile  the  right  way  of  it,  and  it 
will  be  as  smooth  as  before.     Do  all*  the 
green  in  each  formula  in  the  same  manner, 
unless  there  be  any  blue-greens,  whtvi  they 
should  be  grounded  instead  with  the  tint 
called  grass  green.     Next,   if    any  of  the 
leaves  are  to  be  tinted  red,  brown,  or  yellow, 
as  autumn  leaves,  add  the  colour  over  the 


A   MISCELLANY  OP  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


133 


Saxon  green  before  you  shade    with  full 
viiirli  will  be  title  next  thing  to  be 
done ;  blue-g  •  to  be  shaded  also 

.  while  tip-  green  is 
yet  damp,  wih  a  small  camel  hair  pencil 
vein  the  leaves  with  ultramarine  The 
tendrils  and  stalks  are  also  t<>  be  done  with 
the  small  brush.  You  can  now  begin  the 
Sowers;  take,  for  instance,  the  convolvulus 
in  the  pattern.  It  should  be  grounded  with 
azure,  and  shaded  with  ultram  urine  (which 
colour,  wherever  used,  should  always  be 
mixed  with  water,  and  rubbed  on  a  palette 
with  a  knife);  the  stripes  in  it  are  rose- 
•olour,  and  should  be  tinted  from  the  rose 
earner.  White  rosei  ami  camellias,  lilies, 
ire  only  lightly  shaded  with  white 
■hading;  and  il  surrounded  by  dark  flowers 
and  leaves  so  U  to  stand  out  well,  will  have 
a  very  good  e!h\  >. 

era  can  easily  be  taken  from  nature 
in  the  following  manner. — A  A,  D  D,  is  a 


frame  of  dftal,  made  light,  and  about  two 
ng,  and  eight  or  ten  inches  in  width. 
The  pa  it  D  D  is  made  to  slide  in  a  groove 
in  A  A,  so  that  the  frame  may  be  Lengthened 
or  shortened  at  pleasure.  A  vertical  frame, 
C,  is  fixed  to  the  part  D,  and  two  grooved 
upright  pieces,  B  B,  fixed  to  the  other  part. 
3  uprights  should  be  about  nine  inches 

high,  and  C  half  that  height.  There  is 
piece  of  wood  at  the  end  A  of  the 
frame,  marked  E,  with  a  small  hole  for  the 
eye,  and  tiiere  is  a  hole  in  the  top  C  oppo- 
site to  it.  S  is  a  piece  of  gbis^,  sliding  in 
the  grooves  in  B  B.  In  the  hole  II  is  placed 
the  tiower  or  flowers  to  be  copied.  If  a 
group  is  wished,  more  holes  should  be  made, 
and  the  flowers  carefully  arranged.  The 
eye  being  directed  to  this"  through  the  hole 
in  E.  it  can  be  sketched  on  the  glass  bv 
means  of  a  pencil  of  lithographic  chalk.  It 
is  afterwards  copied  through  by  slipping  the 
gl ass  out,  laying  it  on  a  table,  and  placing 
over  it  a  piece  of  tracing-paper.  When 
traced  on  the  paper,  proceed  as  before  to 
make  the  formulas. 

Of  course,  so  delicate  a  thing  as  white 

velvet  will  be  found  at  length  to  soil.     "When 

this  is  the  case,  it  can  be  dyed  without  in 

any  way  injuring  the  painting.     F'  r  this  a 

7 


dye  is  prepared  bv  the  manufacturer  of  the 
colours,  and  can  be  procured  with  them. 
Dye  thus: — Get  an  old  •late-frame,   or 

make  a  wire  frame;  add  to  it  a  handle,  as 
in  annexed  figure;  then  tie  over  it  a  net- 
work of  packthread;  next  cut  a  piece  of 
cardboard  the  exact  size  of  your  group,  so 
as  to  completely  cover  it,  the  hedges  of  the 
cardboard  being  cut  into  all  the  ins  and  outs 
of  the  outer  line  of  the  group  ;  then  placing 
it  carefully  over  the  painting,  so  as  to  lit 
exactly,  lay  a  weight  on  it  to  keep  it  in 
place.  Then  dip  a  large  brush  into  the  dye, 
hold  the  flame  over  the  velvet  (which  should 
be  stretched  out  flat — to  nail  the  corners  to 
a  drawing-board  is  best),  and  by  brushing 
across  the  net-work,  a  rain  of 
dye  will  fall  on  the  velvet  be- 
neath,  Do  not  let  the  frame 
touch  the  velvet;  it  should  be 
held  some  little  way  up.  Then 
just  brush  the  velvet  itself 
with  the  brush  of  dye,  to  make 
all  smooth,  and  leave  the  vel- 
vet nailed  to  the  board  till  it  is 
dry.  Groups,  whetherfreshly 
done,  or  dyed,  are  greatly  im- 
proved, when  perfectly  dry, 
by  being  brushed  all  over 
with  a  clean  and  rather  soft  hat-brush,  as 
it  renders  any  little  roughness,  caused  by 
putting  on  the  paint  too  wet,  completely 
smooth  and  even  as  before.  Music-stools, 
the  front  of  pianos,  ottomans,  banner- 
screens,  pole-screens,  and  borders  for  table- 
cloths look  very  handsome  done  in  this 
manner. 

MOSS  (FORMATION  OF).  In  order 
that  moss  may  be  renovated,  when  dug,  it  is 
requisite  that  the  pits  be  left  full  of  water; 
that  they  be  not  too  large  nor  deep,  and 
that  the  water  in  them  be  stagnant.  It  ap- 
pears that  similar  requisites  are  necessary  to 
the  original  formation  of  that  substance, 
either  from  ligneous  or  aquatic  plants. 
Moisture  seems  to  be  absolutely  requisite. 
Without  it  no  moss  is  formed  of  these  ma- 
terials. Let  a  congeries  of  ligneous  or  aquatic 
plants  be  formed,  however  great  they  may 
be,  if  left  dry,  or  not  immersed  in  water,  it 
never  will  be  converted  into  peat.  Such  a 
mass  indeed  will,  even  in  this  case,  undergo 
certain  chemical  changes,  and  form  new  com- 
binations, but  the  result  will  be  different 
from  that  substance.  When  exposed  to  the 
influences  of  the  atmosphere,  it  will  under- 
go the  putrid  fermentation,  and  be  reduced 
to  vegetable  mould.  In  this  form  it  will 
be  destitute  of  the  distinguishing  quali- 
ties of  moss,  inflammability,  tenacity,  and 
others. 


134 


PACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY, 


STAMMERING  (CUKE  FOE).  The 
philosoph}'  of  the  cure  is  simple.  Stam- 
mering is  occasioned  by  the  effort  to  speak 
while  inhaling ;  and  utterance  is  only  ob- 
tained when  the  lungs  become  full  of  air, 
and  the  process  of  breathing  out  begins. 
The  lesson  given  is,  never  to  attempt  to 
epeak  until  after  taking  breath.  So  long  as 
the  individual  can  think  of  this  law,  and 
carefully  apply  it,  no  impediment  would 
occur;  but  the  habit  of  years  is  not  to  be 
overcome  by  a  few  days,  or  even  weeks,  of 
perseverance,  and,  in  most  cases,  the  stam- 
merer returns  in  a  little  time  to  the  old 
order  of  things.  It  is  known  that  stam- 
merers can  sing  without  manifesting  the 
slightest  impediment ;  and  the  reason  is 
plain  — the  chest  has  to  be  constantly  sup- 
plied with  air,  like  an  organ,  in  order  to 
produce  the  desired  musical  sounds.  It  is 
unquestionably  true,  that  stammering  may 
be  prevented  by  carefully  observing  the 
directions  above  given.  That  the  cure  does 
not  remain  is  not,  we  think,  so  much  a 
defect  in  the  means  as  a  failure  on  the  part 
of  the  individual  to  use  them  long  enough. 
The  habit  of  years  is  not  to  be  overcome  in 
a  week  or  a  month.  There  must  be  per- 
severance, and  for  many  months,  perhaps 
years. 

BIRD-STUFFING.  Bird-stuffers,  in  pre- 
paring and  skinning  a  bird  or  other  annual 
ready  for  preserving,  use  burnt  alum  to  rub 
over  any  wet  or  bloody  part,  that  it  may  not 
soil  the  rest.  In  this  case  its  peculiar 
astringency  assists  in  tanning  or  rather 
hardening  the  skin,  so  that  it  is  not  so  liable 
to  contract  mouldiness,  nor  to  become  the 
prey  of  the  moth  and  other  destructive  in- 
sects. All  that  is  necessary  is  to  put  some 
powdered  alum  in  a  ladle  or  fire-shovel  over 
the  fire.  It  will  soon  melt,  boil,  and  swell 
up.  It  is  to  be  kept  on  the  fire  till  all  the 
water  has  evaporated,  and  until  it  becomes 
so  brittle  as  to  break  easily  into  a  fine 
powder. 

BUTTER  (TO  CURE).  Take  two  quarts 
of  the  best  common  salt,  one  ounce  of  sugar, 
and  one  ounce  of  common  saltpetre ;  take 
one  ounce  of  this  composition  for  one  pound 
of  butter,  work  it  well  into  the  mass,  and 
close  it  up  for  use.  The  butter  cured  with 
this  mixture  appears  of  a  rich  and  marrowy 
consistence  and  fine  colour,  and  never  ac- 
quires a  brittle  hardness  nor  tastes  salty. 
I)r.  Anderson  says :  "I  have  enten  butter 
cured  with  the  above  composition  that  has 
been  kept  for  three  years,  and  it  was  as 
sweet  as  at  first."  It  must  be  noted,  how- 
ever, that  butter  thus  cured  requires  to  stand 
three  weeks  or  a  month  before  it  is  used. 


If  it  is  sooner  opened,  the  salts  are  not  suf- 
ficiently blended  with  it,  and  sometimes  the 
coolness  of  the  nitre  will  be  perceived, 
which  totally  disappeara  afterwards. 

CONDIMENTS.  Thenameof  condiment 
is  usually  given  to  those  substances  which 
are  taken  with  food  for  the  immediate  pur- 
pose of  improving  its  flavour.  But  most  of 
them  serve  other  and  much  more  important 
purposes  in  the  animal  economy  than  that# 
of  gratifying  the  palate.  They  are,  in  effect, 
mostly  alimentary  substances;  as  salt,  sugar, 
oil  or  fat,  and  vegetable  acids. 

RICE-PAPER  (TO  MODEL  IN)  Rice- 
paper  is  principally  applied  to  the  formation 
of  groups  of  flowers,  either  on  cardboard,  or 
atlixed  to  small  vases,  baskets,  &c,  in  fes- 
toons and  clusters.  The  rice-paper  may  be 
procured  in  various  colours,  and  interme- 
diate tints  may  be  made  by  colouring  the 
white.  Several  pieces  of  rice-paper  are  laid 
on  each  other  upon  a  tablet  of  lead,  and  the 
leaves  and  component  parts  of  flowers  are 
cut  out  with  small  steel  punches,  which 
may  be  procured  in  every  variety  of  form  at 
the  fancy-tool  warehouses.  A  sufficient 
quantity  of  the  different  leaves  having  been 
thus  formed,  and  placed  on  separate  trays, 
each  leaf  is  to  be  held  by  a  delicate  pair  of 
tweezers,  and  its  end  affixed,  with  stiff  gum 
water,  to  the  article  lequiring  ornament. 
Thus,  the  heads  of  roses  and  thick  clusters 
of  flowers  are  formed,  and  tine  delicate  parts 
may  be  drawn  in  colours  afterwards.  Water- 
colour  drawings  are  frequently  made  on 
leaves  of  rice-paper,  for  scrap-books,  screens, 
&c.  The  effect  of  the  colours,  if  properly 
managed,  on  this  material,  is  very  soft  and 
delicate. 

PLATED  WARE.  The  manufacture  of 
plated  ware  is  peculiarly  English.  At  all 
periods  a  thin  sheeting  of  silver  may  have 
been  used  as  an  outer  coating  to  inferior 
substances  in  order  to  save  expense,  but 
such  coating  did  not  intimately  connect 
with  the  under  material.  In  referring  to 
Hunter's  "  Hallamshire,"  the  part  of  York- 
shire in  which  Sheffield  is  situated,  it 
appears  that  the  first  introduction  of  plating 
on  copper  was  in  the  year  1742,  by  a  Mr. 
Thomas  Bolsover,  of  the  body  of  the  Corpo- 
ration of  Cutlers,  at  Sheffield,  and,  like  most 
other  ingenious  arts,  was  discovered  by  acci- 
dent. He  was  repairing  a  knife-handle, 
composed  of  silver  and  of  copper,  and  was 
struck  with  the  possibility  of  uniting  the 
two  metals  so  as  to  form  a  cheap  substance 
presenting  an  exterior  of  silver,  and  which 
might  be  used  in  various  articles  in  which 
silver  onlv  had  bef>re  been  emploved. 

HOLYROOD  (ORIGIN  OF).   "The  story 


BLLAHT  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


135 


is  thus  6tatcd : — King  David  T.,  being  OB  I 
hunting  match  in  the  forest  of  Drumselch, 
near  Edinburgh,  on  a  rood-day.  was  attacked 
by  a  largo  hart,  and  his  life  was  in  the 
utmost  danger.  While  lie  was  endeavour- 
ing to  defend  himself  with  his  hands  against 
the  furious  assaults  of  the  animal,  a  mira- 
culous Dross  from  heaven  slipped  into  his 
haul,  which  so  frightened  the  .-tag,  that  he 
retreated  immediately.  This  wonderful 
circumstance  haying,  of  course,  put  an  end 
to  the  (diase,  David  repaired  to  the  castle  ot 
Edinburgh,  where,  in  a  dream,  he  was  in- 
structed to  erect  an  abbey,  or  house,  for 
Canons  Regular,  on  the  place  where  the 
d  ci os-;  was  put  into  his  hands.  In 
obedience  to  this  visionary  command,  the 
king  erected  an  abbey  for  the  said  purpose, 
and  dedicated  it  to  the  Holy-Rood,  or  Holy- 
Cross,  and  deposited  the  same  therein, 
where  it  is  said  to  have  remained  till  the 
rei?n  of  David  IT. 

THERMOMETERS  FOR  COMPARI- 
SON should  all  be  placed  at  a  certain 
height  from  the  ground — they  should  all 
face  the  north  (except  those  which  are  re- 
quired to  register  the  maximum  temperature 
in  the  sunshine,  which  should  face  the 
south);  they  should  not  be  influenced  by 
radiated  heat,  by  currents,  by  reflected  heat 
(such  as  is  communicated  from  an  opposite 
wa-U)  by  absorption  of  heat  from  the  wall,  or 
wood-work  to  which  the  th  rmometer  is 
attached ;  and,  in  short,  they  should  be 
situated  where  there  is  a  free  passage  of  air. 
"With  regard  to  the  height  that  a  thermo- 
meter is  placed  above  the  ground,  it  is  ascer- 
tained that  an  inch  occasionally  makes  a 
difference  of  a  few  degrees. 

JAMS  (TO  PRESERVE  FROM  MOULD). 
Cut  a  round  circle  of  writing  paper,  the  size 
of  the  interior  of  the  pot,  and  one  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  larger.  Take  the  white  of 
an  eg?,  and  a  pastehrush,  and  lay  a  coating 
of  white  of  egg  over  the  surface  of  the 
smaller  circle,  and  then  lay  that  piece  on 
the  top  of  the  jam,  with  the  untouched  side  of 
the  paper  next  to  the  jam.  Take-  the  larger 
piece,  and  coat  that  on  one  side  with  white  of 
egg.  and  let  the  surface  thus  coated  be  the  one 
turned  inwards.     This  circle  is  to  cover  the 

Eot ;  and  the  white  of  egg  renders  it  ad- 
esive.  and  pastes  it  firmly  down  all  round 
the  edge  of  the  crock. 

HOUR-GLASS.  An  hour-glass  may  be 
made  thus: — Procure  a  cork  that  will  fit 
the  nocks  of  two  oil-flasks,  and  make  a 
neat  hole  through  it  with  a  round  file.  In 
the  middle  of  this  hole  fasten  a  bead,  or 

£iece  of  tobacco  pipe,  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
mg.    Dry  some  common  house-sand  in  a 


ladle  over  the  lire,  and  shako  it  through  a 
tine  sieve  or  muslin  hag;  fill  one  of  tho 
flasks  with  it,  fit  in  the  cork,  and  rami  it 
over  a  jug  or  the  neck  of  a.wine-bottle ;  let 
it  run  for  an  hour;  collect  the  sand  that  has 

passed  through,  pour  the  rest  away;  return 
the  sand  to  the  flask,  and  lit  in  the  other. 
Place  the  whole  in  a  wooden  frame  for  sup- 
port. Egg-glasses  are  to  be  made  with  two 
small  phials,  furnished  with  sand  to  run  for 
three  minutes.     The   flasks   should    be  well 

dried  by  the  fire,  and  the  cork  sealed  in.     If 

oily,  they  may  be  cleaned  with  a  little  hot 
water,  sand,  and  salt  of  tartar. 

AMBULANCE.  A  light  caravan,  fur- 
nished with  surgeons'  assistants  and  order- 
lies for  attending  the  wounded  on  the  battle 
field.  During  the  disastrous  Crimean  war, 
the  readers  of  the  illustrated  papers  had 
frequent  opportunities  of  realizing  the 
utility  of  these  moveable  field  hospitals; 
several  new  amb  lances  were  at  that  time 
invented  and  constructed,  both  by  the 
English  and  French,  some  of  them  very 
complete   in    their    arrangements    and    ap- 


pointments ;  and  the  poor  wounded  soldiers 
had  often  cause  to  bless  the  humanity 
which  planned,  and  the  mechanical  skill 
which  constructed,  these  carriages  for  con- 
veying their  mutilated  and  agonized  bodies 
to  the  more  permanent  hospital. 

SNUFF-TAKING.  Snuff  is  said  to  have 
originated  with  the  French ;  and  indeed  it 
is  very  probable  that  no  other  nation  in  the 
world  would  have  imagined  so  sine  I 

mode  of  using  tin;  tobacco  pi  int.  During 
the  last  century  it  was  indispensable  for 
every  French  gentleman  to  carry  a  snuli- 
box,  and  the  sale  of  snuff  was  found  so  ad- 
vantageous, that  the  Trench  Government 
created  a  monopoly  of  snuff  manufacture  in 
its  own  favour,  which  monopoly  subsisted  for 
many  years.  As  to  the  use  of  snuff',  it  can- 
not bui  be  pernicious,  for  it  acts  upon  the 
brain,  causing  intoxication  and  sickness. 
Besides  this,  a  full  third  of  the  powder 
taken  into  the  nostrils  enters  the  stomach, 
creating  a  truly  distressing  disturbance  of 
that  organ.  As  to  breaking  off  the  habit, 
half-resolution  will  not  suffice  J  nothing  but 
total  abstinence  will  eradicate  it. 

QUAKER.  This  was  a  title  applied  in 
derision  when  George  Fox,  the  first  of  this 
sect,  was  committed  to  Derby  gaol  for  pro- 
mulgating their  opinions  openly,  by  preach- 
ing  the  necessity  of  the  life  of  God  in  tho 
soul.  When  brought  before  the  magistrate, 
he  told  him  to  trtmbU  at  the  word  of  tho 
Lord.  The  derision  has  long  since  passed 
away,  and  the  term  Quaker  is  become  re- 
spectable. 


I !  6 


facts  ron  evebybody: 


thers  and  the  tail  very  long,  in  which  latter 
respect  they  resemble  the  Parakeets,  than 
which,  however,  they  are  generally  larger 
birds  They  are  usually  more  sedate  and 
less  given  to  mischievous  practices,  such  as 
biting  and  tearing  things  to  pieces,  than 
other  members  of  the  family,  although  they 
are  vivacious  birds,  and  withal  very  noisy 
ones,  occupying  a  great  deal  of  their  time  in 
discordant  screeching.  There  is  much  of 
grace  in  their  motions,  and  the  rich  metallic 
reflections  which  play  over  their  plumage 
renders  them  extremely  ornamental  in  the 
hall  or  drawing-room.  These  Macaws  are 
mostly  natives  of  the  tropical  parts  of 
America,  where  they  nestle  in  the  holes  of 
decayed  trees,  which  some  are  said  to  ex- 
cavate in  the  same  way  as  do  our  Wood- 
pecker* It  is  certain  that  one  species 
burrows  in  the  elevated  banks  of  rivers  and 
streams,  and  perhaps  others  may  do  the 
same,  for  of  their  habits  in  a  wild  state  but 
little  comparatively  is  known.  With  regard 
to  food,  they  appear  to  prefer  dry  seeds  to 
succulent  berries;  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
cultivated  lands  they  feed  much  on  coffee. 
They  can  scarcely  be  called  gregarious, 
being  found  mostly  in  pairs  ;  sometimes  two 
or  throe  of  these  pairs  form  a  little  commu- 
nity, but  there  does  not  seem  to  be  much 
sociability  among  them. 


PARROTS.  In  works 
on  natural  history,  we 
generally  h'nd  the  mem- 
bers of  this  family  of 
levirostovs,  or  large 
billed  birds,  ranged 
under  six  divisions ; 
but  it  will  be  sufficient 
to  enumerate  only  those 
that  are  usually  treated 
as  household  pets,  viz. 
the  Macaws,  which  in- 
clude the  Cockatoos  and 
Toucans;  the  Parrots, 
wb;ch  include  the  Pa- 
rakeets; and  the  Lories, 
which  have,  perhaps, 
the  most  gorgeous 
plumage  of  any.  Let 
us  commence  with  the 
first-named  division — 

The  Macaws,  which) 
for  gracefulness  of  form 
and  richness  of  plumage, 
may  vie  with  the  most 
beautiful  members  of 
their  tribe.  They  are 
distinguished  from  the 
true  Parrots  by  having 
the  cheeks  bare  of  fea- 

Cockatoos.  These  birds  are  among  the 
largest  of  the  Parrot  tribe,  and  nmst  of 
them  are  distinguished,  in  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  by  the  beautiful  crest  of  feathers  on* 
the  head,  which  they  can  elevate  or  depress 
at  pleasure.  The  name  of  the  group  is  de- 
rived from  the  loud  and  distinct  call-note  of 
some  of  the  species  belonging  to  it,  sound- 
ing xike  the  syllables  cock-a-too  very  dis- 
tinctly uttered.  They  are  mostly  natives 
of  Australia  and  the  Indian  Isles,  where 
they  breed  in  the  holes  of  decayed  trees, 
like  many  Parrots  and  Macaws  ;  they  have 
short  and  powerful  bills,  remarkably  deep 
at  the  base,  and  often  nearly  concealed  by 
the  projecting  feathers  of  the  face;  the 
upper  mandible,  which  is  much  arched, 
projects  considerably  over  the  lower,  nearly 
enclosing  it  like  a  sheath ;  near  the  tip  it 
becomes  narrow  and  acute,  the  cutting 
edges  are  sinuated  or  toothed.  The  Cock- 
atoos feed  upon  the  seeds  of  various  trees 
and  plants,  being  able  to  crack  the  stones  of 
the  hardest  fruits ,  they  form  a  well-marked 
genus,  distinguished  from  other  groups  of 
the  Pvitticinee  by  the  above-named  charac- 
teristics, and  also  by  their  light  and  uniform 
colour,  which  is  mostly  white,  tinged  more 
or  less,  in  different  species,  with  sulphur- 
yellow,  or  rose-red.  Like  the  true  Parro  s, 
they  have  a  short  and  even  tail;  and  tie 


A   MISCELLANY  OF  TJSEETJL  KNOWLEDGE. 


137 


massive  and  powerful  bill,  and  robust  scan- 
Borial  or  climbing  feel  may  be  taken  as 
typical  marks  oi  their  scientific  ola 


tion.  They  do  not  possess  the  imitative 
powers  of  the  Parrots  generally  ;  their  own 
peculiar  name,  or  cry',  being  all  that  they 
are  able  to  acquire  or  utter. 

TOUCANS.  These  birds  are  all  distin- 
guished by  their  enormous  bills,  which  are 
convex  above,  and  much  hooked  towards  the 
point;  although  very  light,  they  are  of 
great  strength,  and,  being  toothed  at  the 
edges,  they  are  formidable  instruments  of 
destruction,  when  used,  as  they  sometimes 
are,  in  attacking  other  birds,  which  the 
Toucans  ehase  from  their  nests,  in  order  to 
get  at  the  eggl  and  young,  which  they  de- 
vour in  sight  of  the  unhappy  parents. 
During  the  season  of  incubation  they  are 
,6aid  to  live  chiefly  on  this  kind  of  food, 
although  at  other  times  they  eat  fruits, 
insects,  and  the  tender  buds  of  plants.  The 
Toucans  are  found  chiefly  in  the  warmer 
regions  of  America,  where  they  go  in  little 
flocks  of  from  six  to  ten ;  although  heavy 
flyers,  they  reach  the  top  of  the  highesttrees, 
where  they  are  fond  of  perching.  Tbey 
make  their  nests  in  the  hollows  of  trees. 
The  female  lays  but  two  egg  s,  like  other 
Parrots.  The  young  are  easily  reared  and 
tamed;  they  will  eat  almost  anything; 
their  mode  of  eating  solid  food  is  very  pecu- 
liar. When  the  morsel  is  presented,  they 
take  it  on  the  point  of  the  bill,  throw  it  up- 
ward, and  then  catch  it  in  the  open  mouth 
so  dexterously  that  it  goes  at  once  into  the 
aperture  of  the  gullet,  and  is  tlien  swallowed 
witiiout  difficulty.  The  Toucans  are  so 
sensible  to  cold  that  they  dread  the  night 
air,  even  in  tropical  countries;  it  is  there- 
fore necessary  to  keep  them  in  a  warm  tem- 
perature. Their  tongues  are  more  hard  and 
inflexible  than  those  of  other  Parrots;  con- 
sequently they  do  not  shine  as  speakers — 
their  utterance  is  usually  confined  to  a  kind 
of  croak. 


Pakkotn.     We  now  come  to  the  Parrot 

proper,  forming  what  is  called   the  tvpical 

group,  or   I'sii/ir/'/ur,  of  the  great 
family.    In  this  group  are  included  all  the 
short    and  even-tinted    species  whi 

found  distributed  throughout  all  parts  of  tho 

globe,  but  chiefly  in  the  tropical  countries, 
and   especially    those    of    America.       Their 

general  form  may  be  described  as  rather 

strong  and  compact  than  elegant.  'I  ho 
colours  of  their  plumage  are  not  so  varied 
and  brilliant  as  those  of  the  Macaws  and 
Lories,  although  some  of  the  Parakeets, 
which  are  usually  classed  with  them,  may 
vie  in  this  respect  wit!i  the  most  superb  of 
the  tribe.  But  the  true  Parrots  are  chiefly 
valued  on  account  of  their  aptitude  for  imi- 
tation and  extraordinary  power  of  articulat- 
ing words  and  sentences,  in  which  art  they 
are  the  greatest  proficients  of  any. 

Pabaxfetb.  The  term  Parakeet,  or,  as 
it  is  sometimes  spelled,  Paroquet,  is  a  kind 
of  diminutive  of  Parrot,  and  is  usually 
applied  to  the  smaller  species  of  those  beau- 
tiful and  interesting  birds  of  which  we  are 
now  treating;  as  a  distinctive  term,  how- 
ever, it  is  of  little  value,  as  some  species 
which  are  called  Parrots  are  of  smaller  size 
than  others  known  as  Parakeets.  As  a 
general  rule,  it  may  be  understood  that  those 
known  bv  the  latter  name  are  not  only  the 
smaller,  hut  also  the  more  slender  and  ele- 
gantly-proportioned birds,  with  long  pointed 
tails ;  several  of  them  are  distinguished  by 
rings  round  the  necks,  and  these  are  mostly 


Asiatic  and  African  species.  The  Parrots 
commonly— indeed,  all  the  true  Parrots — 
are  stout,  heavy  birds,  with  short  and  even, 
or  slightly  rounded  tails. 

LOBTBB.      The    name    "Lory,"   is,    like 
"  Cockatoo,"  derived  from  the  call-note  of 
some   of  the  species  of  birds  to  which  it  is 
applied.    These  are  among  the  n 
of  ihe  PaiTot  family  ;  they  are  all  na  : 

the  East,  and  are,  generally  speaking,  more 


138 


TACTS   FOE   EVERYBODY: 


delicate  in  their  nature  than  the  Macaws, 
Cockatoos,  &c.  Hence  it  is,  that,  although 
plentiful  in  their  native  climes,  they.;. 
no  means  common  here,  most  attempts  to 
hring  them  alive  to  Europe  being  failures. 
It  will,  therefore,  be  understood,  that  much 
care  is  necessary  to  their  preservation  when 
in  confinement,  In  this  group  of  birds  the 
tongue  is  not  so  thick  and  fleshy  as  in  other 
Parrots,  and  the  tip,  instead  of  being  smooth 
and  soft,  is  rough  and  horny,  being  thus 
better  adapted  for  extracting  the  nectar  of 
flowers,  and  sucking  the  juices  of  soft  fruits, 
on  which  they  chiefly  feed  in  a  wild  state ; 
the  bill,  too,  is  mo;  e\veak  and  slender  in  its 
proportions.  There  are  other  structural 
differences,  into  which  we  need  not  here 
enter. 

Food.  Bread  and  milk  should  form  the 
chief  diet  for  these  birds,  and  this  is  how  it 
should  be  prepared  : — take  best  white  bread, 
moderately  new,  cut  it  into  slices  and  place 
it  in  hot  water  :  let  it  stand  for  a  short  time, 
then  drain  off  the  liquid,  and  pour  over  it 
as  much  boiling  milk  as  it  will  absorb  with- 
out being  too  moist ;  place  this  food  in  the 
feeding  vessel,  which  should  be  of  porcelain, 
or  glass ;  and  give  it  fresh  twice  a  day, 
taking  care  that  the  vessel  is  carefully 
washed  each  time  before  the  food  is  put  in. 
In  the  winter  time  a  supply  for  the  whole 
day  may  be  made,  but  in  hot  weather  it 
should  not  he  more  than  ten  or  twelve  hours 
obi.  This  kind  of  soft  food  should  not  be 
exclusively  employed,  but  have  occasional 
variations  in  tiie  shape  of  biscuit,  broken 
small  farinaceous  grain,  and  nuts  of  any 
kind,  fruit  both  soft  and  hard ;  if  Indian 
corn  is  given,  it  should  be  first  boiled,  then 
drained  dry,  and  suffered  to  cool:  this  is  for 
the  larger  kinds  of  Parrots  ;  to  the  smaller 
give,  besides  bread  and  milk,  soft  fruit,  with 
hemp  and  canary  seed,  and  millet.  A 
cayenne  pepper  .-pod,  chopped  small,  is  good 
occasionally  for  all  kinds;  but  meat  should 
be  avoided  ;  and  so  should  pastry  and  sweets 
generally.  It  is  a  mistaken  kindness  to 
feed  feathered  pets  too  highly  ;  the  digestive 
organs  of  birds  in  confinement  never  have 
fair  play,  for  want  of  that  exercise  which, 
in  a  wild  state,  they  would  take  :  therefore, 
let  them  have  easily  digestive  food;  do  not 
overload  their  stomachs,  and  so  engender 
diseases  which  will  render  their  lives  mi>e- 
r'V  ■.  if  they  do  not  bring  them  to  an  un- 
timely end. 

.—Let  them  have  plenty  of  this, 
both  to  drink  and  bathe  in,  and  be  sure  that 
it  is  at  all  times  clean  and  sweet. 

Lodging.  We  need  not  say  much  upon 
this  head ;  everybody  knows  what  a  Parrot 


requires—a  good  roomy  cage,  if  he  be  kept 
;n  one  (the  bell-shape  is  the  best),  made  of 
metal  wire,  not  painted ;  a  loose  ring  to 
swing  on  above,  and  a  perch  or  two  below, 
.vith  proper  eating  and  drinking  vessels,  not 
of  zinc  or  pewter,  but,  as  we  said  before,  of 
glass  or  porcelain.  Sprinkle  the  bottom 
with  coarse  sand,  and  in  warm  weather  clean 
out  every  day;  in  cold,  twice  a  week  or  so 
will  do,  or  even  once.  Bear  in  mind  that 
Parrots  are  mostly  tropical  birds,  and  care- 
fully guard  them  from  exposure  to  cold. 
Let  them  have  as  much  sunshine  as  possible, 
and  whenever  the  weather  will  permit, 
place  them  in  the  open  air  amid  flowering 
shrubs  :  at  other  times,  where  a  greenhouse 
is  available,  let  them  go  there.  An  aviary 
with  myrtles  and  other  odoriferous  plants 
about  it,  and  the  temperature  well  up,  will 
make  them  think  they  are  in  their  native 
spice  isles  of  the  Eastern  Seas.  For  the 
larger  kinds  of  Parrots,  Macaws,  and  Cocka- 
toos, the  open  perch  is  the  thing ;  let  the 
chain  of  attachment  be  of  a  good  length, 
and  as  slight  as  is  consistent  with  strength: 
no  silken  cord  will  do,  for  the  strong  man- 
dibles of  the  bird  will  soon  sever  this,  be  it 
ever  so  thick ;  tin  vessels  for  food  and  drink 
may  be  aftixed  to  the  perch  ;  but  take  care 
that,  they  do  not  get  rusty  and  corroded. 

Teaching  and  Training.  Be  patient, 
be  gentle, — and  if  the  pupil  can  learn,  he 
will;  repeat  the  lesson  frequently,  and  give 
rewards  for  diligence  and  attention  (some 
choice  morsel),  but  never  threaten  or  punish 
— no  good  is  effected  by  this,  but  much 
harm.  Never  let  your  bird  be  teased  or 
trifled  with — many  a  good  temper  has  been 
spoiled  by  such  means— many  a  fond,  affec- 
tionate creature  rendered  spiteful  and 
morose.  Think  of  the  deprivations  to  which 
the  poor  captive  is  subjected  for  the  plea- 
sure of  its  possessor;  of  what  he  would 
enjoy  if  he  were  at  liberty  in  his  own  home, 
of  warm  sunshine  and  luxuriant  vegetation; 
and  do  all  you  can  to  make  his  prison-life 
pleasant  and  agreeable  to  him. 

A  "  FONT"  OF  TYPE.  As  a  scrap  of 
information  we  give  the  proportions  in  which 
the  different  letters  are  cast  to  a  font  of  type, 
and  in  which  they  occur  in  print :  Letter  e, 
1500  ;  t,  000  ;  a,  850  ;  n,  o,  s,  i,  800  ;  h,  G40  ; 
r,  620;  d,  440  ;  u,  340  ;  c,  m,  300  ;  f,  250; 
w,  y, 200  ;  g,  p,  170  ;  b, 1G0  ;  v,  120  ;  k,  80  ; 
q,  50  ;  j,  x,  40  ;  z,  20.  Besides  these  are  the 
combined  letters,  fi,50  ;  tf,  40  ;  fi,  20  ;  ffi,  15  ; 
ffl,  10  ;  a3,  10  ;  ce,  5.  The  proportion  of  the 
different  letters  of  capitals  differs  very  mate- 
rially from  that  of  the  small  letters,  the  letter 
I  being  used  most  frequently,  then  T,  then  A 
and  E.  &c 


A   MISCELLANY  OP  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


139 


MEDALLION  WAFERS.  Colour  (lie 
best  and  most  transparent  glue  or  gelatine 
with  Brasil  wood,  tumeric,  Prussian  blue, 
lap  given,  or  other  colour.  Pill  up  the  hol- 
low part  of  a  seal  with  gum  water,  mixed 
with  a  powder,  Buehaa  white-lead,  red-lead, 

chrome  yellow,  lampblack,  &C.  Leave  the 
flat  part  of  the  seal  clear;  then  pou**  as  much 
ol"  the  melted  coloured  glue  on  the  seal  as 
will  lie  upon  it;  let  it  dry  by  a  gentle  heat. 
When  used,  wet  the  paper  to  which  the 
water  is  to  be  applied,  and  place  the  wafer 
upon  it. 

DRAWING.  The  principle  of  light, 
shadow,  and  reflection,  for  solid  objects, 
may  be  studied  by  a  very  simple  process. 
Select  a  white  globe, — a  billiard-ball  will 
answer  the  purpose, — place  it  in  a  room  in 
which  there  is  one  window;  then  turn  it  in 
different  lights,  and  it  will  be  observed  that 
there  La  only  one  part  of  it  which  can  be  re- 
presented perfectly  white,  the  other  rays 
falling  obliquely  upon  a  receding  surface,  it 
fails  at  last  into  p.  rfect  shadow,  and  is  only 
relieved  by  the  reflection  of  surrounding  ob- 
jects on  tile  opposite  side.  An  oval  may  be 
rej  resented  by  an  f^^,  a  cone  by  rolling  up 
paper  in  the  form  of  an  extinguisher.  It  is 
by  these  simple  models  that  the  pupil  can 
readily  study  all  the  general  principles  of 
shadowing.  The  same  principles  of  light 
anil  shade  is  applicable  to  each  study  of  the 
art ;  simplicity  is  one  of  the  leading  cha- 
racteristics of  beauty  in  every  object  for 
the  study  of  a  young  artist. 

TRACING  PAPER  This  is  made  of  the 
refuse  of  the  flax-mills,  and  being  formed 
into  a  semi-transparent  stuff,  yields  a  trans- 
parent paper.  The  same  material  is  used 
for  the  paper  of  bank-notes;  but  for  this 
latter  purpose  it  is  bleached  with  chlorinated 
lime. 

BRITAIN.  The  etymology  of  this  word 
is  the  country  of  tin;  as  there  were  great 
quantities  of  lead  and  tin  found  on  the  ad- 
jacent islands.  The  Greeks  called  it  Albion, 
which  signifies,  in  the  l'henician  tongue, 
either  white  or  high  mountains,  from  the 
whiteness  of  its  shores,  or  the  high  rocks  on 
the  western  ■ 

OTTOMAN  KMPIRE  (TTIE)  The  total 
number  of  square  miles  belonging  to  this 
empire  is  904,233,  which  is  made  up  as 
follows — European  Turkey  contains  180,074 
square  miles;  Asiatic  Turkey,  417. 079;  and 
the  African  domini  Population 

i  sated  at  24,690,000;  of  this  number 

European    Turkey    has  9.700,000; 
Turkev,  12,500,000,  and  Egypt  -2,490.000. 

8AFFR<  )X.  Saffron  is  produced  in  Sicilv, 
France,  and  Spain,  as  well  as  in  Eugland. 


The  Spanish  in  generally  detciiorated  by 
having  been  dipped  in  oil,  to  ensure  its  keep 
ing.  fhe  Sicilian  ami  French  are  better, 
but  the  English  is  superior  to  all.  Iris, 
however,  sometimes  adulterated  with  the 
petals  of  the  Oarthamtu  tinctoruU)  or  with 
the  common  marigold,  calendula  ojfieinalu; 

this  may  be  detected  by  infusing  the  cake  in 
hot  water,  when  the  expanded  stigmas  will 
be  easily  distinguished  from  the  petals  of  the 
other  flowers. 

TURN PIKES.  Turnpikes  were  so  called 
from  poles  or  bars  swung  on  a  staple,  which 
allowed  them  to  turn  any  way  when  the 
dues  were  paid.  A  turnpike-road  by  law  is 
twenty  yards  wide. 

SCENT  JAR  (RECEIPT  FOR  A).  Gum 
benjamin,  storax,  -sweet  orris,  nutmeg  and 
cloves,  of  each  one  ounce,  all  bruised  in  a 
mortar;  throw  in  a  handful  of  baysalt  (at 
the  bottom  of  a  large  jar),  mixed  with  some 
of  the  spices  ;  then  lay  in  flowers,  and  upon 
every  layer  of  flowers  or  herbs  a  handful  of 
baysalt  and  the  rest  of  the  spices.  No  more 
spices  need  be  added  to  the  jar,  but  fresh 
salt  as  long  as  you  put  in  fresh  flowers;  and 
as  the  flowers  blow  at  different  times  of  the 
year,  you  must  collect  them  as  they  appear 
to  have  attained  perfection,  pick  them  clean 
from  their  stalks,  and  cut  the  herbs.  The 
best  for  a  jar  are  violets,  roses,  geranium 
flowers  and  leaves,  sweet-scented  verbena  or 
lemon-plant,  sweet-brier,  thyme,  lavender 
flowers,  rosmary,  clove-pinks^  sweet-mi  r;o- 
ram;  keep  it  close  shut  for  three  months, 
and  on  opening  it  will  require  to  be  well 
stirred  up  with  a  small  wooden  spoon  or  a 
stick,  and  will  be  found  to  possess  a  delight- 
ful odour. 

GORDIAN    KNOT.      This    was  a   knot 
made  by  Gordian,  in  one  of  the  cords  of  his 
yoke,  or,  as  some  have  it,   in  the  leathers  of 
his  chariot  harness,  which  was  so  very  intri- 
cately twisted,  that  it  was  impossible  to  dis- 
j  cover  where  it  began  or  ended.     The  oracle 
j  of  Apollo  having  declared,  that   whosoever 
J  should  untie  the  knot  should  be  master  of  all 
Asia,  many  attempted  it.  but  without  success, 
till  at  last  Alexander  the  Great,  afterattempt- 
ing  in  vain  to  untie  it,  cut  it  asunder  with 
his  sword,  and  thus  either  eluded  or  fulfilled 
the  prediction. 

ELECTRICITY  AND  MAGNETISM. 
The  word  electricity  is  derived  from  the 
Greek  electron,  which  signifies  "amber.' 
This  name  was  given  from  the  circumstance 
that  the  discoverer  of  electricity,  Thales,  of 
Miletus,  found  it  to  arise  from  the  friction 
of  amber.  Magnetism  comes  from  the  Latin 
word  maanes,  which  means  "  the  loadstone," 
,  or  stone  that  attracts  iron. 


HO 


PACTS   FQ-R  EVERYBODY! 


PLANTS  (NOURISHMENT  OF).  Plants 
are  not  so  much  nourished  by  their  roots 
as  many  persons  suppose ;  indeed,  many 
plants  are  rootless.  The  leaves,  and  the 
soft  green  covering  of  the  stem,  perform 
a  much  more  important  part  in  supplying 
the  plant  with  food.  Plants  grow  by  the 
absorption  of  water  and  the  fixation  of 
carbon — of  carbon  and  water  plants  are 
almost  entirely  composed;  and  unless  these 
two  substances  are  supplied,  the  plant  will 
die.  The  leaves  are  the  principal  agents  in 
the  absorption  and  decomposition  of  car- 
bonic acid  and  the  retention  of  carbon,  as  a 
very  simple  experiment  will  prove.  Gather 
a  sprig  of  any  succulent  plant,  and  keep  it 
in  a  dark  place,  while  you  prepare  the  ma- 
terials for  your  experiment.  Fill  a  tumbler 
glass  three  parts  full  of  clear  water,  and 
with  a  clean  tobacco  pipe  breathe  carbonic 
acid  gas  through  it  for  four  or  five  minutes 
at  least ;  then  fill  up  the  glass  carefully, 
without  wetting  the  edges,  and  drop  in  the 
sprig  you  have  gathered.  The  glass  should 
be  so  full  as  to  make  the  water  stand  a 
little  above  the  edges.  A  flat  piece  of 
■writing  paper  having  been  laid  upon  the  top, 
and  aflat  plate  above 
that,  the  whole 
should  be  turned 
up-side  down,  as  in 
~  the  figure.  If  you 
now  place  your  ap- 
paratus in  the  sun- 
_  shine,  you  will  see 
small  bubbles  form 
upon  the  leaves  of  the  sprig,  and  rise  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  inside  of  the  tumbler ; 
this  is  pure  oxygen  gas.  The  carbonic  acid, 
which  the  water  absorbed,  is  undergoing  de- 
composition ;  that  is,  the  materials,  oxygen 
and  carbon,  of  which  it  is  composed,  are 
being  separated  or  ^-composed  ;  the  oxygen 
is  set  free,  and  the  sprig  having  used  the 
carbon  would  be  found  to  be  exactly  so 
much  heavier,  in  proportion  to  the  oxygen 
set  at  liberty.  This  operation  requires  light, 
and  in  a  natural  condition  only  goes  on 
during  the  day.  This  should  be  borne  in 
mind  with  regard  to  flowers  in  sick  rooms  ; 
in  the  day  their  presence  has  a  purifying 
effect,  but  at  night  this  ceases.  Besides 
this  chemical  change,  the  leaves  of  plants 
take  an  active  part  in  the  function  of  per- 
spiration while  exposed  to  sunshine.  The 
similarity  between  this  function  in  plants 
and  animals  is  singular.  The  quantity  of 
■water  thrown  out  by  plants  may  be  proved 
by  the  simple  experiment  of  placing  a  tum- 
bler inverted'  upon  the  grass-plot  on  a  fine 
sunn    day.    The  sides  of  the  glass  will  pre- 


sently be  covered  with  the  condensed  vapour 
of  water,  then  drops  will  form,  and  presently 
run   down    in    little    streams.     This   fluid 
has,  in  most  cases,  been  derived  from  the 
root.    The  nutritious  fluid  of   the   plant, 
like  the  blood  of  animals,   needs   exposure 
to  the  air  before  it  is  tit  to  take  a  place  in  the 
organized  tissue  of  the  body  .  and  this  con- 
tact with  air  is  brought  about  in  the  leaf,  the 
anatomy  of -which  1  will  now  endeavour  to 
make  plain  to  you.     If  you 
split  a  stem  down  carefully, 
exactly  at  the  point  where  a 
leaf  is  attached,   you  will  be 
able     in     many     instances 
without  a  magnifying  glass 
to  detect   that   the  stalk   of 
the   leaf  is   connected   with 
the  central  pith  or  medulla. 
A  leaf  is  composed  of  four  layers  of  tissue, 
or  two  layers  folded  upon  themselves,  as  these 
pieces  of  paper  are  folded. 
The  outside  represents  the 
skin,  or  cuticle,  of  the  stem, 
which   is    continued    from 
the    stem  first  along    the 
upper  surface,  then  turned 
over  the  edge,  and  so  along  the  under  surface 
to  the  stem  again.     This  skin  is  colourless, 
or  nearly  so;  and  like  our  own;  filled  with 
pores.     Viewed  beneath  a  powerful  magni- 
fying glass,  it  is  found  to  be  ^ 
composed  of  very  small  bags,  ©T^oSfo 
or  cells,   pressed  very  closely  j/;v"c  ■;  yf;  ',>} 
together  :  hence  it  is  said  to  fcjfw  > '{] "<  ;y$^, 
be  composed  of  cellular  tissue.  ^eSS^^cS 
Our  own  bodies  are  chiefly  ' 
composed  of  this  tissue,  and  all  growth  is 
effected  by  means  of  the  addition  of  these 
little  cells.     The  skin,  or  cuticle  of  the  leaf, 
is  composed  of  compressed,    or  condensed, 
cellular  tissue.     Beneath  it  run  the  vessels 
which  bring  the   sap   up    from    the    root, 
which,  coming  from  the  medulla,  or  pith, 
pass  first  over  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf, 
and     then,     having     been     turned    under 
towards  the  stem,   deposit  the  new  wood 
within  the  bark.     Here  we  find,  ,  jw~*  n 
under  the  microscope,   beautiful  fs  f^Ua 
vessels    with     twisted    or    spiral  H  f^piJ 
fibres  within  them.     These  tubes  j^|r£y 
are  called  spiral  vessels,  and  are  ££  rGl/1 
the  agents  in  bringing  about  that  Snk  •  '  j 
wonderful  change    before   spoken  tejj 
of.     All    the    juices    of     plants   ItfOffH 
are  the  same,  till  they  pass  along     '^    'f- 
these    vessels    in    the    leaf,    where    they 
undergo    a    change.      After    having    been 
exposed  to  light  and  air,  in  the  myriads 
of   vessels    which    run    along    the     leaf, 
the     juice,     passing     downwards    on    the 


A  MISCELLANY   OP  TTSE?TTL   KNOWLEDGE. 


141 


outside  of  the  stem,  deposits  woody  fibre 
in  ils  downward  course.  This  is  ehiotly 
composed     of     the      carbon     of      the     air, 

which  has  been  taken  from  the  air  by  the 
leaves,  which  have  really  much  more  to  do 
nourishment  of  most  plants  than 
i-^  a  strong  bough  in  the 

hedge,  round  which  a   pii re 
of  woodbine  has  been  tightly 

U7  hound,  and  which  will  illus- 
trate this  matter.  The  Stem 
is  swelled  above  the  wviod- 
hine,  not  below,  proving 
that  the  growth  of  the  tree 
takes  place  from  above 
downwards.  You  may  prove 
this  also  hv  a  simple  experiment,  in  which 
apiece  of*  strong  string  may  be  substituted 
for  the  woodbine  : — If  round  the  stem  of 
6ome  rapidly-crowing  young  tree  you  tie 
a  piece  of  string,  you  will  find,  in  a  short 
time,  that  the  fibres  sent  down  from  the 
leaves  and  buds  will  swell  the  stem  above 
the  ligature,  while  the  portion  of  the  stem 
below  where  you  have  tied  the  string  will 
not  have  increased  in  size.  Never,  there- 
fore, pluck  the  leaves  from  plants,  with  the 
idea  that  they  have  got  more  than  their 
roots  can  nourish ;  for,  on  the  contrary, 
the  leaves  are  the  support  of  the  plant. 
The  beautiful  green  colour  of  leaves  de- 
pends upon  the  decomposition  of  earbonic 
acid  in  its  vessels,  and  what  we  are  breath- 
ing out  of  our  lungs  to-day  will  probably 
be  incorporated  with  the  tissues  of  a  beau- 
tiful plant  to-morrow  ;  perhaps  with  some 
blade  of  grass ;  on  that  grass  the  cow  will 
feed,  ami  again  appropriate  the  carbon,  by 
absorbing  it  into  its  circulation,  and  form- 
ing the  butter  of  milk;  and  of  that  butter, 
whose  chief  component  part  you  breathed 
out  from  your  lungs  a  week  before,  you  may 
eat,  digest,  and  again  breathe  out  into  the 
atmosphere.  Such  are  the  wonderful  jour- 
nevs  of  a  particle  of  carbon. 
i)UlLE.    The  highest  rank  of  a  British 


subject,  wilh  the  title  of  lord,  duke,  and 
grace. 
TRANSPLANTER  (THE).    This  useful 

7* 


implement  is  perfectly  cylindrical,  open  at, 
both  ends;   about  twelve  inches   in   length, 

and  six  in  diameter;  made  of  the  best  tin 

plate,  and   furnished   with   two  strong  per- 
pendicular iron    handles,  fl. 
a  a.     It  is  first  applied  to      ' 
the  plant  requiring  to  be 

taken  from  the  bed,  by 
being  forced  into  the  soil 
its  full  depth,  and  drawn 
up  with  the  plant  and  sur- 
rounding earth  enclosed  in 
its  iron  grasp.  A  hole 
being  thus  made  in  the 
bed  for  the  reception  of  a 
better  plant,  the  latter  is 
lifted  from  the  reserve  bed 
in  the  same  manner,^and 
with  the  transplanter  is  inserted  in  the  hole 
previously  occupied  by  its  less  beautiful  pic- 
decessor.  It  will  be  seen  by  the  figure,  that 
one  side  of  the  transplanter  is  held  to- 
gether by  the  pin  b ;  now,  when  the  flower 
is  placed  in  its  proper  position,  and  this  pin 
drawn  out,  the  edges  of  the  tube  spring 
open  a  little,  and  allow  the  instrument  to  be 
withdrawn  from  the  soil  without  disturbing 
the  plant.  Some,  who  do  not  use  a  trans- 
planter, cut  a  flower  from  the  reserve  bed, 
and  insert  the  end  of  its  stalk  in  a  phial  of 
water,  sunk  out  of  ordinary  vision  in  the 
grand  bed;  these  cut  flowers  will  keep  in 
bloom  several  days,  and  can  be  renewed 
when  requisite. 

A Ql'  A  I!  [US.  The  form  which  Aquarius, 
or  the  Water-carrier,  takes  in  the  heavens, 
is  best,  illustrated  by  the  annexed  diagram. 
It  belongs  to  the  month  ^^^  S> 

of  January,  and  is  be-  cd^J  ^ 

lieved  to  refer  to  the 
showery  character  of 
that  month,  from  its 
being  a  derivative  of 
the  Latin  word  aqua, 
signifying  water. 
However  this  maybe, 
we  have  no  reason  to 
believe  that  the  name 
assigned  to  it  as  a  con- 
stellation symbolizes 
any  benefactor  of  our 
species  or  any  one  who 
has  signalised  himself 
amongst  mankind  by 
the  exertion  of  un- 
common qualities.  At 
least,  on  this  point,  the 
ages  of  the  past  have  transmitted  to  us  no 
light  v.  hat  ever.  , 

STEREOTYPING.  The  first  idea  of 
catting  in  metal  plates  emanated  from  one 


142 


FACTS  fou  everybody: 


William  Ged,  a  printer,  of  Edinburgh,  in 
17'2o.  About  fifty  years  afterwards  it  was 
revived   by  Tillooh;  and  was  subsequently 

adopted  by  the  celebrated  Didot  of  Paris, 
and'  ultimately  brought  to  perfection  by  Earl 
Stanhope.  The  convenience  of  this  method 
is  very  great,  as  a  reprint  of  a  book  can  take 
place  at  any  time,  and  any  required  number 
of  copies,  however  small,  can  be  taken  off; 
and  the  expense  of  recomposition  is  thus 
asved. 

PRINTS  (TO  TRANSFER  TO  WOOD). 
First  varnish  the  wood  once  with  white  hard 
varnish,  which  facilitates  the  transferring; 
then  cut  off  the  margins  of  the  print,  which 
should  be  on  unsized  paper;  that  is,  paper 
that  absorbs  like  blotting-paper — and  wet 
the  back  of  it  with  a  sponge  and  water, 
using  enough  water  to  saturate  the  paper, 
but  not  so  as  to  be  watery  on  the  printed 
side.  Then,  with  a  flat  camel-hair  brush, 
give  it  a  coat  of  transfer  (spirits  of  wine) 
varnish  on  the  printed  side,  and  apply  it  im- 
mediately, varnished  side  downwards,  on  the 
wood-work,  placing  a  sheet  of  paper  on  it 
and  pressing  it  down  with  the  hand  till  every 
part  adheres.  Then,  gently  rub  away  the 
back  of  the  print  with  the  fingers,  till  no- 
thing but  a  thin  pulp  remains.  "  It  may  re- 
quire being  wetted  again,  before  all  that  will 
come  (or  rather  ought  to  come)  off  is  re- 
moved. Great  care  is  required  in  this  ope- 
ration, that  the  design  or  printed  side  be 
not  disturbed.  When  this  is  done,  and 
quite  dry,  give  the  work  a  coat  of  white 
hard  varnish,  and  it  will  appear  as  if  printed 
on  the  wood. 

HERMETIC  SEALING.  We  cannot 
better  explain  this  process  than  by  showing 
how  finely-divided  lead  may  be  got  into  a 
glass  tube  closed  at  both  ends.  This  seems 
no  easy  matter  at  first  glance,  but  it  be- 
comes easy,  just  as  all  other  things  come 
easy,  when  ice  know  the  way.  We  will 
suppose  our  readers  universally  to  be 
well  aware  that  the  apple  got  into  the 
dumpling  when  the  crust  was  soft  dough; 
which  fact  being  known,  they  may  easily 
comprehend  how  lead  or  anything  else 
may  be  got  into  a  crust  of  glass,  pro- 
vided only  the  glass  can  be  reduced  to  a 
state  of  doughy  consistence — a  condition 
most  easily  effected  by  means  of  heat. 
To  proceed,  then,  with  our  experiment. 
Procure  some  goulard-extract,  and  throw 
into  it  some  tartaric  acid,  dissolved  in 
water,  until  nothing  more  falls  down,  or, 
to  use  a  chemical  term,  until  all  is  pre- 
cipitated. That  which  falls  is  tartrate  of 
lead.  Collect  it  on  a  filter  of  blotting- 
paper,  and  set  it  in  a  warm  place  to  dry. 


1 


Whilst  it  is  drying,  proceed  as  follows: 
Procure  a  piece  -of  English  flint  glass  tube 
(which  is  the  sort  that  most  readily  melts), 
somewhat  of  this  diameter  and  thickness. 
A  thicker  piece,  or  a  tube  of 
larger  bore,  a  beginner  in  che- 
mistry could  not  manage  to 
work.  Let  the  piece  be  about  \r^ 
eight  inches  long.  Next  light  """"  ■"■•■**■* 
the  spirit-lamp,  having  trimmed  the  wick 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  yield  a  good  flame. 
Hold  the  tube  in  the  flame  and  near  its 
point,  somewhat  about  three  inches  from 
one  end  of  the  tube. 
Whilst  the  tube  is  thus  2. 

exposed    to     the    heat,  <& 

never  allow  it  to  rest 
for  an  instant,  but  keep 
revolving  it,  pulling  at 
the  same  time.  Very 
soon  the  tube  will  as- 
sume this  appearance, 
which,  when  observed) 
the  two  pieces  of  the 
tube,  1  and  2  respectively,  being  twi-ted 
in  reverse  directions,  and  a  final  pull  being 

given,  No.   2  will  se-  __ — —■ -■■;■-    .h 

parate  like  this —  «  i  i "  « 
That  is  to  say,  closed  at  one  end,  open  at 
the  other.  Allow  it  to  cool.  When  eold, 
put  in  the  tartrate  of  lead  (provided  it  be 
quite  drv).  and  when  in,  carefully  draw 
out  the  tube 

like  this-  *mm^ 

that    is     to 

say,  permitting  a  very  fine  tube  at  the  point 
(a).  Next  apply  the'spirit  lamp  flame  to  the 
tartrate  as  long  as  any  smoke  escapes,  by 
which  means  the  tartrate  of  lead  is  what 
chemists  term  decomposed,  every  portion  of 
it  except  lead  and  charcoal  resulting  from 
the  operation  being  evolved  in  the  gaseous 
form.  When  this  point  is  arrived  at  (known 
by  the  cessation  of  smoke),  re-melt  the  fine 
tube  at  (a)  and  separate  the  two  pieces  of 
tube  with  a  twist.  The  lead  in  a  very  fine 
state  of  subdivision,  and  intimately  mixed 
with  charcoal,  will  be  now  what  is  called 
hermetically  sealed  into  the  glass  tube,  and 
may  be  caused  to  inflame  at  pleasure  by 
breaking  oft' one  end  of  the  closed  tube,  ana 
shaking  it  into  the  air. 
<  ELGIN  MARBLES.  These  precious  re- 
lics of  ancient  art  were  named  after  Thomas, 
Earl  of  Elgin,  who  brought  them  from 
Athens,  with  incredible  pains  and  toil,  to 
England,  when  they  were  purchased  by  the 
Government,  and  deposited  in  the  British 
Museum.  These  sculptures  were  imagined 
and  directed  by  Phidias,  and  executed  in 
part  by  his  chisel. 


A  MTSCELLA.NY  OP   USEFUL   XXOTVT.F.T)fjtf. 


113 


THE  POUND  STEELING.     So  far  as 

record  goes,  this   term  \v;is   firtt  established 
by  William  the  Conqueror.      Ii  then  applied 
to  m  pound  weight  or  fine  silver,  which  was 
divided  into  20  shillings  and  240  pel 
ver  pieces,  representing  the  latter  denomi- 

..    and   vailed   pennies,   were   the   only 

•ied  by  that  monarch  and  his  BUCCes- 

■on  for  several  years.     Although  the  quan- 

tity  of  line  silver  in  these  was  progressively 

•  .!.  still  they  represented  the  same 
prop  >i  tion  of  the  pound  sterling,  which 
continued  the  term  by  which  the  value  of 
nil  exchangeable  property  in  the  kingdom 
listed.  Groats,  or  pieces  equal  to 
four  pennies,  were  next  coined;  and  at  last 
shillings,  or  pieces  equal  to  twelve  pennies, 
were  issued  to  pass  for  one-twentieth  of  the 
pound  sterling'.  '1  Lis  these  coins  have  con- 
tinued to  do,  although  the  quantity  of  fine 
silver  in  them  was  gradually  diminished 
until  it  became  less  than  one-third  of  what 
was  originally  fixed.  The  proportion  of  fine 
silver  equivalent  to  a  penny  nas  in  conse- 
quence become  so  small  that  these  coins  have 
long  been  withdrawn  from  circulation,  aud 
their  place  supplied  with  copper  pence. 

EXTENT  OF  AMERICAN  TKRRITORY 
The  territory  of  the  United  States  extends 
•  ver  an  area  of  more  than  2,000,000  square 
in  lea.  Its  extreme  length  is  nearly  2,700 
miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  1,600  miles. 
Its  general  shape  may  lie  considered  a  paral- 
.  ii,  2,400  miles  by  1,800.  The  value  of 
our  harvests  in  the  year  l^oO  exceeded 
$1,000,000,000.  At  that  time  there  were 
i  acres  under  cultivation,  and 
180,000,000  more  were  included  within  the 
Km  ta  of  farms,  unking,  in  all,  293,000,000 
acres.  It  will  thus  he  seen,  by  a  comparison 
with  European  census  statistics,  that  this  fell 
short,  by  only  some  30,000,000  acres,  of  the 
total  amount  of  the  improved  lands  within 
the  limits  of  the  lour  great  European  powers 
V12.,— Great    Britain,    France,    Austria   aud 

COATS  OF  ARMS.  Harry,  surnamed 
the  Fowler,  Emperor  of  the  West,  who  regu- 
lated the  tournaments  in  Germany,  was  the 
first  who  introduced  those  marks  of  honour, 
armouries,  or  coats  of  arms.  Before  that 
time  we  find  nothing  upon  ancient  tombs 
but  crosses,  with  gothic  inscriptions,  and 
decorations  of  persons  entombed.  The  time 
of  Clement  IV.  who  died  a.  d.  1268,  is  the 
first  whereon  we  find  any  arms;  nor  do  they 
appear  struck  upon  any  coins  before  the 
year  1336.  Camden  refers  the  origin  of 
hereditary  arms  in  England  to  the  time  of 
the  first  Norman  kings.  Chronology  say.-. 
coats  of  arms  and  heraldry  were  iutioduceci 


in  1100,  and  that  the  arms  of  England  and 
France  were  first  quartered  by  Edward  III. 
1368. 

GLACIEBS.  The  ice  of  glaciers  is  en- 
tirely different  from  that  of  sea  and  river 
water,  and  is  not  formed  in  layers,  but  con- 
sists of  little  grains  of  congealed  snow;  hence 
though  perfectly  clear,  and  often  smooth  on 
the  surface,  it  is  not  transparent.  As  gla- 
ciers in  some  positions,  and  in  hot  summers, 
decrease,  the}-  often  also  increase  for  a  num- 
ber of  years,  so  as  to  render  a  valley  unin- 
habitable. Their  increase  is  caused  partly 
by  alternately  thawing  and  freezing,  then; 
decrease  by  the  mountain  rivers,  which  often 
flow  under  them  and  thus  form  an  arch  of 
ice  over  the  torrent.  In  the  Tyrol,  Switzer- 
land, Piedmont,  and  Savoy,  the  glaciers  are 
so  numerous,  that  they  have  been  calculated 
to  form  altogether  a  superficial  extent  of 
1484  square  miles. 

GIPSIES.  This  peculiar  race  of  people 
first  appeared  in  Germany  about  the  year 
1517,  having  quitted  Egypt  when  attacked 
by  the  Turks.  They  are  the  descendants  of 
a  great  body  of  Egyptians,  who  revolted  from, 
the  Turkish  yoke",  and  being  defeated,  dis- 
persed in  small  parties  all  over  the  world  ; 
while  their  supposed  skill  in  the  black  art 
gave  them  a  universal  reception  in  that  aire 
of  credulity  and  superstition.  Although  ex- 
pelled from  France  in  1560,  and  from  most 
countries  soon  after,  they  are  yet  found  in 
every  part  of  Europe  as  well  as  in  Asia  and 
Africa.  Having  recovered  their  footing, 
they  have  contrived  to  maintain  it  to  this 
day.  In  England  an  act  was  made  against 
their  itinerancy  in  1530;  and  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  i .  thirteen  persons  were  executed  at 
one  assize  for  having  associated  with  gipsies 
for  about  a  month,  contrary  to  the  statute. 
There  were  in  Spain  alone,  previously  to  the 
year  1800,  more  than  120,000  gipsies,  and 
many  communities  of  them  yet  exist  in 
England;  and  notwithstanding  their  inter- 
course with  other  nations,  they  are  still, 
like  the  Jews,  in  their  manners,  customs, 
visage,  and  appearance  wholly  unchanged. 

GLOW- WORM.  It  is  said"  that  the  male 
glow-worm  emits,  in  a  slight  degree,  a 
phosphorescent  light, — but  it  is  chiefly  the 
female  from  which  the  brilliant  light  pro- 
ceeds, and  which  we  so  often  see  on  banks, 
beneath  hedges,  and  in  various  other  situa- 
tions. The  light  comes  from  the  uirder-part 
of  the  abdomen.  It  appears  that  the  animal 
has  the  power  of  varying  its  intensity. 
Glow-worms  will  live  a  long  time  in  vacuo, 
and  in  different  kinds  of  gases,— the  nitrous 
acid  murhitic  and  sulphureous  gases  ex- 
cepted, for  in  these  they  soon  expire 


Ill 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


COCOA  NUT-TREE.  Common  in  Asia 
and  the  warm  parts  of  America,  rising  50  feet, 
with  leaves  or  branches  often  14  or  15  feet 
long,  and  producing  a  shelly  fruit,  which 


hangs  in  clusters.  The  natives  draw  from 
the  tree  a  very  agreeable  liquor ;  the  leaves 
are  wrought  into  sacks,  hammocks,  &c,  and 
the  filaments  of  the  outer  coat  of  the  nut 
are  made  into  cables. 

UTOPIA.  This  was  the  title  of  a  work 
written  by  Sir  Thomas  More,  describing  an 
imaginary  republic.  The  word  has  been 
adopted  in  the  same  sense  to  signify  what- 
ever is  unreal  or  visionary. 

PRACTICAL  SCTKtfCE.  1.— Spirit 
Lamp  (To  Construct).  Procure  a  wide- 
mouthed  bottle,  such  as  is  shown  in  the 
accompanying  figure  (d),  and  fit  the  mouth 
with  a  good  stout  cork 
(b) ;  now  take  out  the 
cork  and  make  a  hole 
through  the  centre  of  it, 
by  means  of  a  red-hot 
wire,  but  be  careful  not 
to  make  it  too  large  for 
the  tube  to  be  fitted  to 
it.  Cut  off  a  piece  of 
brass-tubing,  one-quar- 
ter of  an  inch  in  dia- 
meter, and  of  sufficient 
length  to  allow  half  an  inch  below  the  cork 
and  three-quarters  of  an  inch  above  it, 
Push  the  tube  in  (a)  through  the  hole  made 
in  the  cork  by  the  red-hot  wire,  and  be  sure 
that  it  fits  well.  Pass  a  piece  of  cotton  used 
for  lamps  through  the  tubing,  and  be  sure 
that  it  is  long  enough  to  reach  the  bottom 
of  the  bottle.  Fit  a  tin  cap  (e)  to  the 
cork  so  as  to  keep  the  spirit  of  wine  or 
naphtha  from  evaporating,  and  your  spirit 
lamp  will  be  complete. 

2. — Temporary  Retort  (To  Make  a). 
Procure  a  Florence  flask,  such  as  olive  oil 


is  usually  sold  in,  and  clean  it  out  by  wash- 
ing the  inside  well,  first  with  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  soda  and  small  pieces  of  brown  paper, 
and  then  with  clean  water;  turn  it  up 
mouth  downwards,  and  let  it  drain  well. 
Fit  the  mouth  with  a  sound  cork  and  bore 
a  hole  in  it  with  a  red  hot  wire,  as  directed 
in  section  1.  This  hole  is  intended  to  re- 
ceive a  bent  tube,  which  we  will  now  pro- 
ceed to  form. 

3. — Bent  Tubes  tor  Chemtcal  Experi- 
ments (To  Construct)-  Take  a  piece  of 
glass  tubing  one-third  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter, and  of  the  proper  length — light  your 
spirit  lamp  (section  1),  and  hold  the  tube 
diagonally  in  the  flame,  taking  care  to  turn  it 
round  all  the  time,  and  to  move  it  back- 
wards and  forwards,  so  as  to  heat  about  four 


inches  of  it  in  the  part  where  it  requires  to 
be  bent.  When  the  glass  begins  to  get  soft, 
place  the  two  thumbs  against  the  glass  so  as 
to  form  fulcra,  as  in  the  annexed  figure,  and 
bend  it  slowly  backwards,— that  is,  towards 
your  body,  until  it  acquires  the  proper 
form.  When  the  tube  has  been  bent  into 
the  proper  shape,  heat  each  end  of  it  in  the 
flame  of  the  spirit-lamp  for  a  minute,  so  as 
to  round  off  the  edges. 

4.— Evaporating  Dishes  (To  Make). 
Procure  a  Florence  flask,  clean  it  as  directed 
in  section  2,  and  be  sure  that  it  is  thoroughly 
dry.  Take  a  triangular  file,  and  slightly 
scratch  the  flask  with  the 
end  of  it,  then  run  the  point 
of  a  piece  of  heated  wire  in 
the  required  direction.  Thus, 
if  passed  in  the  direction  d  e, 
orfff,  in  the  annexed  figure, 
you  will  have  deep  evaporat- 
ing dishes ;  if  in  the  direc- 
tions a  o  and  b  o,  you  will 
have  shallow  ones  with  tips; 
if  from  b  to  <7,  you  will  have 
a  Aery  shallow  one  for  evapo- 
rating small  samples  of  fluid. 
Portions  of  a  Florence  flask 
will  be  quite  as  useful,  or  remnants  of  re- 
torts, which  may  be  cut  into  circular  dishes 


A   MISCELLANY  OP  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


145 


by  bending  a  piece  of  stout  Iron  wire  into    to  one  another.     When  the  object  isacces- 
tne  from  given  in  the  annexed  diagram,    Bible,  its  height  is  considered  as  one  of  the 

sZ=Z?k  sides  of  the  triangle;   but  when   it  is  itiaeoa- 


fitting  it  into  a  wooden  handle,  and  then, 
making  it  hot,  apply  it  suddenly  to  the  por- 
tion or  flask  or  retort,  and  then  remove  it. 
This  will  cause  the  srlass  to  crack  in  a  cir- 
cular form  (See  Section  3.) 

5. — Funnel  (To  Makb  a).    Scratch  the 
flask  in  a  line  parallel  to  h  (in  the  figure 
above),  commencing  at  d}   and  pro 
directed  for  making  evaporating  dishes. 

FOBCES  (THE  RESOLUTION  OF). 
The  resolution  of  forces  is  the  process  by 
which  we  can  find  forces  that  will  produce 
a  motion  equal  to  that  of  a  single  force  ;  to 
illustrate  which  we  refer  you  to  the  following 


diagram.  Let  ef  represent  a  boat,  ft  the 
rope  by  which  it  is  drawn  along,  and  also 
the  force  of  draught.  It  may  then  be 
assumed  that  there  are  two  forces  acting, 
fa  which  draws  the  boat  forward,  and  jh 
which  would  draw  the  head  in  the  direc- 
tion fh,  were  it  not  counteracted  by  the 
helm  e  d,  which  is  parallel  to  the  line/t. 
When  the  boat  is  moving,  the  resistance  of 
the  water  acts  upon  the  helm,  which  may  be 
explained  thus  :  If  c  a  represents  the  re- 
sistance, it  may  be  resolved  into  a  d  and  ec. 
How,  as  a  d  produces  no  ett'ect  upon  the 
helm,  it  is  evident  that  the  pressure  is  in 
the  line  e  c,  which  tends  to  turn  the  stern  of 
the  boat  in  the  direction  bek,  and  thus 
counteracts  the  force  of /A. 

MARQUIS.  A  peer,  in  rank  between 
an  earl  and  a  duke,  and  wearing  a  coronet 
on  state  occasions  as  beneath. 


AITIMETKY.   The  art  of  taking  heights 


Bible,  then  two  observations  are  made  in  a 
rigtit  line,  and  the  distance  measured  be- 
tween them  is  the  basis  of  the  calculation. 

GREENWICH  OBSERVATORY.  The 
Royal  Observatory  at  Greenwich  was  built 
in  1675.  It  may'be  seen  by  obtaining  leave 
from  the  Lords  of  the  Admiralty;  but  it 
must  be  obvious  to  any  person  that  it  is  ab- 
solutely necessary  to  prohibit  idlers  lounging 
about  thi  establishment  at  all  times.  The 
instruments  are  first-rate  ;  but  the  building 
is  badly  contrived  for  the  purposes  to  which 
it  is  applied.  The  salaries  of  the  various 
officers  at  Greenwich  Observatory  are  as 
follow: — the  Astronomer  Royal,  £800  per 
annum ;  the  first  Assistant  to  ditto,  £400 ; 


the  second  Assistant  £250 ;  the  third 
Assistant,  £200;  fourth,  sixth,  and  seventh 
Assistants,  each  £100 ;  and  thefifth  Assistant 


by  menns  of  a  quadrant,  and  founded  on  £120.  The  apparatus  in  use  for  denoting  the 
the  principle  that  the  sides  of  triangles  i  exact  time  at  which  a  heavenly  body  crosses 
having  equal  angles  are  in  exact  proportion    the  wire  of    the    telescope  consists    of  a 


Hd 


FACTS  tor  everybody: 


cylinder,  in  circumference  about  three  feet, 
and  over  which  a  covering  of  paper  is  to  be 
placed.  This  cylinder  will  be  made  to  re- 
volve uniformly  by  means  of  a  clock  move- 
ment, governed  by  a  centrifugal  pendulum. 
The  paper  will  tiavel  a  distance  of  about 
one-third  of  an  inch  in  a  second  of  time, 
but  of  course  it  can  be  made  to  travel  a 
greater  or  less  distance  if  desired.  A 
pricker  or  marker,  to  be  actuated  by  means 
of  electricity,  will  be  placed  immediately 
over  this  paper.  "Wire  will  extend  from 
this  marker,  and  terminate  in  a  key  by  the 
side  of  the  observer  at  the  telescope.  On 
pressing  down  this  key  a  mark  will  be  made 
on  the  paper  on  the  revolving  cylinder,  in 
the  same  way  as  marks  are  made  by  Morse's 
telegraph.  At  the  instant  that  the  observer 
notices  that  a  heavenly  body  is  crossing. one 
of  the  wires  in  his  telescope,  he  will  touch 
the  key,  and  thus  cause  a  mark  to  be  made 
on  the  moving  paper.  Each  second  of  time 
will,  by  clock-work  mechanism,  be  also 
marked  by  dots  upon  the  same  piece  of 
paper,  so  that,  by  measuring  the  distance 
of  the  dot  made  by  the  observer  from  the 
nearest  second  dot  made  by  the  clock-work, 
the  exact  instant  of  time  at  which  the  ob- 
server's mark  was  made  will  be  ascertained. 
By  this  means  the  observer  will  be  enabled 
to  record  the  exact  period  at  which  such 
heavenly  body  crosses  the  respective  wires 
of  his  telescope,  and  that  with  a  degree  of 
nicety  which  can  be  measured  to  the  frac- 
tional part  of  a  second  cf  time.  Without 
such  apparatus  it  would  be  almost  impossi- 
ble to  denote  the  time  of  an  observation  to  a 
degree  much  less  than  that  of  a  whole  second 
of  time,  but  by  its  means  it  will  be  perfectly 
easy  to  ascertain  the  exact  instant,  even  to 
the"one-hundredth  or  one-thousandth  part 
of  a  second. 

cUNBEAMS.  The  sunbeam  is  composed 
of  three  distinct  and  separate  rays,  one  of 
heat,  one  of  light,  and  one  called  the  che- 
mical ray.  Ttiese  three  agencies  exist  in 
ddferent  proportions  in  the  sunbeam,  in  the 
spring,  summer,  and  autumn.  The  blue  or 
chemical  ray  is  greater  in  the  spring;  the 
light  greater  in  the  summer.  The  chemical 
ray  is  less  in  autumn,  and  then  the  heating 
ray  predominates.  The  proportion  of  these 
rays  varies  in  different  seasons  of  the  year, 
in  order  that  the  growing  plant  may  arrive 
at  maturity.  It  has  also  been  ascertained 
that  the  proportions  of  these  agents  vary  in 
different  climates 

FUR  CLOiTIlNG.  It  is  very  ancient. 
The  method  of  manufacturing  wool  into 
articles  of  Clothing  seems  to  have  been  early 
transplanted  into  Greece,  and  thence  to  Italy, 


as  we  find  the  use  of  raw  skins  accounted  by 
each  of  these  nations  a  sign  of  barbarism. 
It  appears  that  neither  of  them  in  the  time 
of  their  prosperity,  when  the  arts  and 
sciences  were  cultivated  among  them,  made 
much  use  of  fur  clothing.  It,  was  worn  at 
that  period  only  on  certain  festivals  (the 
Bacchffi  clothed  themselves  in  fox-skins), 
and  merely  by  the  poorer  classes  and  rustics; 
or  employed  in  the  time  of  war.  The 
ancient  physicians  make  no  mention  of 
furs  ;  and  Suetonius,  in  describing  the 
winter  clothing  of  Augustus,  who  was  ex- 
tremely sensible  of  cold,  does  not  name 
any  articles  of  fur.  Pliny  relates  an  un- 
successful attempt  to  manufacture  the  fur 
of  the  hare,  which  would  scarcely  have 
been  made  bad  the  skin  been  used  in  its 
natural  state.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that, 
in  the  27th  chapter  of  Ezekiel,  where  the 
merchandise  of  Tyre  is  so  minutely  described, 
no  allusion  is  made  to  furs. 

THE  SHIPPING  OF  THE  WORLD.  The 
following  is  the  relative  tonnage  of  the  ship- 
ping of  the  world  :  United  States,  5,512,000 
tons.  England  and  Colonies,  5,042,270  tons. 
France,  710.140  tons.  Italian  States,  546,010 
tons.  Austria,  322,447  tons.  Holland  and 
Belgium,  456,402  tons.  Spain,  879,421  tons. 
Prussia,  308,729  tons.  Denmark,  208,109 
tons.  Sweden,  147,928  tons.  South  America, 
193,735  tons.  Bremen,  190,000  tons  Ham- 
burg, 119,884  tons.  Russia,  103  509  tons. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  United  States  has 
more  tonnage  afloat  than  any  other  m.ai- 
itime  power  in  the  world. 

MICROSCOPE  AND  MICROMETER. 
The  size  of  objects  is  expressed  usually  in 
parte  of  an  inch,  as  one-fifteenth,  one- 
hundredth,  or  one-thousandth  part  of  an 
inch.  In  order  to  ascertain  this  actual 
size,  various  modes  are  employed.  The 
most  simple  is  to  place  on  the.  stage  of  the 
microscope  a  piece  of  glass  which  has  fine 
lines  ruled  on  it,  perhaps  an  hundredth 
part  of  an  inch  apart,  and  comparing  these 
divisions  with  a  rule  seen  by  the  naked  eye. 
In  this  way  we  may  learn  how  much  the 
microscope  magnifies.  If  we  compare  the 
apparent  size  of  an  object  on  the  stage  with 
the  rule  as  before,  and  divide  that  apparent 
size  by  the  magnifying  power  of  the  instru- 
ment, we  shall  learn  exactly  how  large  it  is. 
The  piece  of  glass  with  the  fine  lines  ruled 
on  it  is  called  a  micrometer,  which  means 
an  instrument  to  measure  small  things,  as 
the  word  microscope  means  an  instrument 
to  observe  small  things.  If  we  find  by  the 
micrometer  that  the  microscope  magnifies 
two  hundred  and  fifty  times,  and  a  small 
object  at  which  we  are  looking  appears  an 


A   MISCELLANY   OF  TSLFTTL  KNOWLEDGE. 


147 


inch  in  diameter,  wo  know  tli.it  it  really  is 
but  the  two  hundred  and  fiftieth  part  of  an 
inch  in  diameter. 

CATS'  WHISKERS  (USE  OF).  The 
whiskers  on  a  out's  upper  lip  are  very  import- 
ant They  are  organs  of  touch.  They  are  at- 
tached to  a  bed  of  close  glands  under  the 
skin,  and  each  of  those  long  hairs  is  connected 
with  the  nerve  of  the  lip.  The  slightest  con- 
tact of  these  whiskers  with  any  surrounding 
abject  is  thus  felt  meet  distinctly  by  the  ani- 
mal, although  the  hairs  of  themselves  are 
Insensible,  They  stand  out  on  each  side  of 
the  lion  as  well  as  in  the  common  cat,  so  that, 
from  point  to  point,  they  are  equal  to  the 
•width  of  the  animal's  body.  If  we  imagine, 
therefore,  a  lion  stealing  through  a  covert  of 
wood,  in  an  imperfect  light,  we  shall  at  once 
see  the  use  of  these  long  hairs.  They  indi- 
cate to  him,  through  the  nicest  feeling,  any 
obstacle  which  may  present  itself  to  the 
passage  of  his  body;  they  prevent  the  rustle 
of  boughs  and  leaves,  which  would  give 
warning  to  his  prey  if  he  were  to  attempt 
to  pass  through  too  close  a  bush;  and  thus, 
in  conjunction  with  the  soft  cushions  of  his 
feet,  and  the  fur  upon  which  he  treads  (the 
retractile  claws  never  come  in  contact  with 
the  ground),  they  enable  him  to  move  to- 
wards his  victim  with  a  stillness  even  greater 
than  that  of  the  snake,  which  creeps  along  the 
grass,  and  is  not  perceived  until  he  is  coiled 
around  his  pre  v. 

insects'  Wings  (rate  at  which 

THEY  MOVE).  The  buzzing  and  hum- 
ming noi-es  produced  by  winged  insects  are 
n-t  as  you  suppose  vocal  sound.  They  re- 
sult from  sonorous  undulations  imparted  to 
the  air  by  the  dapping  of  their  wings.  This 
may  be  rendered  evident  by  observing  that 
the  noise  always  ceases  when  the  insect 
alights  on  any  object.  The  sirene  has  been 
ingeniously  applied  for  the  purpose  of  ascer- 
taining the  rate  at  which  the  wings  of 
such  creatures  flap.  The  instrument  being 
brought  into  unison  with  the  sound  produced 
by  the  insect,  indicates,  as  in  the  case  of  any 
other  musical  sound,  the  rate  of  vibration. 
In  this  way  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the 
wings  of  a"  gnat  flap  at  the  rate  of  15,000 
times  per  second.  The  pitch  of  the  note 
produced  by  this  insect  in  the  act  of  Hying 
is,  therefore,  more  than  two  octaves  above 
the  highest  note  of  a  seven-octave  piano- 
forte. 

HACKXEY  COACHES.  They  are  of 
French  origin.  In  France  a  strong  kind  of 
cob-horso  was  let  out  on  hire  for  short  jour- 
neys. These  were  latterly  harnessed,  to 
accommodate  several  wayfarers  at  once,  to  a 
plain  vehicle  called  roche-a-haqwnct ;  hence 


the  name.  The  lejjenrt  that  traces  their 
origin  to  Hackney,  tu  ar  London,  is  a 

error.     They  were  first  licensed  in  1(102,  and 

subjected  to  regulations  during  the  reign  of 

William  and  Mary.  Cabriolets  are  alsoof 
French  origin.  It  was,  however,  the  aristo- 
cratio  taste  of  Englishmen  that  Bug  I 

the  propriety  of  oblig  ng  the  driver  to  bo 
seated  on  the  outside  of  the  vehicle. 

PASSION-FLOWER.  It  derives  its  name 
from  the  idea  that  all  the  instruments  of 
Christ's  passion  are  represented  in  it.  Most 
of  the  passion-flowers  are  natives  of  the 
hottest  part  of  America.  The  rose-coloured 
passion-flower  is  a  native  of  Virginia,  and 
is  the  species  which  was  lirst  known  in 
Europe.  It  has  since  been,  in  a  great  mea- 
sure, superseded  by  the  blue  passion-flower, 
which  is  hardy  enough  to  flower  in  the  open 
air,  and  makes  an  elegant  tapestry  for  an 
unsightly  wall.  The  leaves  of  this,  in  the 
autumn,  are  of  the  most  brilliant  crimson; 
and,  when  the  sun  is  shining  upon  them, 
they  seem  to  transport  one  to  the  gardens  of 
fairy-land. 

THIMBLE8.  They  arc  a  Dutch  inven- 
tion. The  art  of  making  them  was  brought 
to  England  by  John  Lofting,  a  mechanic, 
from  Holland,*who  setup  a  workshop  at 
Islington,  near  London,  and  practised  the 
manufacture  with  profit  and  success  about 
1695. 

HIDAGE.  Hidage  was  a  royal  aid  or 
tribute,  raised  in  such  a  proportion  on  every 
hide  of  land.  William  the  Conqueror  im- 
posed a  hidage  of  six  shillings  upon  every 
liide;  William  Rufus,  four  shillings;  and 
King  Henry  I.,  three  shillings.  "When  the 
lord  paid  hidage  to  the  king,  the  tenants 
paid  a  proportion  to  the  lord  of  the  manor. 
When  the  Danes  landed  at  Sandwich,  King 
Ethelred  raised  the  hidage,  bo  that  every 
310  hides  of  land  found  an  armed  ship,  and 
every  eight  hides  found  a  "jack  and  saddle." 
The  hide  of  land,  or  plough-land,  was  as 
much  as  one  plough  could  cultivate  in  a 
year — for  the  quantity  was  never  expressly 
determined;  some  fix  it  at  CO,  others  80, 
and  some  again  at  100  acres.  One  hide  of 
land  at  Chesterton,  in  the  fifteenth  year  of 
the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  contained  ()\  acres; 
and  in  the  thirty-fifth  of  Henry  III.,  the 
yearly  value  of  a  hide  of  land  at  Biechesdon, 
in  Oxfordshire,  was  forty  shillings.  Vn  de 
calls  it  Familiam — implying  by  it  that  it 
was  as  much  as  would  maint.in  a  family. 
The  distribution  of  England  by  hides  of 
land  is  very  ancient,  as  we  find  mention 
made  of  it  iii  the  laws  of  King  Ina  ''cap.  14)- 
and  Henry  I.,  to  many  his  daughter,  had 
three  shillings  from  every  hide  of  land. 


148 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY  t 


AIR-PUMP.  A  machine  which  operates 
on  the  air  just  as  a  common  pump  operates 
on  water;'  and  by  means  of  which  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  air  under  a  glass 
receiver  may  be  extracted,  and  a  number  of 


amusing  and  instructive  experiments  per- 
formed, by  which  the  uses  of  atmospheric 
air  are  discovered,  and  many  phenomena 
shown  to  arise  from  its  action  and  re- 
action. 

NUMERAL  FIGURES.  The  learned, 
after  many  contests,  have  at  length  agreed 
that  the  numeral  figures,  1  to  9,  usually 
called  Arabic,  are  of  Indian  origin.  The 
numeral  characters  of  the  Bramins,  the  Per- 
sians, the  Arabians,  and  other  eastern  na- 
tions, are  similar.  They  appear  afterwards 
to  have  been  introduced  into  several  Euro- 
pean nations,  by  travellers  who  returned 
from  the  East. 

MINIATURES  (TO  PREPARE  IVORY 
FOR).  Take  the  ivory  leaves  or  tables  on 
which  the  painting  is  "to  be  made,  and  hav- 
ing cleansed  them,  rub  them  over  with  the 
juice  of  garlic.  This  takes  off' the  greasiness 
which  is  so  much  complained  of. 

EARL.  A  title  of  nobility  between  a 
marquis  and  a  viscount,  authorised  to  wear 
and  bear  a  coronet  like  that  in  the  engraving. 


BEET-ROOT  SUGAR.  Marggraf,  an 
eminent  Prussian  chemist,  first  drew  the  at- 
tention of  the  public  to  this  subject,  in  1747. 
lie  was  successful  in  obtaining  from  the  roots 
of  the  white  and  red  beet  a  sugar  nearly  in 
the  state  of  Muscovado,  or  raw  cane  sugar. 


Afterwards   Chaptal,  a  celebrated  French 

chemist,  established  a  manufactory  of  beet- 
root sugar,  and  in  1825  there  were  twenty- 
five  establishments  in  France. 

BLUE  STOCKING.  The  term  blue 
stocking,  applied  to  literary  ladies,  was  con- 
ferred on  a  society  which  was  called  the  Blue 
Storking  Club,  in  which  females  were  ad- 
mitted; and  so  called  owing  to  a  Mr.  Benja- 
min Stillingtleet,  one  of  its  acting  members, 
wearing  blue  stockings.  "We  have  seen  an 
account,  however,  that  ascribes  the  origin 
of  the  term  to  a  beautiful  lady  of  eminence 
who  was  a  member  of  the  club,  but  we  be- 
lieve the  above  is  the  correct  origin. 

CHAMPAGNE.  Champagne  contains 
least  spirit,  and  contains  more  or  less  car- 
bonic acid;  the  effect  of  which  latter  is  to 
carry  off  quickly  the  effect  of  the  spirit,  and 
stimulate  somewhat  the  system,  without 
subsequent  depression.  It  contains  little 
mucilaginous  matter,  is  essentially  a  thin 
wine,  and  therefore  requires  little  digesting. 
As  a  gentle  stimulus  it  is  therefore  prefer- 
able to  all  other  wines;  as  a  tonic,  it  ranks 
much  lower  than  most  of  the  others. 

ALOES.  A  valuable  and  salutary  medicine, 
distinguished  by  its  pungent  bitter  flavour, 
and  distilled  from  the 
leaves  of  the  aloe-tree. 
That  which  grows  in 
Socotora  is  used  for  the 
human  constitution,  and 
that  which  grows  in  Bar- 
badoes  is  used  for  horses. 
In  the  East,  the  part  of 
another  species,  called 
tambac,  is  a  perfume 
highly  valued.  The  Ame- 
rican aloe  is  a  plant 
which,  when  vigorous, 
rises  upwards  of  twenty 
feet  high,  and  branches 
out  on  every  side,  forming 
a  kind  of  pyramid  of  greenish  yellow  flowers, 
erect,  and  in  thick  clusters  at  "every  joint. 

HORSE  POWER.  It  is  well  known 
among  engineers,  that  a  horse  is  capable  of 
raising  a  weight  of  about  1501bs.  220ft.  high 
in  a  minute,  and  to  continue  exertions 
enabling  him  to  do  that  for  eight  hours  a 
day.  Multiply  the  number  of  lbs.  by  the 
height  to  which  they  are  raised  in  a  minute, 
150  by  220,  gives  33,000  lbs.,  and  the  power 
of  a  horse  is  generally  expressed  bv  a  sum, 
varying  from  30,000 lbs.  to  36,000 lbs.  raised 
one  foot  high  in  a  minute.  One  horse  can 
draw  horizontally  as  much  as  seven  men. 
In  trains  of  machinery  from  one-fourth  to 
one-third  is  allowed  for  friction  in  calcu- 
lating its  equivalent  of  horse  power. 


? 


A   MISCELLANY  OP  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


CAMOMILE.     The  dried  flowers  of  the 
common  camomile  are  sumcientlyfamiliar  to 

every  one.      They  have  stom::rhie  and  tunic 
properties,  which   render  them   very  useful 
ui  dyspepsia  and  general  debility.  '  l 
mile  tea,  as  the  infusion  is  generally  called, 

is  a  most  agreeable  bitter,  and  is  of  almost 


m« 


universal  use  and  acceptance.  Taken  warm 
it  promotes  the  action  of  emetics.  The 
flowerssteepedin  boiling  waterare  frequently 
need  as  fomentations  for  abscesses  and 
inflamed  parts,  to  promote  suppuration  and 
relieve  pain  ;  flannels  dipped  in  the  hot  de- 
answer  the  same  purpose. — Family 
1 

JTEAB  OF  OUR  LORD.  The  first  sove- 
reign who  adopted  this  distinction  was 
I  s  III.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  he  adding 

"in  the  year  of  our  Lord"  to  his  reign 
A.D.  879.  It  was  followed  by  the  French 
and  afterwards  by  the  "English;  and 
is  the  mode  of  des  gnating  the  year  from 
the  birth  of  the  Redeemer,  in  all  Christian 
count; 

LP  i  UTS.  At  the  religious  assemblies  of 
Christ  ia  is,  lights  were  first  used,  it  is  said, 
in  order  thereby  to  avoid  the  scandal  of  their 
meeting  in  the  dark  at  night,  during  times 
of  persecution.  They  were  introduced  into 
churches  about  the  middle  of  the  tiist  cen- 
tury, and  were  continued  afterwards  in  the 
Romish  churches  at  noon-day.  Lamps  were 
in  use  previously  to  candles." 


1-19 


GOLD  Wl  RE,  LEAF,  &c.  Gold  wire  was 
first   made   in  Italy,   about   A.n.    1350.     An 

of  gold  is  sufficient  to  gild  a  silver 

wire  above  thirteen  hundred  miles  in  length; 
and  such  is  its  ten  i.-ity  that   a  wire  I  b 

nth  part  of  an  inch  thick  will  bear 
the  weight  of  Are  hundred  pounds  without 

breaking.     A  single  grain  Of  gold    may    be 

extended   into   a    leaf   of    fift\-six    square 
.  and  gold  leaf  can  be  reduced   to  the 
330,000th  part  of  an  inch,  aud   gilding  to 
the  10,000,000th  pan. 

WEDDING-KOTO.  The  ring  finger  is 
the  fourth  one,  or  the  finger  next  to  the  lit- 
tle one.  In  the  ancient  ritual  of  marriage, 
the  ring  was  placed  by  the  husband  on  the 
top  of  the  thumb  of  the  left  hand  while  re- 

? eating  the  words — "In  the  name  of  tho 
ather;"  he  then  removed  it  to  the  fourth 
finger,  saying,  "and  of  the  Son; "  then  to 
the  middle  finger,  adding-,'1  and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost;"  and,  finally,  placed  it  on  the  fourth 
finger,  with  the  closing  word,  "Amen." 

FRANKINCENSE.  Frankincense,  which 
was  used  in  the  worship  of  the  tiue  God, 
and  on  the  altars  of  the  heathen  temples, 
was  obtained  from  trees  which  grew  in  Arabia 
Felix.  The  incense  trees  grew  only  in  that 
part  of  Arabia  inhabited  by  the  Sabamns; 
and  so  strict  were  their  laws  respecting  them, 
that  no  persons  were  permitted  even  to  see 
the  trees,  except  those  appointed  to  take 
care  of  them. 

CHAINS.  Links  of  iron  formed  within 
one  another  in  ditlerent  shapes,  so  as  to  pro- 
duce the  greatest  strength  of  tension. 


FLANNEL  SHIRTS.  Flannel  has  not 
been  in  general  use  until  within  the  last 
sixty  years.  It  was  first  used  in  Boston, 
as  a  dress  next  the  skin,  by  Lord  Percy's 
regiment,  which  was  encamped  on  the 
common,  in  October,  1774.  There  was 
hardly  flannel  enough  then  in  the  whole 
town  for  that  one  regiment.  Some  time 
after  Lord  Percy  began  with  flannel  shirting, 
Sir  Benjamin  Thompson  (Count  Rumford) 
published  a  pamphlet  in  America,  assuming 
to  have  discovered  the  utility  of  this  prac- 
tice. He  might,  perhaps,  Lave  suggested 
the  use  of  it  to  Lord  Percy. 


150 


VENTILATION  means  the  act  of  ad- 
mitting air  into  any  place,  or  of  causing  a 
draught  or  current  of  air  to  pass  through  it. 
When  any  one  speaks  of  ventilating  a  room 
or  building,  it  is  understood  to  refer  only  to 
pure  air.  Unless  we  breathe  pure  air  con- 
tinually, our  blood  cannot  be  purified  and 
invigorated;  impure  blood  causes  disease  and 
death.  The  easiest  and  quickest  way  of 
ventilating  ordinary  rooms  is  to  open  the 
doors  and  windows,  whereby  the  fresh  air 
outside  rushes  through  and  purifies  the  place. 
But  it  is  not  always  safe  to  ventilate  in  this 
way;  for  if  a  person  is  ill  or  heated  it  would 
he  "hurtful  for  him  to  feel  a  sudden  rush  of 
air  from  without;  besides  which,  it  is  always 
more  or  less  dangerous  to  sit  in  a  draught. 
Unless  in  very  warm  weather,  the  door  and 
window  should  only  be  opened  now  and  then, 
and  for  a  short  time,  and  the  persons  in  the 
room  should  take  care  to  sit  out  of  the 
draught.  The  best  time  for  admitting  air  is 
in  the  morning,  between  eight  and  twelve, 
but  earlier  than  this  in  dry  sunshiny  wea- 
ther. People  who  have  but  one  or  two 
rooms  to  live  in  should  make  it  a  rule  lo 
ventilate  their  rooms  thoroughly  after  every 
meal,  because  it  is  desirable  to  get  rid  of  the 
smell  of  cooking  as  soon  as  possible.  But 
the  chief  causes  of  impure  air  are  the  breath 
and  perspiration  of  persons  who  live  in  the 
room,  and  tiie  smoke  and  vapour  of  lamps 
and  candles.  Perspiration  adds  considerably 
to  the  impurity  of  apartments,  for  as  it  goes 
slowly  away  from  the  surface  of  the  skin  it 
mingles  with  the  air  and  vitiates  or  spoils 
it.  While  in  health,  day  or  night,  we  are 
constantly  perspiring.  In  hot  weather,  or 
after  severe  exertion,  we  can  see  it  plainly  ; 
but  besides  this,  there  is  an  invisible  or  in- 
sensible perspiration;  this  perspiration  spoils 
the  air  rapidly,  but  more  rapidly  in  summer 
than  in  winter.  If  a  man  were  sitting  in  a 
room  which  contained  sixty  feet  of  air,  the 
insensible  perspiration  from  his  body  would 
spoil  the  whole  in  ten  minutes  and  render  it 
unfit  to  be  breathed  a  second  time,  if  pure 
air  were  not  admitted.  But  there  are  other 
methods  of  ventilating  rooms  besides  those 
already  described;  a  sheet  of  wire  gauze  or 
nine  pierced  full  of  small  holes  may  be  put 
into  the  place  of  an  upper  pane  in  the  win- 
dow, so  as  to  admit  fresh  air,  or  Arnot's 
chimney-ventilator  may  be  used.  The 
latter  is  thus  constructed :  An  opening  of  the 
size  of  one  or  two  bricks  is  made  from  the 
room  quite  through  the  breast  of  the  chim- 
ney, as  near  to  the  ceiling  as  possible;  into 
this  opening  a  metal  frame  is  fitted,  which 
has  a  balance-door  that  opens  inwardly  of 
itself,   so  that  heated   or   foul    air    passes 


FACTS  FOE  EVERYBODY 


from  the  room  through  the  opening,  and 
goes  away  with  the  smoke  of  the  chimney. 
Ventilators  ought  to  be  fixed  at  the  top  ot  a 
room,  because  it  is  the  nature  of  warm  or 
breathed  air  to  rise;  and  they  are  therefore 
fixed  in  or  near  the  ceiling,  so  that  the  air 
on  its  ascent  may  pass  off  without  interrup- 
tion. Ten  feet  of  fresh  air  is  required  for 
each  person  every  minute.  One  fact  is  cer- 
tain— we  cannot  retain  our  health,  nor  have 
any  enjoyment  of  life,  unless  we  continually 
breath  pure  air. 

UNION  JACK.  The  etymology  of  the 
term  Union  Jack  has  never,  it  is  presumed, 
been  explained;  for  it  does  not  occur  in  any 
lexicon  or  glossary.  The  word  "union" 
obviously  arose  from  the  union  of  the  three 
kingdoms  in  one  great  political  power.  As 
an  alteration  in  the  banner  of  St.  George 
occurred  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  it 
may,  with  great  probability,  be  supposed 
to  "have  been  a  corruption  of  the  word 
"Jacques."  Such  is  the  opinion  of  Sir 
Harris  Nicholas,  the  eminent  antiquary. 

B^UUUETS.  There  are  many  ways  of 
planting  a  flower-garden,  and  as  many 
methods  of  arranging  flowers  in  a  large 
nosegay  ;  but  with  the  exception  of  wedding 
nosegays,  which  should  always  be  made  of 
the  whitest  flowers,  the  arrangement)  of  the 
flowers  may  be  reduced  to  three  heads. 
First,  to  make  choice  of  flowers  all  of  one 
colour,  or  nearly  so,  and  then  using  a  small 
quantity  of  other  flowers  that  will  make  a 
strong  contrast  with  the  ground-colour. 
Secondly,  shading  the  flowers  from  the 
centre  to  the  sides ;  and,  thirdly,  quartering 
the  circle  with  four  kinds  of  colours  that 
harmonise  well  together,  or  with  two  colours 
in  contrast — one  quarter  of  the  nosegay 
being  of  the  same  flowers  as  the  quarter 
opposite  to  it — or,  better  still,  the  colours  to 
be  the  same  in  each  pair  of  quartering,  but 
the  flowers  to  be  from  two  different  kinds  of 
plants.  Thus,  one  quarter  of  some  pea- 
flower  of  a  given  colour  and  the  quarter 
opposite  to  it  to  be  of  pea-flowers  also,  but 
from  a  different  plant.  The  size  of  the  in- 
dividual flowers  to  be  as  nearly  alike  as  can 
be  ;  then  the  other  two  quarters  may  be  of 
composite  flowers  in  the  same  way.  This  is 
the  most  difficult  kind  of  nosegay  to  make 
well.  When  you  have  a  choice  and  abun- 
dance of  flowers,  shading  them  is  the  easiest 
way  ;  and  when  llowers  are  very  scarce,  the 
mixed  nosegay  is  the  safest  to  attempt;  but 
it  should  never  be  without  a  ground-colour 
if  artistic  effect  is  at  all  attempted. 

MATTER  (DIVISIBILITY  OF).  It  is 
scarcely  credible,  yet  a  slip  of  ivory,  of  an 
inch  in  length,  may  be  divided  into  a  hun- 


A  MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  TvNTmVT.T:r>fitf. 


151 


divd  equal  parts,  each  of  which  is  distinctly 
visible,  hut  by  t'  e  application  of  a  very  fine 
screw,  5,000  equi-distant  lines,  in  the  space 
of  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  can  be  traced  on  a 

l  oi  steel,  or  glass,  with  the  tine  point 

of  a  diamond,  producing  delicate  ami  varied 
colours,  thereby  proving  that  the  beautiful 
bues  of  mother-of-pearl,  peacock  pearl,  and 
the  less  delicate  appearance  of  whit  are 
termed  watered  fabrics,  are  the  effect  of 
irregularity  of  surface,  nut.  as  might  be  sup- 
posed in  the  ease  of  mother-of-pearl  and 
peacock  pearl,  the  result  of  variety  oi  sub- 
stance. A  single  pound  of  cotton  has  been 
spun  into  a  thread  seventy-six  miles  in 
length,  and  the  same  quantity  of  wool  has 
been  extended  into  a  thread  of  ninety-five 
miles,  the  diameters  of  those  threads  being 
onlv  the  350th  and  400th  parts  of  an  inch. 

TAMARINDS.  This  fruit  is  slightly  nu- 
tritive, refrigerant,  and  gently  laxative,  and 
having  an  agreeable  flavour  will  generally 
be  eaten  by  children  when  they  will  not 
take  other  medicines.  You  need  not  be 
afraid  to  allow  your  children  to  partake  of 
this  fruit  in  moderation.  The  usual 
from  half  an  ounce  to  one  ounce  of  the  fruit; 
but  a  veiy  pleasant  drink,  called  tamarind 
whey,  is  made  by  boiling  one  ounce  of 
tamarind  pulp  with  a  pint  of  milk,  and  then 
■training  it.  The  common  drink  is  made 
by  dissolving  one  ounce  of  the  pulp  in  a 
pint  of  warm  water,  allowing  it  to  get  cold, 
and  then  straining. 

JACKDAW  8.  These  birds  may  be  easily 
tamed,  and  taught  to  say  several  words,  or 
even  sentences.  They  can  be  reared  from 
the  nest,  and  should  lie  fed  upon  the  crumbs 
of  white  bread  soaked  in  cold  water,  and 
squeezed  dry.  and  boiling  milk  aiided  to  it 
afterwards.  Now  and  then  you  should  give 
them  a  little  raw  meat  chopped  fine.  The 
old  birds  will  eat  anything,  and  are  very 
fond  of  picking  a  raw  beef  bone;  they  also 
enjoy  a  boiled  potato.  You  should  keep  one 
wing  cut  for  several  months,  and  then  pull 
out.  the  feathers  of  the  wing,  so  as  to  let 
Others  grow.  If  the  bird  you  have  is  reared 
from  the  nest,  there  will  not  be  any  occasion 
to  adopt  this  plan. 

PEA  (Till-]).  The  native  country  of  the 
common  pea  is  not  known.  France  has 
been  named  with  some  probability,  or  it  may 
have  been  brought  to  that  country  from 
Egypt  or  Syria.  Neither  do  we  know  the 
exact  ;  eriou  at  which  the  common  pea  was 
first  cultivated  here,  but  most  probably  it 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  as  Tusser 
Bames  it  as  a  dainty,  and  savs  it  is  "good 
for  her  purse  and  the  pot."  Peas  were  still 
X  eat  in  the  early  part  of  Elizabeth's  reign, 


when  Fuller  observes  they  were  seldom  scon 
those  which  were  brought  from 
Holland,  which  "were  dainties  for  ladies;" 
but  in  the  latter  part  of  the  same  reign  gar- 
dening made  rapid  progress  in  this  country, 
and  Gerard  describes  the  runcival,  tl 

den  and  field  peas,  the  tutted  or  Scottish, 
•  without  skin  in  the  pods,  the  wild 
pea  and  the  e\  erlasting  pea. 

CRESCENTS.  The  crescent  was  the 
symbol  of  the  city  of  Byzantium,  now  Con- 
stantinople, which  the  Turks  have  adopted. 
This  device  of  the  O;  toman  Empire  is  ot  great 
antiquity,  as  appears  from  several  medals, 
and  took  itsiise  from  an  event  related  by 
Stephanos  the  Geographer,  a  native  of  By- 
zantium. He  tells  US  that  Philip,  the  father 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  meeting  with  mighty 
difficulties  in  carrying  on  the  siege  of  that 
city,  set  the  workmen  in  a  very  dark  night 
to  undermine  the  walls,  that  his  troops  might 
enter  the  place  without  being  perceived; 
but  luckily  for  the  besieged,  the  moon  ap- 
pearing, discovered  the  design,  which  accord- 
ingly miscarried.  In  acknowledgment  of 
this  deliverance,"  says  he,  "the  Hyzantines 
erected  a  statue  to  Diana,  and  thus  the  cres- 
cent became  their  symbol." 

PAIN- WAT  Kit. "  Not  only  is  rain-water 
the  best  for  making  tea,  &c,  but  it  is  useful 
in  culinary  operations.  The  belief  that  it 
is  unwholesome  for  this  purpose  is  incor- 
rect. The  softer  water  is,  the  more  adapted 
it  is  to  all  domestic  uses,  if  we  except  that 
one  which  has  been  so  much  insisted  on  of 
late — its  use  as  an  habitual  potation;  even 
this  is  not  an  exception,  so  much  on  account 
of  its  unwholesomeness  as  its  insipidity. 

MASKS.  Poppa;a,  the  wife  of  Nero,  is 
said  to  have  invented  the  mask  to  guard  her 
complexion  from  the  sun.'  But  theatrical 
masks  were  in  use  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  Modern  masks,  mull's,  fans,  and 
false  hair  for  women,  were  devised  by  the 
loose  females  of  Italy,  and  brought  to  Eng- 
land from  France  in"lfi72. 

THE  DIVING-BELL.  The  oldest  in- 
formation we  have  respecting  the  use  of  the 
diving-bell  in  Europe  is  that  of  John 
Tiiisnier,  quoted  by  Schott.  The  former, 
who  was  born  at  Ilainault  in  1509,  had  a 
place  at  court  under  Charles  V.,  whom  he 
attended  on  his  voyage  to  Africa.  He  re- 
lates in  what  manner  he  saw  at  Toledo,  in 
the  presence  of  the  emperor  and  several 
thousand  spectators,  two  Greeks  let  them- 
selves down  under  water,  in  a  large  inv.  rted 
kettle,  with  a  bunting  light,  and  rise  up 
again  without  being  wet.  It  appears  that 
this  ait  was  then  new  to  the  emperor  and 
the  Spaniards,  and  that  the  Greeks  were 


152 


FACTS  FOR  EYEfiYEODY: 


induced  to  make  the  experiment  in  order  to 
prove  the  possibility  of  it.  The  principle  of 
the  diving-bell  depends  upon  the  impene- 
trability of  atmospheric  air,  and  may  be  ex- 
plained by  a  very  familiar  experiment.  Bring 
the  edge  of  an  inverted  tumbler,  or  any  close 
vessel,  to  the  surface  of  water,  and,  keeping 
the  mouth  horizontal,  press  it  down  in  the 
■water.     It  will  be  seen  that  though  some 


portion  of  the  water  ascends  into  the  tumbler, 
the  greater  part  of  the  space  remains  empty, 
or  only  filled  with  air  ;  and  any  object  placed 
in  this  space,  though  surrounded  on  all  sides 
with  water,  would  remain  perfectly  dry. 
In  fact,  the  quantity  of  air  remains  the 
same,  but  it  is  compressed  into  a  smaller 
volume,  in  proportion  to  the  depth  to  which 
it  is  made  to  descend. 

DILETTANTI.  This  is  an  Italian  word, 
applied  to  an  admirer  or  lover  of  the  fine 
arts — one  who  delights  in  that  _  pursuit. 
The  word  is  almost  synonymous  with  ama- 
teur, but  does  not  imply  so  much  practical 
knowledge. 

DIAMOND  BEETLE,  (Curoulio  Impc- 
rialisj.  A  most  beautiful  insect,  decorated 
with  golden,  green,  and  black  streaks.  The 

Si      \* 


This 


abdomen  is  green,  with  silvery  rings. 

rich  and  curious  insect  forms  a  most  splendid 

and  dazzling  object  under  the  microscope. 


DIANA.     In   heathen    mythology,    the 
daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Latona,  sister  of 

Apollo,  and  goddess  of  hunting. 


MENDING  STOCKINGS.  Worsted  and 
lambswool  stockings  should  never  be  mended 
with  worsted  or  lambswool;  because,  the 
latter  being  new,  it  shrinks  more  than  the 
stockings,  and  draws  them  up,  till  the  toes 
become  short  and  narrow,  and  the  heels  have 
no  shape  left.  Soft  coarse  white  cotton 
should  be  employed  for  white  worsted  stock- 
ings and  socks,  and  coloured  cotton  to  match 
those  of  other  hues. 

PAL  M  S.  Palms  are  the  most  useful  pro- 
ductions of  Ceylon.  First  the  cocoa-nut, 
in  universal  use  for  food,  drink,  and  the 
arts  of  life.  The  fc 

palmyra,  nearly  m 

as  valuable.  The 
areca  catechu, 
whose  nuts,  the 
betel  and  the 
chunan,  are  the 
universal  lux- 
ury of  Asiatics. 
A  tree  produces 
from  500  tol,000( 
nuts.  The  sago 
palm,  whose 
pith,  dried  and 
granulated,  is  in 
use  through  Eu- 
rope, is  also  pro- 
1  i  ric  in  sugar. 
The  talipot  is 
famous  for  its 
large  leaves, 
(one  of  which 
shelters  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  men,)  and  its  fruit.  The 
jack  produces  fruit  as  large  as  a  man's 
body,  filled  with  delicious  pulp,  anj  with 
seeds  as  large  as  chesnuts,  of  which  many 
dishes  are  made.  A  Cingalese  family  live 
at  ease  on  the  produce  of  a  dozen  cocca-nuts 
and  three  or  four  jack-trees. 


I  IT.  \  XV    OF   rSF.FUL   KN'nv 


153 


ArUIL.  Since  the  time  of  Xuma  Pom- 
pilius,  this  month  has  retained  the  same 
■laoe  in  the  calendar  tliat  it  docs  HOW. 
iiomulus  assigned  thirty  days  to  tin-  month, 

but  Numa  reduoed  it  to  twenty-mine.   Julius 

i  .    however,  restored  it.  to  its  original 

length,  which  lias  not  been  altered  since. 
The  came  of  the  month  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  word  Ajierio  (to  open),  and  was 
do  doubt  bestowed  in  allusion  to  the  season, 
for  the  earth  opens  her  bosom,  and  sends 
forth  her  riches,  and  the  young  buds  open 
under  the  influence  of  April  showers 

Symbol  or  Allegory  of  the  Month. — A 
young  man,  with  a  cheerful  and  youthful' 
lace,  clad  in  green,  with  a  garland  of  myrtle 
and  hawthorn  in  buds  crossing  his  left 
6houlder,  allegorical  of  the  verdure  at  this 


period  of  the  year.  In  his  right-hand  he 
holds  a  bunch  of  prize  roses  and  violets, 
while  his  left-hand  rests  upon  a  bull's  head, 
of  the  sign  of  Taurus,  or  the  Bull, 
•  the  sun  enters  that  constellation  on 
the  19th  of  the  month. 

Synonymes. — In    Latin,    this    month    is 

ealied    ApriUa;    in    French,    Avrii:    in 

Italian,   Aprile  ;    in    Portugese,  Ahrll ;   in 

ancient    Cornish,    J'prell ;    and  in    Saxon, 

-Monath,  or  Easter  month. 

There  are  several  remarkable  days  belong- 
ing to  the  month.  The  1st  day  is  called  All 
-lay.  The  well-known  practice  of 
making  persons  go  on  some  foolish  errand, 
Buch  as  to  inquire  for  "pigeon's-milk," 
|' strap-oil,"  &c,  or  playing  some  practical 
joke  upon  them,  has  given  rise  to  the  name 
of  All  Fools'-day.  The  person  so  deceived 
is  called  an  April  fool  in  America,  a  gowk  in 
Scotland,  and  un  poison  (VAvril  (an  April 
fish)  in  France. 

12th.     Henry  Clay  was  horn  in  Virginia,  in 

the  neighborhood  of  a  region  known   as  the 

"Slashes,"  (heuce  the  sobriquet  of '-The  Mill- 

the  Slashes,")  on  the  12th  of   April, 

1777.    in  lsll  he  was  elected  a  member  of 


the  House  of  Representatives  at  Washington, 
and   chosen   by   that   body  as  their  Speaker, 

which  office  lie  tided  with  great  ability  until 

1814,  when  lie  was  appointed  one  of  the  Com- 
missioners to  negotiate  at  Ghent  a  treaty  of 

peace  with  Great  Britain.    On  the  ;i 

of  John  Quincy  Adams  to  the  presidency, 

Henry  Clay  was  appointed  Secretary  of  State. 

and  continued  in  that  oflice  until  the  election 
uf  Andrew  Jackson  as  President,  in  1  s J : < . 
In  1831  Clay  was  elected  United  States  Sena- 
tor from  Kentucky,  and  served  several  terms 
in  that  office.  He  died  on  the  29th  of  June, 
L852,  at  the  age  of  75  years. 

17th.  Benjamin  Franklin,  born  in  Boston, 
(tih  January,  1706,  died  on  the  17th  of  April, 
1790.  The' name  of  Franklin  has  long  been  a 
household  word  in  America.  He  was  her 
moralist,  statesman,  and  philosopher,  and  he 
deserves  highest  honor  from  all  mankind  for 
his  services  to  the  cause  of  national  liberty, 
and  the  independence  of  nations. 

19th.  The  battle  of  Lexington  was  fought 
April  19th,  1775,  and  claims  distinction  as 
being  the  first  fought  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States  of  America  in  the  war 
of  independence.  The  British  troops,  under 
Major  Piteairn,  Bent  from  Boston  to  destroy 
the  American  stores  at  Lexington  were  at- 
tacked by  the  Americans,  and  27 J  of  them 
were  killed  and  wounded. 

On  the  eighth  anniversary  of  the  battle  of 
Lexington,  on  the  19th  day  of  April,  in  the 
year  1782,  a  cessation  of  hostilities  was  pro- 
claimed in  the  American  army,  and  the  first 
war  between  the  United  States  and  the  mother 
country  brought  to  a  close. 

30th.  On    the    30th   day  of    April,    1780, 
George  Washington  was  sworn  into  office  as 
the  iii-t  President, and  John  Adams  as  the 
first  Vice  President  of  the  United  Sti 
America. 

21st.  In  the  old  almanacks  this  day  is 
dedicated  to  St.  Axxhii,  who  was  born  at 
Aoust,  in  Piedmont,  and  created  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  in  1093,  by  William  Kufus, 
He  died  on  this  day,  1109,  aged  seventy- 
six.  In  1142,  Peter  Abelaru,  a  learned 
doctor  in  the  Church,  died,  aged  sixty-three. 
He  was  the  celebrated  lover  of  the  no  less 
celebrated  Heloise. 

23rd.  St.  George' s-day.  St.  George  is 
the  patron  saint  of  England,  and  is  s aid  to 
have  been  born  in  Cappadocia,  of  Christian 
parents  Every  sehoolboy  has  read  iho 
fabulous  history  of  St.  George  rescuing  the 
King  of  Beyrout's  daughtei  from  a  desperate 
dragon,  and  all  that  befel  him  m  hi>  Bojourq 
in  Palestine,  lie  is  represented  on  our 
old  sovereigns  and  fire-shilling  puces  in. 
the  act  of  slaying  the  dragon.  Historians 
agree  that  he  "was  beheaded  on  this  day,  290, 


154 


FACTS  FOE  EVERYBODY 


after  being  drawn  through  the  city  of  Lydda, 
for  having  openly  avowed  himself  a*  the 
champion  of  the  Christians.  St.  George 
was  the  ancient  word  of  attack  of  England, 
as  St.  Andrew  was  that  of  Scotland,  nod  the 
figure  of  this  saint  is  attached  to  the  Order 
Of  the  Garter,  which  was  instituted  by 
Edward  III.,  after  the  battle  of  Calais,  in 
the  year  1349. 

25  th.  This  day  is  dedicated  to  St.  Mark, 
whose  Gospel  was  written  in  the  year  63. 
The  order  of  Knights  at  Venice,  taking  his 
name,  was  instituted  in  737 ;  their  motto 
was  "Pa*  tibi,  Marce,  evangeHnta  meut." 
There  were  many  peculiar  customs  kept 
upon  this  day,  but  they  have  now  become 
obsolete.  Among  others  was  that  of  blessing 
the  corn,  and  also  watching  in  the  church- 
porch  on  the  eve  of  St.  Mark,  to  see  the 
ghosts  of  those  who  should  die  in  the  follow- 
ing year. 

Tour  illustrious  individuals  were  born  in 
this  month,  viz.,  Handel,  Harvey,  Shak- 
speare,  and  Cromwell. 

George  Frederick  Handel  was  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  musicians  that  ever 
lived.  He  composed  "Israel  in  Egypt," 
"The Messiah,"  "Judas  Maccabaeua,"  and 
several  other  oratorios,  which  have  im- 
mortalized his  name.  He  was  born  at 
Halle,  in  Saxony,  and  died  on  the  13th  of 
April,  17-39,  in  the  seventy-fifth  year  of 
his  age. 

William  Harvey  was  the  celebrated 
discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
and  physician  to  James  I.  and  Charles  I. 
He  was  born  at  Folkestone,  on  the  1st  of 
April,  1578,  and  died  in  1658. 

"Of  William  Siiakspeare,  the  immortal 
dramatist,  it  is  unnecessary  to  say  more  than 
that  he  was  born  in  1564,  and  the  entry  of 
his  baptism  in  the  register  of  the  parish 
church  of  Stratford-upon-Avon  is  upon  the 
26th  of  April,  1564  ;  and  the  date  of  burial 
is  registered  as  the  25th  of  April,  1616. 
"  Each  chancre  ot  many-coloured  life  he  drew — 
Exhausted  worlds,  and  then  imagined  new." 

Oliver  Cromwell,  as  a  soldier  and  a 
statesman,  was  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
characters  in  English  history.  He  was 
born  at  Huntingdon,  on  the  25th  of  April, 
1599,  and  died  at  Whitehall,  3rd  Septem- 
ber, 1658. 

STEAM-ENGINE.  An  arrangement  of 
mechanism,  by  which,  by  the  alternate 
generation  and  condensation  of  steam,  or  by 
making  it  act  above  and  below  the  forcer  of 
a  piston,  a  lever  is  raised  and  depressed  with 
any  degree  of  power,  from  that  of  one  horse 
to  300,  every  19  cubic  inches  of  water  pro- 
ducing 20  feet  of  steam,  which  is  equal  in 


expansive  force  to  the  power  of  one  horso, 
produced  by  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  pound 
of  coal,  with  from  30  to  40  strokes  per 
minute;  and,  in  general,  a  chaldron  of  coal 
works  100  horse-power  for  four  hour*. 
Steam-engines  are  divided  into  low-pres- 
sure and  high  pressure;  in  the  latter,  the 
steam  being  excited  by  the  heat  of  212, 


that  of  boiling  water,  is  re-condensed  by 
cold,  and  a  valve  provides  for  its  escape,  when 
it  raises  the  thermometer  above  30  inches. 
But  if  the  valve  is  loaded  with  a  second 
15ib.,  equal  to  another  atmosphere,  then 
the  mercury  will  rise  to  60,  and  the  force 
be  doubled,  steam  being  20  times  its  former 
bulk;  if  it  be  loaded  with  28 lbs.  it  will  be 
again  doubled,  and  so  on;  but,  of  course, 
such  augmentation  of  force  tries  the  strength 
of  the  engine.  Of  course,  the  energy  of  the 
steam  rises  from  the  motion  of  the  oxygen 
transferred  to  the  combustible,  and  by  it  to 
the  water,  the  atoms  of  which  evolving,  in 
consequence,  form  moving  circles,  and 
hence  the  expansive  force.  The  boiler  is 
on  the  right-hand,  and  communicates  the 
steam  to  the  piston  O  A,  whence  it  rushes 
into  X  and  G,  and  raises  the  rods  X  Q,  and 
G  C,  which  force  up  the  beam ;  and  the 
beam  carries  round  a  small  wheel  O,  which 
works  in  the  small  one,  S,  connected  with 
the  large  one,  R,  and  with  R  the  works  are 
connected. 

TETRAHEDRON.     A  triangular  pyra- 
mid, with  four  faces. 


aim 

ELM-DESTROYING  SCOLYTUS. 
Scarcely  has  the  elm  begun  to  leaf,  than 
the  Scolytus  destructor,  or  elm-destroying 
Scolytus  begins  her  operations;  and  most 
dex  teroualy  does  she  effect  her  purpose,     bne 


A    MTPCTT.T.AXY    OF   USEFUL    KNOV 


155 


jnny  be  mot  with  in  dry  weather,  even  amid 
the  stir  and  hum  of  London;  and  wherever 
the  tree  whole  name  she  bean  lifts  up  its 
green  head,  in  squares  or  gardens,  there  ii 
■he,  Y"u  may  see  this  formidable  Utile  in- 
eeot  upon  then-  trunk-,  making  a  passage 
i  the  bark,  and  then  dexterously  ex- 
oavating  a  kind  of  tunnel  between  th 
and  wood,  wherein  she  deposits  her  eggs, 


thns  forming  a  nest  for  her  future  progeny, 
and  for  herself  a  tomb;  for  she  dies  when 
her  work  is  dune,  and  is  generally  found  at 
the  extremity  of  her  channel,  as  if  conscious 
that  herend  was  approaching,  and  unwilling 
to  impede  the  future  operations  of  her  pro- 
geny. Scarcely,  however,  have  the  lavae 
emerged  from  their  e~gs  than  they  begin  to 
feed,  working  nearly  at  right  angles  from 
the  path  formed  by  their  careful  parent,  and 
proceeding  almost  parallel  to  one  another. 
They  may  even  be  found  alive  in  January; 
and  it  is  therefore  probable  that  they  work 
during  the  whole  winter,  when,  iu  conse- 
quence of  the  sap  being  down,  the  hark  ad- 
heres less  firmly,  and  the  progress  of  the 
grub  is  consequently  not  impeded. 

SAVINGS'  BANKS.  The  origin  of  these 
admirable  institutions  has  been  attributed  to 
the  Rev.  Joseph  Smith,  of  Wendorer,  who, 
in  the  year  1799,  circulated  proposals,  in  con- 
junction with  two  of  his  parishioners,  in 
Which  they  offered  to  receive  from  any  inha- 
bitant of  the  parish,  any  sum  from  twopence 
Upwards,  every  Sunday  evening  during  the 
Bummer  months;  to  keep  an  exact  account  of 
the  money  deposited;  and  to  repay  at  Christ-. 


mas  to  each  individual  the  amount  of  his  do- 
posit,  with  the  addition  ol  one-third  to  the 
sum.  The  next  institution  Of  this  kind  of 
which  We  have  : u  1  \  account, was  founded  in 
1804,  at  Tottenham,  in  Middlesex,  by  Mrs. 
Priacillu  Wakefield. 

l'l.Y  1  N<  i-l  i.  II .  A  s  eciesoffish,  common 
in  the  Mediterranean  and  Atlantic  seas,  with 
very  largo  tins,  by  which  they  are  enabled 


to  spring  from  200  to  300  feet,  or  until  their 
tins  become  dry. 
WHEAT — Pennsylvania  is   our   greatest 

wheat  State,  estimated  to  raise  18,250,000 
bushels  per  year.  Ohio  is  next,  raising 
16,800,000.  New  York  next,  raising  16,200,000 
Illinois  next,  raising  U.600,000.  Wisconsin, 
14,000,000 ;  Virginia,  12,600,000. 

LIVERIES.  The  prec;se  period  when 
liveries  were  first  worn  by  domestics  is  un- 
known. In  olden  times  tradesmen  as  well 
as  servants  wore  these  badges.  Anterior 
to  Richard  II.,  tradesmen  who  served  a 
nobleman's  family  wore  his  livery,  and 
the  placing  of  royal  and  noblt  arms  over 
tradesmen's  shops  to  this  day  is  a  relic  of 
such  a  custom.  The  livery  of  London,  be- 
sides the  dress  of  their  companies,  often 
wore  on  great  occasions,  from  compliment, 
that  of  the  king,  noblemen,  lord  mayor.  &c. 

DECK.  The  floor  of  a  ship,  from'stcm  to 
sterr.;    half-deck,  from  the  main-mast  to 


' T7' ' 


the  stern ;  and  quarter-deck,  that 
cabin  and  steerage,  to  the  stern. 


the 


1C3 


FACTS  poii  everybody: 


*TO  STRIKE  THE  KNUCKLES  WITH-'  into  a  glass  with  a  round  bottom,  the  ex- 
OUT  HURTING  THEM.— Sole  ft  a  marble!  pawnoo  produced  by  the  heat  of  the  water 
mantel  or  any  hard  surface,  then  tell  the  spec-;  will  cause  the  bottom  of  the  glass  to  enlarge; 
tatora  th  it  by  a  certain  preparation  you  Bare   while  the  sides,  which  are  not  heated,  retain 


Diade  your 

the 


knuckles 
in  proof 


<o  hard  nothing  can 
hurt  them,  in  proof  of  which  yon  offer  to 
Strike  them  on  tlie  marble*  To  do  this  you 
raise  your  tist,  firmly  clenched  above  the  man- 
tel, and  as  you  bring  it  rapidly  down,  open 
your  lingers  suddenly,  and  strike  the  marble, 
then  close  them  again,    as  represented    in 


their  former  dimensions,  and,  consequently, 
if  the  heat  be  sufficiently  intense,  the  bottom 
will  be  forced  from  the  sides,  and  a  crack  or 
flaw  will  surround  that  part  of  the  glass  by 
which  the  sides  are  united  to  the  bottom. 
If,  however,  the  glass  be  previously  washed 
with  a  little  warm  water,  so  that  the  whole 
is  gradually  heated,  and,  therefore,  gradu- 
ally expanded,  then  the  hot  water  may  be 
poured  in  without  danger ;  because,  although 
the  bottom  will  expand  as  before,  yet  the 
sides  also  enlarge,  and  the_  whole  vessel 
undergoes  a  similar  change  of  heat. 

B E  ADS  (G  LA  SS).  The  small  glass  beads 
are  fragments  cut  from  pieces  of  glass  tubing, 
the  sharp  edges  of  which  are  rounded  by 
fusion.  Glass  tubes  of  the  proper  size  are 
first  drawn  from  one  hundred  to  two  hun- 
dred feet  in  length,  and  of  all  possible 
colours  (in  Venice  they  prepare  two  hundred 
different  shades),  and  are  broken  into  lengths 
of  two  feet.  These  are  then  cut,  by  the  aid 
of  a  knife,  into  fragments  of  the  same  length 
as  their  diameters.  They  now  present  the 
form  of  beads,  the  edges  of  which,  however, 
are  so  sharp  that  they  would  cut  the  thread 
on  which  they  have  to  be  strung.  The 
edges  have  consequently  to  be  rounded  by 
fusion ;  and,  as  this  operation  must  be  per- 
formed upon  a  great  number  at  once,  and 
they  must  not  be  allowed  to  stick  together, 
they  are  mixed  in  coal-dust  and  powdered 
you  will  seem  to  have  knocked  your  knuckles  clay  previous  to  their  being  placed  in  the 
violenty.  A  little  practice  at  this  trick  will  revolving  cylinder  in  which  they  are  heated, 
enable  the  performer  to  deceive  the  most  ob-  The  finished  beads  are  then  passed  through 
serving.  i  sieves  sorted  to  their  size,  and  strung  upon 

EBONY."  This  wood,  which  is  extremely  ■  thread  by  women.  The  glass  beads  made  in 
hard,  and  susceptible  of  a  very  fine  polish,  !  imitation  of  pearl  for  toilet  ornaments,  the 
is  much  used  in  mosaic,  inlaying,  and  other  invention  of  which  dates  from  the  year  1656, 
ornamental  works.  Its  colour  is  red,  black,  are  very  different  from  the  preceding,  both 
or  green.  The  black  is  most  esteemed,  and  as  regards  their  application,  mode  of  pro- 
is  imported  principally  from  Madagascar  and  duction,  and  origin.  These  are  small,  solid 
the  Isle  of  France.  Red  ebony,  so  called,  ]  glass  beads,  of  the  same  size  as  native  pearls, 
though  its  colour  is  brown,  striped  with  which  they  are  made  to  resemble  by  a  coat- 
black,  is  less  compact,  and  is  also  brought  ing  of  varnish,  which  gives  them  a  peculiar 
from  Madagascar.  The  green  is  softer  than  pearly  lustre  and  colour.  A  maker  of  rosa- 
either  of  the  preceding,  yields  a  fine  green 
tincture,  which  is  employed  in  dyeing,  and    _ 

is  brought  from  the  West  Indies,  particu-  I  (Cyprhms  albunusj  communicates  a  pearly 
larly  from  Tobago,  as  well  as  from  the  above-  i  hue  to  water.  Based  upon  this  observation, 
mentioned  islands.  The  best  is  jet  black,  glass  globules  were  first  covered  on  the  out- 
and  free  from  knots  or  reddish  veins.  Ebony  i  side,  but  at  a  later  period  on  the  inside,  with 
is  imitated  by  subjecting  the  pear-tree  to  a  !  this  aqueous  essence.  The  costly  essence, 
hot  decoction  of  galls,  and  when  this  is  dry,  however,  of  which  only  a  quarter  of  a  pound 
applying  ink  with  a  stiff  brush—  could  be  obtained  from  the  scales  of  four 

GLASS     BREAKING    (TO    PREVENT    thousand,  was  subjected  to  one  great  evil, 
BY  HOT  WATE  R) .    If  hot  water  be  poured  |  that  of  decay.    After  trying  alcohol  without 

♦Prom  "The  Sociable:  or,  1001  Home  Amusement's.    New  York-  Dick  &  Fitzgerald.    Price 
One  Doilar. 


figures  1,  2  and  3.    If  this  is  quickly  done 


ries,  by  the  name  of  Jaquin,  was  the  first  to 
discover  that  the  scales  of  a  species  of  fish 


A  MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


157 


success,  in  consequence  of  its  destroying  the 
lustre  of  the  substance,  Bal-ammon 
at  Length  found  to  be  the  1>  »t  medium  in 
which  t'i  apply  the  essence;  a  lit;. 
glass  La  also  mixed  with  it,  which  oa 
to   adhere   better.    The  pearis  are  blown 
singly  at  the  lamp  ;  b  drop  of  the  essence  is 
then  blown  into  them  through  a  thin  tube, 
spread  out  by  rolling;  and  the  dried  varnish 
is  then  covered   in  a  similar  manner  by  a 
layer  of  wax. 

LORDS  SPIRITUAL  AXI)  TEMPO- 
RAL. This  term  applies  to  the  persons 
who  sit  in  the  House  of  Lords.  The  ,4  Lords 
Spiritual"  are  tie  archbishops  and  : 
of  the  EngH  ah  Church,  and  one  archbishop 
and  three  bishops  of  the  Irish  Church. 
Before  the  Reformation,  superiors,  priors, 
and  abbots,  satin  the  douse  of  Lords,  ami 
the  "  Lords  Spiritual"  at  that  time  often 
exceeded  in  number  the  "  Lords  Temporal," 
though  they  now  form  only  about  a  thir- 
teenth part.  The  "Lords  Temporal"  are 
all  the  peers  of  England  of  age  and  sane 
mind,  sixteen  peers  of  Scotland,  and  twenty- 
eight  of  Ireland.  The  number  of  peers  of 
Ireland  and  Scotland  is  fixed,  but  that  of 
England  is  variable,  depending  upon  the 
ies  of  minorities  and  the  will  of  the 
Sovereign. 

ISINGLASS.  Isinglass  is  a  preparation 
formerly  made  only  from  the  great  sturgeon  ; 
but  is  now  obtained  from  the  entrails  oi 
most  other  fishes.  When  good,  it  consists 
almost  wholly  of  pure  gelatine,  or  glue, 
which  is  nutritious.  It  is  free  from  taste 
and  smell,  and  is  soluble  in  warm  water. 
Being  nothing  more  than  the  membraneous 
parts  of  fishes,  it  can  probably  be  made 
from  the  fish  on  the  coasts  in  this  country'. 
The  sounds  or  air-bladders  of  fresh-water 
fish  are  generally  preserved  for  this  purpose, 
and  it  is  best  made  in  the  warm  season. 
It  is  sometimes  used  as  a  medicine;  but 
boiled  in  milk  it  forms  a  nutritious  jelly, 
and  is  the  substance  of  blancmange.  It  is 
also  used  for  refining  coffee,  vinous  liquors, 
and    Lder. 

PENDULUM.  The  pendulum  is  a  time- 
keeper, because  the  times  of  the  vibrations 
are  very  near  equal,  whether  it  be  moving 
much  or  little  ;  that  is  to  say,  whether  the 
arc  described  by  it  be  large  or  small.  A 
common  clock  is  merely  a  pendulum,  with 
wheel  work  attached  to  it,  to  record  the 
number  of  the  vibrations;  and  with  a 
weight  or  spring,  having  force  enough  to 
counteract  the  retarding  effects  of  friction 
and  the  resistance  of  the  air.  The  wheels 
show  how  many  swings  or  beats  of  the 
pendulum  have*  taken  place,  because  at 
8 


every   beat,   a  tooth  of  the   last  wheel  is 
allowed  to  puss.     Now,  if  this  wheel  has 
i\ty  teeth,  as  is  common,  it  will  just  turn 
round  ome  for  sixty  beats  of  the  pendulum, 
i-.d   a  hand   fixed   on   its   axis, 
projecting  through  the  dial-plate,   will    ho 
.id-hand  of  the  clock.    The  other 
wheels  are  so  connected  with  this  first,  and 
the  numbers  of  the  teeth  on  them  so  pro- 
portioned, that  one  turns  sixty  times  slower 
than    the   first,    to   fit   its   axis   to   carry  a 
minute-hand;     and    another,    by    moving 
twelve  times  slower  still,  is  fitted  to  carry 
the  hour-hand. 

WEDDING-RING  FINGER.  The  origin 
of  wearing  the  wedding-ring  upon  the  fourth 
finger  of  the  left  hand  has  been  much  dis- 
puted. Tho  most  reasonable  inference  as 
to  the  origin  of  wearing  the  ring  on  the  left 
hand,  however,  appears  to  be  a  matter  of 
convenience.  Macrobius,  a  Latin  author  of 
the  fifth  century,  says : — "At  first  it  was 
both  free  and  usual  to  wear  rings  on  either 
hand ;  but  after  that  luxury  increased, 
when  precious  gems  and  rich  insculptures 
were  added,  the  custom  of  wearing  them 
on  the  right  hand  was  translated  unto  the 
left;  for,  that  hand  being  less  employed, 
there  they  were  best  preserved.  And  for 
the  same  reason  they  placed  them  on  this 
linger,  for  the  thumb  is  too  active  a  finger, 
and  is  too  commonly  employed  with  either 
of  the  rest." 

SEDAN-CHAIRS.  These  contrivances, 
formerly  much  in  use  among  our  ancestors, 
were  not  of  English  origin.  As  the  name 
implies,  they  were  introduced  into  this 
country  fromSedan,  a  city  in  France,  about 
1664:,  by  Sir  Saunders  Duncombe,  a  traveller 
of  some  reputation  at  that  period. 

BUDDING.  Is  the  insertion  of  a  bud, 
taken  from  one  tree,  into  the  bark  of  another; 
and,  as  in  grafting,  the  operation  will  not 
succeed  unless  the  bud  and  the  tree  to  which 
it  is  united  are  varieties  of  the  same  species, 
or  genera  of  the  same  natural  family.  In 
fact,  the  only  difference  between  grafting 
and  budding — the  principle  of  each  being 
the  same — is  that  in  the  former  a  shoot,  or 
as  it  is  technically  termed  a  scion,  is  inserted 
into  the  stock  or  stem  that  is  grafted;  and 
iu  the  latter  a  bud,  which  is  simply  a  scion 
in  embryo.  The  latter  part  of  June,  the 
month  of  July,  and  on  to  the  middle  of 
August,  is  the  best  season  for  balding. 
When  you  pe-ceive  the  buds  well  formed  in 
the  axilla  of  the  leaf,  that  is,  between  the 
foot-stalk  of  the  leaf  and  the  stem,  and 
when  the  fcark  of  the  stalk  can  be  freely  and 
easily  raised  from  the  wood,  then  you  have 
a  sure  criterion  that  you  may  safely  com- 


158 


FACTS  FOE,  EYEHYEODY : 


mence  to  bud.  Select  a  smooth  part  of  the 
stock  at  the  height  you  wish,  and  the  side 
least  exposed  to  the  sun ;  with  your  budding- 
knife  make  a  horizontal  cut  across  the  bark 


through  to  the  wood,  but  not  deeper;  from 
the  centre  of  this  cross-cut  make  another  of 
a  similar  kind,  perpendicularly  downwards, 
about  an  inch,  or  rather  more,  in  length— 
these  two  cuts  will  be  in  the  form  of  a  T. 
Then  proceed  to  take  off  the  bud — or  as  it  is 
technically  termed,  the  shield— first  cutting 
off  the  leaf,  but  leaving  a  part  of  the  leaf- 
stalk. The  shield  must  be  carefully  sliced 
out  of  the  stem  at  one  cut.  (Figures  a  and 
b  represent  the  stem  and  shield  after  their 
separation).  A  portion  of  the  wood  must  be 
taken  off  with,  and  attached  to,  the  shield ; 
the  greater  part  of  this  wood  must  be  care- 
fully picked  out,  but  it  is  essential  that  a 
portion  should  be  left  at  the  back  of  the  bud 
—if  you  do  not  do  so,  but  make  a  hole 
through  the  shield  at  the  eye,  or  root  of  the 
bud,  you  may  throw  it  away  as  useless. 
Then,  with  the  handle  of  the  budding-knife, 
separate  and  turn  back  the  bark  from  the 
stock  on  each  side  of  the  perpendicular  cut 
(it  will  then  resemble  figure  d),  and  insert 
the  shield  close  to  the  wood,  and  between  it 
and  the  turned-back  bark.  Cut  off  the  top 
part  of  the  shield  horizontally  (in  the  di- 
rection of  the  dotted  line  c),  and  fit  the  re- 
maining upper-part  of  the  shield  accurately, 
and  closely,  to  the  cross-cut  in  the  stock — 
on  this  close  contact  of  the  two  barks  (he 
success  of  the  operation  principally  depends. 
You  must  now  lay  down  the  turned-back 
bark  over  the  shield,  and  with  a  worsted 
thread,  or  bit  of  bass,  bind  it  down,  leaving 
the  point  of  the  bud  clear.  (Figure  e  re- 
presents the  bud  in  the  stock  previous  to  its 
being  bound).  A  friend  informs  us  that  he 
uses  common  adhesive  plaster  for  binding, 
and  that  it  answers  admirably.  If  the  wea- 
ther be  very  warm,  a  handful  of  damp  moss 
should  be  loosely  tied  over  all,  leaving,  as  be- 
fore, the  point  of  the  bud  exposed.  In 
about  a  month,  or  six  weeks,  the  ties  may 
be  removed ;  and,  to  throw  the  whole  strength 


of  the  plant  into  the  bud,  all  shoots  must 
be  cut  off,  and  suckers,  whenever  they  make 
their  appearance,  carefully  eradicated.  By 
budding,  you  may  produce  several  kinds  of 
roses  upon  the  same  plant.  The  more  ten- 
der exotic  roses  would  scarcely  exist  in  this 
country  if  they  were  not  budded  on  our  more 
hardy  kinds.  Indeed,  it  is  now  generally 
acknowledged  that  all  roses  bloom  finer, 
and  last  longer,  when  budded  on  the  com  • 
mon  wild  rose.  Budding  is  also  extremely 
useful  for  filling  up  the  vacancies  which  so 
frequently  occur  in  peach  and  apricot  Strees, 
when  trained  to  walls,  by  branches  dying. 
Variegated  shrubs,  as  holly,  &c,  are  propa- 
gated by  budding  on  the  plain  kinds. 

FALCON.  A  bird  of  prey,  once  much 
esteemed  as  an  auxiliary  of  the  savage  arts 
of  man  in  destroying  the  feathered  race. 
Falcons  were  formerly  tamed  and  trained, 
just  as  pointer-dogs  are  at  present  trained; 


and  hawking,  or  falconry,  was,  to  a  certain 
class  of  minds,  as  interesting  as  shooting  or 
hunting  is  to  the  same  class  in  our  day. 
They  are  carnivorous,  the  beak  hooked,  the 
head  covered  with  feathers,  and  the  legs  and 
feet  scaly. 

GRASSHOPPER.    A  species  of  the  genus 
Gryllus}  to  which  belong  the  locust  and 


cricket.    The  grasshopper  of  our  fields  18 
innocent  and  harmless. 
BLACKBERRY    BRAMBLE.       fRubua 

fruticosusj,  whose  rich  black  fruit  attracts 
many  a  loitering  urchin,  yields  abundantly 
a  delicious  fare  for  such  birds  as  remain  sta- 
tionary through  the  winter.    All  children 


A.   MTSCT.LLANT   OF   USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


159 


▼ell  know  where  the  blackberry  best  flou- 
rishes. They  love  to  go  forth  with  their 
email  baskets  to  gather  the  ripe  cluster-*; 
and  he  who  looks  upon  them,  ami  hears  their 
ringing   laughter  ami   merry  voices,  may 


scarcely  deem  that  either  sin  or  sorrow  is 
abroad.  Yet,  not  only  in  woods  and  hedges, 
on  village  commons,  and  beside  the  road, 
grow  wild  brambles  in  abundance;  for  they 
arc  found  on  mountains,  at  an  elevation  of 
at  least  two  thousand  feet,  and  where,  in 
order  to  give  shelter  to  those  small  birds  and 
quadrupeds  which  affect  high  places — as 
the  grouse  and  Alpine  hare— they  become 
nearly  evergreen. 

G T N X E RY.  A  science  uh  ich  d Irects  the 
elevation  in  which  a  piece  of  cannon  should 
be  placed,  so  as  to  strike  a  certain  object. 


The  gun  is  elevated  to  a  certain  fixed  angle, 
given  in  tables  accurately  calculated,  and 
then  the  ball  passes  through  a  curve,  and 
reaches  the  proposed  spot. 

BEAVER  HATS  The  entire  hat  is  now 
rarely  made  of  so  costly  a  material  as  beaver 
fur,  which  is  only  used  to  cover  the  outside. 


This  fur  is  almost  exclusively  found  in 
North  America.  It,  is  gradually  becoming 
Boarce  and  dearer,  being  now  obtainable 
only  in  inconsiderable  quantities  from  the 
most  northerly  and  inaccessible  districts. 
The  fur  of  the  middle-aged  or  young;  animal, 
called  CUb-beaver,  i--  most  esteemed,  it 
bem- the  finest,  most  glossy,  and  taking  the 
best  dye.  There  are  also  used  for  hatting 
the  lui-s  of  the  musquash,  or  mu.sk-rat,  otter, 
neutria.  hate,  and  rabbit. 

GASOMETER.  The  capacious  receptaclo 
of  gas,  after  it  has  been  evolved  in  the  re- 
torts, and  whence  it  is  pressed  into  pipes  foi 
consumption.     It  consists  of  a  vessel  in- 


verted  in  water,  and  the  gas  pas?<»s  njder 
it,  and  raises  it  up  by  its  elasticity  01  mo- 
menta, till  it  is  full,  and  waen  w-nted, 
weights  are  placed  upon  it.  1)  is  the  pipe 
from  the  retort,  or  furnace,  A  ;  F  is  the 
tank  filled  with  water;  G  is  the  gasometer 
or  vessel  inverted;  and  V  the  pulleys  by 
which  the  weight,  W,  regulates  the  gaso- 
meter in  ascent  and  descent. 

TEASEL.  The  vast  woollen-clothing 
fabric  materially  depends  on  the  fuller's 
teasel,  which  is  found  in  hedges  and  wild 
sterile  spots,  and  is  cultivated  to  a  large 
extent  in  the  stiff  clay  lands  of  Gloucester- 
shire and  Somerset- 
shire, of  Wiltshire 
and  Essex.  This 
plant,  with  the  Dutch 
rush,  or  shave-grass, 
of  which  the  stems 
have  long  been  im- 
ported from  Holland 
to  polish  cabinet- 
work, ivory,  plaster- 
cast.-j, and  even  b  ass, 
are  the  only  known 
instances  of  natural 
productions  being  applied  to  mechanical 
purposes.  -  T«he  teasel  is  aloue  available  to 


160 


FACTS   FOR   EVERYBODY 


raise  the  nap  from  ■woollen  cloths,  and  for 
this  purpose  the  heads  are  fixed  round  the 
circumference  of  a  large  broad  wheel,  which 
is  made  to  turn  in  contact  with  the  cloth  ; 
if  a  knot,  or  roughness,  or  projection,  catch 
the  ho>>ks,  they  break  immediately,  without 
Injury;  but  any  mechanical  invention,  in- 
Btead  ofyielding,  tears  them  out,  and  mate- 
rially injures  the  surface.  Teasel  crops 
require  both  labour  and  close  attention,  and 
are  precarious  in  their  returns ;  they  sutler 
considerally  from  dripping  seasons,  and 
therefore  cultivators  who  have  heavy  rents 
to  pay  seldom  raise  them.  They  consequent  ly 
become  the  care  of  the  more  considerable 
cottagers;  and  as  the  members  of  a  family 
unite  in  attending  to  them,  they  are  fre- 
quently a  source  of  considerable  profit.  Tra- 
vellers who  pass  through  districts  where  this 
{)lant  is  cultivated,  relate  that  the  teasel 
tarvest  is  one  of  considerable  interest. 
Some  way-side  cottage;  with  its  garden  and 
apple  orchard,  where  also  a  small  plot  of 
ground  is  covered  with  teasels,  presents  a 
oheerfol  and  animated  scene  when  the 
labourer  and  his  wife  are  bu-ily  employed  in 
cutting  the  prickly  heads  from  their  tall 
angular  stems  with  teasel-knives  affixed  to 
poles,  and  their  children  are  seen  joyfully 
running  in  all  haste  to  place  them  in  the 
sunbeams.  The  terminating  heads,  which 
ripen  first,  are  called  kings  ;  they  are  large 
and  coarse,  and  are  adapted  only  for  the 
strongest  kind  of  cloth.  The  collateral 
heads  then  succeed,  known  by  the  name  of 
middlings,  and  are  used  for  the  finest  pur- 
poses. When  dyy,  the  older  children  pick 
and  sort  them  into  bundles — ten  thousand  of 
the  best  and  smallest  make  a  middling  pack 
— nine  thousand  of  the  larger,  the  pack  of 
kings.  This  valuable  plant  is  known  in 
alniust  every  country  throughout  Europe  by 
a  name  expressive  of  its  use.  Gerard  tells 
us  that  its  old  English  name  was  the  carding 
teasel.  The  French  call  it  cardon  defoullon; 
the  Danes  and  Swedes,  carde  tidscl ;  the 
Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  car  do  and  car- 
dencha  ;  the  Hollanders,  caarden  ;  and  the 
Flemings,  Garden  distel. 

WINDOWS  (TO  PAINT  TO  RESEMBLE 
STAINED  GLASS).  1.  Draw  the  design 
upon  paper  the  size  required,  then  colour  it, 
and  affix  b}r  means  of  a  little  gum  to  the 
outside  of  the  window,  and  paint  the  inside 
over  the  design  with  varnish  colours.  2.  By 
this  method  the  same  design  may  be  mul- 
tiplied as  often  <m  desired,  and. as  the  most 
loilliant  hues  are  obtained,  the  whole  being 
ti-anttnarettt,  and  possessing  the  same  warmth 
of  colouring1  as  stained  glass,  it  :s  to  be  pre- 
ferred,   to    the  other   methods.     Procure  a 


piece  of  cardboard,  and  give  it  three  coats  of 
fat  copal  varnish,  allowing  one  to  dry  before 
the  next  is  applied.  When  dry,  draw  the 
necessary  figures  on  it,  and  cut  out  such 
parts  as  are  in l ended  to  be  painted  red,  and 
number  the  card  1;  then  do  the  same  on 
another  Intended  to  be  blue,  number  this  2; 
and  continue  to  construct  a  pattern  for  each 
colour,  until  you  have  the  number  required. 
The  object  of  affixing  a  number  to  each 
pattern,  is  to  secure  an  orderly  application 
of  them  in  succession  from  No  1,  up  to  the 
highest  number  in  the  set.  There  are  cer- 
tain parts  in  each  pattern  marked  with  a  dot, 
which  is  placed  in  the  same  part  in  each,  so 
as  to  admit  of  the  adjusture  of  the  successive 
numbers;  these  may  be  termed  the  adjust- 
ing points,  as  pointing  out  the  exact  situa- 
tion in  which  each  pattern  should  be  placed 
after  No.  1  has  been  used,  because  it  will 
accurately  admit  a  part  that  has  been  painted 
by  a  preceding  pattern  to  appear  through, 
as  each  succeeding  pattern  is  applied.  A 
brush  should  be  reserved  for  each  colour, 
marked  on  the  side  with  the  name  of  the 
colour,  and  never  used  for  any  other  colour, 
without  first  washing  it  well  with  oil  of  tur- 
pentine— especially  green.  Colours  should 
not  be  laid  on  too  thick,  but  if  requisite, 
tempered  with  a  little  oil  of  turpentine  until 
of  the  proper  consistence,  and  when  applied 
by  means  of  the  patterns,  brushed  through 
them  lightly,  and  the  patterns  cleaned  after- 
wards with  a  little  cotton.  As  the  lights 
and  shades  of  the  pictures  are  displayed,  lay 
the  lighter  colours  first  on  the  lighter  parts 
of  the  design,  and  the  darker  over  the  shaded 
parts ;  and  having  laid  on  the  brighter 
colours,  it  is  not  of  any  consequence  if  the 
darker  shades  are  laid  a  little  over  them. 
When  finished,  the  glass  should  be  placed 
in  a  warm  dry  place,  free  from  dust,  for 
three  or  four  days,  but  if  the  glass  is  in  the 
windows,  they  should  be  closed,  and  kept 
free  from  dust.  Lake  is  better  applied  when 
previously  ground  with  Aater  impregnated 
with  gum  and  salt,  the  shading  being 
effected  by  applying  successive  coats  of  the 
pigment.  Blue  purple  is  formed  by  com- 
bining lake  and  indigo,  as  directed  above. 
Green  is  made  by  adding  sufficient  gamboge 
to  the  above  to  give  *it  the  desired  hue. 
Yellow  is  prepared  by  grinding  gamboge  with 
salt  water  alone.  White. — ileighten  the 
lights  with  the  quill  of  a  turkey  (the  nib 
unsplit),  in  the  same  manner  as  with 
cravens  on  blue  paper. 

SUB-ROSA.  Under  the  rose — implying 
secresy,  has  been  said  to  have  origin* fed 
from  the  many  plots  and  conspiracies  en- 
gendered   during  the   wars  of   "Xork    and 


L  MTPCKLLANY   OP  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


1C1 


Lancaster ;  but  it  is  much  more  probable 
that  it  arose  from  a  custom— now  fallen  into 
disuse,  but  once  very  general  araongsl  the 
nationsof  the  north  of  Europe  —ofa  Bpeuding 
a  rose  over  the  h-  ads  of  the  guests  at  fe  istfl 

and  banquets,  to   signify,  thai    whatever 

transpired  was  ofa  contidential  nature.  Or 
it  may  be  of  a  still  earlier  period,  for  the 
rose  ^as  dedicated  to  Harpocrates  (the 
Egyptian  Horus)  the  god  of  Silence.  In 
former  times — perhaps  so  still,  for  all  that 
we  know — the  Roman  pontiff,  when  he 
Wished  to  confer  particular  distinction  on  a 
crowned  head,  consecrated  a  golden  rose, 
and  presented  it  to  the  fortunate  monarch  : 
both  llen'-y  VI.  and  Henry  VIII.  were 
honoured  in  this  manner.  It  may  be  in- 
teresting to  add,  that  a  rose  was  the  device 
on  the  seal  of  the  great  Reformer,  Luther. 

ALIQUOT  PARTS.  Numbers  which  will 
divide  and  measure  a  whole  number  exact- 
ly, without  any  remainder.  For  instance,  two 
is  an  aliquot  part  of  four,  three  of  nine,  and 
four  of  sixteen.    (See  Aliquant  Parts,  p.  168.) 

NAPKINS  (IIOVV  TO  FOLD).  Dinner 
napkins  should  be  about  twenty-eight  in  lies 
broad,  and  thirty  long.  They  may  be  fulled 
in  a  variety  of  ways,  which  impart  a  style 
to  a  table,  without  adding  much  to  the  ex- 
pense, and  may  be  readily  accomplished 
with  a  little  practice  and  attention  to  the 
following  d iroctions  and  diagrams: — 

1.  The  Mitre — (Fig.  1).  Fold  the  nap- 
kin into  three  parts  longways ;  then  turn 
down  the  right-hand  corner,  and  turn  up 
the  left-hand  one,  as  in  fig.  2,  A  and  B. 
Turn  back  the  point  A  towards  the  right,  so 
that  it  shall  Lie  behind  C  ;  and  B  to  the  left, 
so  as  to  be  behind  D.  Double  the  napkin 
back  at  the  line  E,  then  turn  up  F  from  be- 
fore and  G  from  behind,  when  they  will 
appear  as  in  fig.  3.  Bend  the  corner  H 
towards  the  right,  and  tuck  it  behind  I;  and 
turn  back  the  corner  K  towards  the  left,  at 
tlie  dotted  line,  and  tuck  it  into  a  corre- 
sponding part  at  the  back.  The  bread  is 
placed  under  the  mitre,  or  in  the  centre,  at 
the  top. 

2.  The  Exquisite— (Fig.  4).  Fold  the 
napkin  into  three  parts  longways,  then  fold 
down  two-fifths  of  the  length  from  each 
side,  as  in  tig.  5,  at  A ;  roll  up  the  part  B 
towards  the  back ;  repeat  on  the  other  side, 
then  turn  up  the  corner  towards  the  corner 
A.  and  it  will  appear  as  D.  The  centre  part 
E  is  now  to  be  turned  up  at  the  bottom,  and 
down  at  the  top,  and  the  two  rolls  brought 
under  the  centre  piece  as  in  fig.  4.  The 
bread  is  placed  under  the  centre  baud,  K, 
fig.  4. 

3.  The  Collegian— (Fig.  6).    Fold  the 


napkin  into  three  parts  longways,  then  turn 
down  the  two  sides  towards  you,  so  that  they 
shall  appear  as  in  Bg.  7;  then  roll  up  the 
put  A  underneath  until  it  looks  like  |{, 
Bg,  8.  Now  take  the  corner  1?  and  turn  it 
up  towards  0,  so  that  the  edge  of  the  rolled 
part  shad  be  even  with  the  central  line; 
repeat  the  same  on  the  other  side,  and  turn 
the  whole  over,  when  it  will  appear  a>  in 
fig.  6.  The  bread  is  placed  underneath  the 
part  K. 

4.  The  Cinderella — (Fig.  9).  Fold  the 
napkin  into  three  parts  longways,  then  turn 
down  the  two  sides  as  in  tig.  7  ;  turn  the 
napkin  over,  and  roll  up  the  lower  part  as 
in  fig.  10,  A,  B.  Now  turn  the  corner  B 
upwards  towards  C,  so  that  it  shall  appear 
as  in  D  ;  repeat  on  the  other  side,  and  then 
bring  the  two  parts  E  together,  so  that  they 
shall  bend  at  the  dotted  line ;  and  the  ap- 
pearance will  now  be  as  at  fig.  9.  The  bread 
is  placed  under  the  apron  part,  K,  fig.  9. 

5.  The  Flirt— (Fig.  11).  Fold  the  nap- 
kin into  three  puts  longways;  then  fold 
across  the  breadth,  commencing  at  one  ex- 
tremity, and  continuing  to  fold  from  and  "o 
yourself  in  folds  about  two  inches  broad, 
until  the  whole  is  done ;  then  place  in  a 
tumbler,  and  it  will  appear  as  in  the  illus- 
tration. 

6.  The  Neapolitan— (Fig.  12).  Fold 
the  napkin  into  three  parts  longways,  then 
fold  one  of  the  upper  parts  upon  itself  from 
you;  turnover  the  cloth  with  the  part  hav- 
ing four  folds  from  you,  and  fold  down  the 
two  sides  so  as  to  appear  as  in  fig.  7 ;  then 
roll  up  the  part  A  underneath,  until  it  ap- 
pears as  in  the  dotted  lines  in  fig.  15,  at  B. 
Now  turn  up  the  corner  B  towards  C,  so 
that  the  edge  of  the  rolled  part  shall  be  even 
with  the  central  line  :  repeat  the  same  upon 
the  opposite  side,  and  turn  the  whole  over, 
when  it  will  appear  as  in  fig.  14;  the  bread 
being  placed  underneath  the  part  K,  as  re- 
presented in  the  illustr  ition. 

7.  The  "Favourite"— (Fig.  14).  Fold 
the  napkin  into  three  parts  longways,  then 
turn  down  the  two  sides  as  in  fig.  7,  and 
roll  up  the  part  A  on  both  sides,  until  as 
represented  on  the  right-hand  side  in  fig. 
14;  then  turn  it  backwards  (as  A  B)  on  both 
sides ;  now  fold  down  the  point  C  towards 
you,  turn  over  the  napkin,  and  fold  the  two 
other  parts  from  you  so  that  they  shall 
appear  as  in  fig.  15.  Turn  the  napkin  over, 
thus  folded,  and  raising  the  centre  part  with 
the  two  thumbs,  draw  the  two  ends  (A  and 
B)  together,  and  pull  out  the  parts  (C  and 
D)  until  they  appear  as  in  fig.  13.  The 
bread  is  to  be  placed  as  represented  in  K, 
fig  13.— From  *4  Inquire  Within." 


162 


FACTS  FOE  EVERYBODY. 


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A   MISCELLANY   OF  FSEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


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DISTILLATION.  The  process  of  distil- 
lation is  one  which  is  used  for  separating 
liquids  from  each  oilier  which  boil  ;it  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  luat.  In  domestic  economy, 
it  is  most  frequently  employed  to  obtain 
Bjiirit,  more  or  less  flavoured*,  or 
•with  some  volatile  essential  oil,  The  appa- 
ratus conimi  nly  used  is  the  Still,  for  boiling 
the  liquid  to  generate  the  vapour,  and  a  long 
spirally-twisted    tube    termed  the  Worm. 

which  is   placed  in  a  tuh  of  cold  water,  and 

through  which  the  steam  passes  to  be  con- 
densed. The  worm  is  the  most  objectionable 

part  of  the  modern  still;  its  great  evil  is 
the  difficulty  with  which  it  is  cleaned,  so  as 
to  prevent  one  strong-flavoured  substance 
spoiling  those  which  arc  distilled  afterwards. 
If  the  coils  of  the  worm  are  not  very  nu- 
merous, a  bullet,  with  a  string  attached,  may 
he  passed  through  it,  and  a  sponge  or  small 
bottle-brush,  fastened  to  the  string,  may  be 
worked  backwards  and  forwards;  but  if 
there  are  several  coils,  it  will  he  found  im- 
possible to  do  this,  from  the  resistance 
caused  by  friction.  In  this  case,  the  only 
plan  is  to  close  one  end  of  the  worm  with  a 
cork,  and  rill  it  with  a  solution  of  caustic 
alkali,  a  lowing  it  to  remain  for  some  hours, 
and  rep  ating  the  application  with  fresh 
liquid,  v  it  be  required. 

In  Germany,  the  worm  is  being  super- 
seded by  an  excellent  condenser,  whieli  is 
so  superior  that  we  are  induced  to  give  a 
sketch  of  it, 
hoping  that  it 
may  lead  to  its 
adoption  in  this 
country.  The 
vapours  from 
the  still  pass 
into  the  tube  A 
(fig.  1 ),  by 
which  they  are 
conducted  into 
B,  a  hollow 
globe,  made  to 
unscrew  at  its 
centre.        The 


Fig  1. 


vapours,   pass- 
ing along  the 


tubes  C,  are  condensed,  and  the  distilled 
liquid  drops  from  1).  The  pipe  E  should 
convey  a  constant  stream  of  cold  water  to 
the  bottom  of  the  tub,  and  this,  rising  as  it 
is  warmed  by  abstracting  heat  from  the 
id  globe,  should  escape  by  F.  All 
the  tubes  being  straight,  it  is  obvious  that 
thev  can  be  readily  (leaned  from  their  ends. 
In  the  laboratory,  distilling  is  most,  fre- 
quently performed  with  vessels  termed  re- 
torts, or  even  from  flasks ;  but  as  these  are 


not  very  applicable  to  domestic  purposes, 

we  pas-  them  over. 

In  domestic  practice,  the  still  is  usually 
employed  to  obtain  some  water  or  spirit  fla- 
voured with  essential  oil,  or  the  oil  itself, 
and  the  process  should  be  slightly  modified 

so  as  to  suit  each  ease.  The  vegetable  sub- 
stance should  not  be  placed  on  the  bottom 
of  the  still  itself,  as  in  that  case  it  might 
become  burnt,  and  so  give  an  unpleasant 
flavour  to  the  whole  ;  but  a  bottom  of  wicker- 
work  should  be  placed  in  the  still  in  the  first 
instance  for  it  to  rest  upon,  or  a  perforated 
board.  The  substance  to  be  distilled  should 
be  placed  in  the  still,  covered  with  water, 
for  some  hours  before  the  fire  is  lighted  ;  no 
more  water  being  added  than  sufficient  to 
cover  it,  if  the  preparation  of  oil  is  the 
object. 

Herbs,  for  distilling,  should  be  collected 
on  a  dry  day,  and — unless  the  oil  resides  in 
the  seeds,  as  in  the  case  of  caraway,  anise, 
&c,  or  in  the  flowers,  as  in  the  rose,  la- 
vender, &c. — just  before  the  flowers  have 
opened,  as  at  that  period  there  is  the  greatest 
quantity  of  essential  oil  in  the  plant  All 
plants  cultivated  for  distillation  should  be 
grown  in  a  situation  where  they  can  receive 
a  full  amount  of  sun-light,  as  shade  or  dark- 
ness very  much  tend  to  prevent  the  forma- 
tion of  essential  oil. 

The  liquid  which  conies  out  of  the  worm 
is  a  mixture  of  water  highly-flavoured  with 
the  substance,  and  some  undissolved  oil. 
This  latter  is  sometimes  heavier  and  some- 
times lighter  than  water,  either  sinking  or 
floating;  in  the  latter  case  the 
oil  may  be  readily  separated  by 
filling  a  bottle  with  the  mix- 
ture, and,  when  the  oil  is  col- 
lected at  the  top,  carrying  it  off 
by  a  few  threads  of  cotton  placed 
as  in  fig.  2,  taking  care  that 
they  are  moistened  with  oil  be- 
fore arranging  them  ;  the  cot- 
ton acts  as  a  syphon,  and  re- 
moves the  whole  of  the  oil.  If 
the  object  of  the  operation  is  to 
obtain  the  oil  and  not  the  distilled  water, 
the  la'ter  should  he  preserved,  and  used 
again  and  again  with  .fresh  herbs;  because, 
bavins  in  the  first  operation  dissolved  up  as 
much  oil  as  it  is  capable  of  doing,  it  causes 
no  lo>s  in  the  subsequent  distillations. 

Itmav,  perhaps,  be  thought  that  our  article 
is  incomplete,  from  our  not  giving  any  parti- 
cular directions  as  to  the  manufacture  of 
spirits,  both  as  regards  the  first  fermentation 
and  subsequent  distillation  ;  but  our  readers 
should  bear  in  mind  that  the  manufacture 
of  spirit  is  illegal,  and  the  result  is  most 


Fig.  2. 


164 


IT  ACTS  TOR  EVERYBODY! 


frequently  a  heavy  fine  and  imprisonment, 
to  which,  we  have  no  wish  that  our  articles 
should  be  introductory. 

ELECTRICITY.  The  word  Electricity 
denotes  a  peculiar  state,  of  which  all  bodies 
are  susceptible,  and  which  is  supposed  to  de- 
pend upon  the  presence  of  a  substance  called 
the  electric  fluid.  Some  of  its  phenomena 
-were  known  to  the  ancients,  particularly 
those  attractions  and  repulsions  which  a 
piece  of  amber,  after  being  rubbed,  exhibits, 
with  regard  to  hairs,  feathers,  and  other 
light  bodies;  and  it  was  from  its  power  of 
drawing  light  substances  to  it  when  rubbed 
that  the  Greeks  gave  amber  the  name  Elek- 
tron,  which  is  the  origin  of  the  word  Elec- 
tricity. Thales,  who  lived  six  centuries 
before  the  Christian  era,  was  the  first  who 
observed  the  electrical  properties  of  amber ; 
and  he  was  so  struck  with  the  appearances, 
that  he  supposed  it  to  be  animated.  Mr. 
Boyle  is  supposed  to  have  been  one  of  the 
first  persons  who  got  a  glimpse  of  the  elec- 
trical light,  or  who  seems  to  have  noticed 
it,  by  rubbing  a  diamond  in  the  dark.  Sir 
Isaac  Newton  was  the  first  who  observed 
that  excited  glass  attracted  light  bodies  on 
the  side  opposite  to  that  on  which  it  is 
rubbed. 

An  electric  is  any  substance,  which  being 
excited  or  rubbed  by  the  hand,  or  by  a 
woollen  cloth,  or  other  means,  has  the  power 
of  attracting  light  bodies.  If  a  piece  of 
sealing-wax  be  rubbed  briskly  with  the 
sleeve  of  your  coat,  a  silk  handkerchief,  &c, 
for  some  time,  and  then  held  near  hair, 
feathers/bits  of  paper,  or  other  light  bodies, 
they  will  be  attracted ;  that  is,  they  will 
jump  up,  and  some  of  them  will  adhere  to 
the  wax.  If  a  tube  of  glass,  or  small  phial, 
be  rubbed  in  a  similar  manner,  it  will  answer 
much  better.  If  this  operation  be  performed 
in  the  dark,  something  luminous  will  be 
seen,  which  is  called  the  electric  matter  or 
Jluid  ;  and  all  bodies  that  we  are  acquainted 
with  have  more  or  less  of  it  in  them ;  though 
it  seems  to  lie  dormant  till  it  be  put  into 
action  by  rubbing.  The  air,  and  everything, 
is  full  of  this  fluid,  which  appears  in  the 
Ehape  of  sparks ;  the  rubbing  of  the  glass 
with  the  hand  collects  it  from  the  hand;  and 
the  glass,  having  now  more  than  its  natural 
share,  parts  with  it  to  any  body  that  may  be 
near  enough  to  receive  it.  The  substance 
rubbed  and  that  with  which  it  is  rubbed  are 
always  found  to  be  oppositely  electrified — 
the  one  body  having  more  and  the  other  less 
than  its  natural  share ;  indeed,  one  kind  of 
Electricity  is  never  obtained  without,  at  the 
same  time,  the  productions  of  the  other. 
Those  bodies  which  have  been  called  Elec- 


trics, will  not  convey  electricity  from  one 
body  to  another,  and  therefore  they  are 
termed  Non-Coxductok.s.  The  most  re- 
markable are — glass,  raid  all  vitreous  sub- 
stances, precious  stones,  resins,  amber,  sul- 
phur, baked  wo  id,  whx,  silk,  cotton,  wool, 
hair,  feathers,  paper,  white  sugar,  air,  oils, 
metallic  oxides,  all  dry  veg<  tabic  substances, 
and  ail  hard  stones.  Those  bodies,  which, 
when  rubbed  ever  so  much,  do  not  exhibit 
electricity,  are  called  Non- Electrics.  They 
convey  electricity  from  one  body  to  another, 
and  therefore  are  denominated  Conductors; 
they  are  as  capable  of  having  electricity  de- 
veloped upon  them  by  friction  as  those  bodies 
which  have  been  called  "electrics,"  but  it 
is  conducted  away  as  fast  as  it  is  produced. 
Some  of  them  conduct  electricity  much  better 
than  others.  The  principal  conductors  are 
the  metals,  charcoal,  all  fluids  except  dry 
airs  and  oils,  most  saline  substances,  and 
stony  substances.  Woollen  and  silk,  when 
wet,  will,  by  means  of  the  water,  conduct 
electricity. 

When  a  body  has  more  than  its  natural 
quantity  of  this  fluid,  it  is  said  to  be  electri- 
fied positively,  or  plus;  and  when  it  has  less 
than  its  natural  quantity,  it  is  sa  J  to  be 
electrified  negatively,,  or  minus.  When 
bodies  are  electrified  either  of  these  ways, 
they  repel  each  other;  but  if  some  be  electri- 
fied plus,  and  others  minus,  they  mutually 
attract;  or  if  one  body  be  electrified  plus, 
and  the  other  not  electrified  in  either  way, 
they  also  attract  each  other. 
"There  are  some  fishes  which  possess  the 
extraordinary  faculty  of  being  able,  at  plea- 
sure, to  communicate  shocks  like  those  of 
an  electric  battery  or  galvanic  pile,  to  any 
animal  that  comes  in  contact  with  them. 
They  are  called  the  torpedo,  the  gymnotus 
clcctricus,  and  the  siherus  Indicus.  The 
most  remarkable  of  these  is  the  Gymnotus 
Electricus,  or  Electric  Eel,  which  is  fre- 
quently found  in  the  marshes  and  stagnant 
pools  of  Guiana,  and  other  countries  of  South 
America.  The  shocks  they  give  are  exceed- 
ingly severe ;  and  Humboldt  mentions  a 
road  which  has  been  totally  abandoned, 
because  the  mules,  in  crossing  a  wide  ford, 
were,  by  these  violent  attacks,  often  paralyse  d 
and  drowned.  Even  the  angler  on  the  bank 
was  not  exempt  from  danger,  the  shock  being 
conveyed  along  his  wetted  rod  and  fishing- 
line.  The  Electric  Eel  is  sometimes  twenty 
feet  long.  The  electricity  of  all  those  fishes 
I  is  exerted  by  them  only  when  they  please, 
i  and  of  course  only  while  they  are  alive. 
I  After  the  animal  has  discharged  its  electrical 
I  matter,  the  next  shock  is  weaker;  and 
I  when  the  animal  is  exhausted,  it  has  lost 


A    MISCELLANY   OF   USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


16-5 


all  the  power  of  producing  any  effect  for 
some  time. 

Then  u  no  longer  any  doubt  that  the 
cause  of  thunder  is  the  same  with  that  which 
produces  the  ordinary  phenomena  of  elec- 
tricity. The  resemblance  between  them  is 
indeed  so  great,  that  we  cannot  believe 
thunder  itself  to  be  any  other  than  a  grander 
species  of  electricity. 

WALKING.  To  walk  gracefully,  the 
body  must  be  erect,  but  not  Stiff,  and  the 
bead  held  up  in  such  a  posture  that  the  eves 
arc  directed  forward.  The  tendency  of  un- 
taught walkers  is  to  look  towards  the  ground 
near  the  feet;  and  some  persons  appear 
always  as  if  they  were  admiring  their  shoe- 
ties.  The  eyes  should  not  thus  he  cast  down- 
ward, neither  should  the  chest  bend  forward 
to  throw  out  the  back,  making  what  are 
termed  round  shoulders;  on  the  contrary, 
the  whole  person  must  hold  itself  up,  as  if 
not  afraid  to  look  the  world  in  the  face,  and 
the  chest  by  all  means  be  allowed  to  expand. 
At  the  same  time,  everything  like  strutting 
or  pomposity  must  be  carefully  avoided.  An 
easy,  firm,  and  erect  posture,  are  alone  de- 
sirable. In  walking,  it  is  necessary  to  bear 
in  mind  that  the  locomotion  is  to  be  per- 
formed entirely  by  the  legs.  Awkward  per- 
sons rock  from* side  to  side,  helping  forward 
each  leg  alternately  by  advancing  the 
haunches.  This  is  not  only  ungraceful  but 
fatiguing.  Let  the  legs  alone  advance,  bear- 
ing up  the  body. 

DIFFERENCE  OF  DAYS.  There  is  a 
vast  difference  in  the  length  cf  days.  A 
sidereal  day  is  the  real  and  invariable  period 
of  the  diurnal  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its 
axis,  and  contains  23  hours,  5Q  minutes, 
3  5  seconds,  of  mean  solar  time  ;  the  lunar 
day  is  24  hours,  48  minutes ;  and  the  solar 
slaty,  which  is  the  mean  apparent  time  of 
one  revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  is 
24  hours. 

GLOVES.  Before  the  art  of  weaving 
them  was  known,  gloves  were  sometimes 
made  of  velvet,  tiffany,  and  satiu.  as  well  as 
of  various  kinds  of  leather;  at  present,  the 
skins  generally  made  use  of  are  chamois, 
kid,  lamb,  doe,  dog,  beaver,  elk,  and  buff. 
Yeovil,  in  Somersetshire,  is  famous  for  their 
manufacture,  as  are  Worcester  and  Wood- 
stock ;  the  latter  for  driving-glove*.  Of 
laie  years,  the  silk  gloves  of  Derby  have 
been  much  in  request,  and  manufactories  of 
thread,  cotton,  worsted,  and  other  woollen 

f loves,  have  sprung  up ;  but  for  dreas,  kid 
ave  always  been  most  approved. 
MOROCCO  LEATHER.     Is  not  so  called 
from    its    being    brought    from    Morocco, 
but   from    the    art   of   dressing   it    being 
6* 


originally  introdiK  -d  from  that  coun- 
try.    The  true  DlOleOfO  leather   is  made  of 

goat-skins  tanned,  and  dyed  on  their  out- 

sides;  sheep-skins  are  also  similarly  treated. 
The  goat-skins  are  not  only  more  pliant, 
but  their  surface  is  smoother ;  they  are  also 

more  durable  than  those  of  sheep,  but  their 
employment  is  restricted  on  account  of  their 
high  pri(  e. 

GALL-NUTS.  The  gall-nuts  used  in 
making  ink  are  produced  by  the  insect 
which  punctures  the  leaves  of  a  spe 
oak  verv  common  in  Asia  Minor,  where  they 
are  collected  in  considerable  quantities  by 
the  poorer  inhabitants:  from  the  dil 
ports  of  the  Levant  they  are  exported  to 
various  parts  of  the  world.  The  galls  held 
in  the  greatest  estimation  are  those  kno\%n 
in  commerce  under  the  name  of  blue  galls. 
These  are  the  produce  of  the  first  gathering, 
before  the  fly  has  issued  from  the  gall. 

MAMMALIA.  Vertehrated  animals  hav- 
ing an  internal,  bony,  cartilaginous  skeleton, 
and  a  brain,  with  a  double  heart  and  warm 
blood,  and  suckling  their  young.  This  hist 
Linmean  class  is  divided  into  seven  orders, 
viz.  :  primates,  bruta,  ferae,  glires,  pecora. 
belluuj,  and  cete ;  including  not  only  all 
the  viviparous  quadrupeds,  but  also  the 
bat  tribe,  and  seals  and  whales. 

PENS  (M  ETALLIC).  This  description  of 
pens  came  into  use  about  the  year  1830. 
Quills  are  said  to  have  been  first  used  lor 
pens  in  -5o3,  or,  as  some  say,  in  63o. 

SKYLARK  (THE).  The  common  lark, 
field  lark,  or  laverock,  as  this  bird  is 
variously  termed,  is  one  of  the  best  known 
and  most  highly-esteemed  of  our  native 
songsters;  its  .shrill  music,  so  sprightly  and 
joyous,  has  been  listened  to  with  delight 
by  everyone.  This  little  brown  bird  is  one 
of  the  plainest,  and  even  meanest,  of  all  tho 
feathered  choir — a  bird  that,  though  it 
builds  its  uest  low  in  the  gorses,  hath,  as 
Elizabeth  Barrett  says,  "  Ds  song  in  tho 
stars'  courses,"  to  show,  as  our  poet  tells  us, 
what  "  honour  hath  humility."  This  is  the 
A/auda  arvot.sis  of  naturalists;  and  tho 
largest  of  our  native  larks,  measuring,  com- 
monly, seven  inches  in  length,  allowing 
about  three  inches  for  the  tail.  It  is  a 
handsome,  sprightly-looking  bird,  with  a 
silky  crest,  ereetable  at.  pleasure.  It  looks 
sadly  out  of  place  in  a  cage,  although  it  is 
often  so  kept,  for  the  sake  of  its  shrill,  clear 
melody,  which  may  be  heard  rising  above 
the -'iii  of  the  busy  street,  and  suggesting 
images  and  scenes  of  country  life.  We  need 
not  describe  the  colours  and  markings  of  the 
plumage,  for  they  must  be  sufficiently 
familiar  to  all  our  readers.     The  female  ma  v 


166 


FACTS  FOR   EVERYBODY! 


be  distinguished  from  the  male  bird  by  its 
smaller  size,  and  more  thickly  and  darkly- 
spotted  breast,  which  has,  too,  less  of  a 
ferruginous  tinge  than  that  of  the  male. 


Black  and  white  varieties  of  this  bird  occa- 
sionally occur :  the  plumage  of  the  fonner  is 
of  a  motley  hue,  with  a  tinge  of  dull  red 
showing  through ;  the  latter  is  either  pure 
white  or  yellowish.  Specimens  of  this  variety 
are  sometimes  found  wild.  In  February  or 
March  these  flocks  brmk  up,  and  soon  after 
commences-  the  work  of  incubation.  The 
nest  is  generally  built  in  a  hole  scraped  in 
the  ground,  or  a  natural  hollow  between 
two  ridges  in  a  corn  or  hay-field.  The 
Scottish  poet,  Grahame,  thus  describes  it : — 

"On  tre*>  or  bush  no  lark  is  n?ver  seen : 

Tlie  daisied  =ea  he  loves,  where  tufts  of  grass 
Luxuriant  crown  the  ridge;    there,  with   bis 

mate, 
He  founds  his  lowly  house  of  withered  bents, 
An  t  coarsest  spcargrass;  next  the  inner  work 
With  finer  and  still  liner  Sbnw  lavs, 
Rounding  it  curious  with  his  speckled  breast." 

And  in  this  little  fabric,  which  Macgillivray 
says  is  rather  loosely  put  together,  may  be 
found  four  or  five  eggs,  of  a  greenish  gray- 
colour,  freckled  and  marked  with  grayish 
brown.  There  are  generally  two  broods  in 
the  year,  the  first  young  appearing  some- 
times as  early  as  the  end  of  April;  the 
second  come  out  in  June  or  July.  They 
frequently  leave  the  nest  before  they  are 
fully  fledged;  and,  therefore,  should  be 
taken  for  rearing  in  good  time.  Thev  should 
be  fed  with  white  bread,  soaked  in  milk, 
and  crushed  poppy  seed;  a  few  ants'  eggs 
conduce  much  to  make  them  healthy.  The 
males  may  be  known  by  the  yellow  tinge  of 
their  plumage  In  confinement  they  should 
have  poppy  seed,  crushed  hemp,  barley- 
meal,  and  bread  crumbs,  with  an  occasional 
supply  of  green  food,  such  as  water-cresses, 
cabbage,  lettuce,  &c.    A  little  lean  meat, 


with  ants'  eggs,  now  and  then,  by  way  of  a 
treat,  tend  to  make  them  lively,  and  "more 
inclined  to  sing.  Adult  birds,  introduced 
into  the  aviary,  will  become  immediately 
reconciled  if  they  have  some  oats  an  J  poppy 
seed  thrown  to  them;  afterwards  they  will 
do  very  well  on  the  universal  paste.  Any 
air  or  melody  which  it  is  desired  they  should 
learn  m  ist  be  whistled  to  them  before  they 
are  fully  fledged,  as  the  males  commence 
practising  their  natural  song  very  early. 
They  must  also  be  kept  separate  from  other 
birds  while  under  this  system  of  tutelage. 
Naturalists  say  that  adult  larks  will  some- 
times acquire  the  song  of  the  chaffinch  and 
nightingale.  Larks  are  subject  to  the 
ordinary  maladies  which  afflict  birds,  and 
are  especially  liable  to  yellow  scurf  about 
the  beak;  generous  diet,  such  as  ants'  eggs, 
meal  worms,  with  green  food,  and  universal 
paste,  are  most  likely  to  cure  this.  These 
birds  will  live  eight  or  ten  years  in  confine- 
ment. We  have  heard  of  instances  of  ex- 
treme longevity;  as  many  as  thirty  years 
being  mentioned.  They  require  a  cage  at 
least  a  foot  and  a  half  long,  nine  inches  wide, 


and  fifteen  inches  high ;  the  shape  is  im- 
material, and  it  is  best  to  cover  the  top  with 
cloth,  as  the  birds  have  a  habit  of  springing 
upwards,  especially  when  they  are  at  all 
wild,  and  s>  may  injure  themselves.  Their 
food  and  drinking- vessels  should  be  of  glass 
or  porcelain ;  a  piece  of  fine  turf,  renewed 
at  least  once  a  week,  should  be  placed  in  the 
bottom  of  the  cage;  and  great  attention 
should  be  paid  to  cleanliness,  as,  if  the  feet 
get  dirty,  they  are  apt  to  acquire  disease. 


JL  MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


1G7 


K77Z?.:: 


I,i|l.ii;l;i 


^~^ 


WHITK. 

The  names  of  the  eight  pieces  are  as  fol- 
lows : — King,  Queen,  two  Rooks  or  Castles, 
two  Bishops,  and  two  Knights.  These  are 
placed  in  the  first  rank  of  each  player's  side 
of  the  board,  the  Pawns  being  placed  before 
them  in  the  second  rank.  The  pieces  are 
arranged  in  the  following  manner : — In  each 
corner  square  stands  a  Rook,  or  Castle,  next 
to  these  a  Knight,  a  Bishop,  and  the  two 
middle  or  centre  squares  are  occupied  by 
King  and  Queen,  so  that  the  White  King 
always  stands  on  a  black  square,  and  the 
Black  King  on  a  white  square,  the  Queen 
standing  on  a  square  of  her  own  colour, 
Retiinn  gervat  colorem.  The  diagram  repre- 
sents the  board  and  men,  neither  side  having 
made  a  move  yet. 

Movement  "of  the  Pieces  and  Pawns. 
The  King  can  move  in  any  direction,  but 
only  to  a  square  adjacent  to  the  one  he  oc- 
cupies. He  can  also  capture  any  adverse 
man  that  comes  near  him,  unprotected  by 
any  other  piece   or  Pawn  ; 

#**&->.    but  he  cannot  place  himself 
YiTJrf     on  any  square  which  is  at- 
tacked by  an  adverse  man, 
king  for  the  'King   is  the  only 

piece  that  is  never  taken ;  he  is  the  soul  of 
the  game,  and  a  player  may  have  all  his 
men,  and  being  checked  (the  meaning  of 


CHESS.    The  g, 
Chen  is  played  by  two  pei  - 
sons  upon  a  board  which 
is    square,     divided    into 
sixty-four  smaller  squares. 

One-halt'  of  these  sixty- 
four  squares  is  coloured 
white;      the     other     half 

black.     The  two  plaj  en 

sit  opposite  each  other, 
with  the  hoard  between 
them  ;  and  care  must  he 
taken  that  a  white  corner 
square  he  at  the  right- 
hand  of  each  player.  When 
tho  board  is  thus  placed, 
the  horizontal  straight 
lines,  running  from  right 
to  left,  are  termed  ranks  ; 
the  perpendicular  ones, 
running  from  one  player 
to  the  other,  are  called 
files  ;  the  oblique  ranges, 
of  which  the  two  prin- 
cipal ones  run  from  one 
corner  of  the  board  to 
the  opposite  one, — one  on 
white,  the  other  on  black 
squares, — and  the  other 
adjoining,  are  named  dia- 
gonals. 

which  will  be  explained  hereafter),  without 
being  able  to  remove  the  attacking  or  check- 
ing man,  he  is  checkmated — that  is  to  say, 
tbe  game  is  lost.  Though  the  King  can  only 
move  one  square  at  a  time,  there  is  one  ex- 
ception to  this  rule,  which  is  only  permitted 
once  in  a  game,  that  is,  the  act  of  castling. 
For  this  a  player  has  two  choices ;  he  may 
castle  to  the  right  or  to  the  left.  This  is 
done  by  moving  the  King  two  squares  in 
either  direction  towards  the  Rook  with  which 
he  castles,  and  placing  the  Rook  on  the 
other  side  of  the  King  on  the  square  next 
to  him.  For  instance,  supposing  white  to 
have  his  two  Rooks  in  each  corner,  and  the 
King  on  his  original  square,  the  King  can 
castle  on  the  left,  which  is  called  his  Queen's 
side;  or  on  the  right,  termed  the  King's 
side.  In  the  former  case  he  would  be  placed 
on  the  square  originally  occupied  by  a  Bishop, 
and  his  Queen's  Rook  would  have  to  stand 
on  his  Queen's  square ;  in  the  latter  he 
would  be  moved  to  a  square  where  his 
Knight  stood,  and  his  Rook  would  occupy 
the  square  of  his  Bishop.  There  are,  how- 
ever, certain  conditions  attached  to  the  pri- 
vilege of  castlinjr.  1.  You  cannot  castle 
after  having  mo\ed  your  King,  or  the  Rook, 
with  which  you  wish  to  castle.  2.  There 
must  be  no  piece  between  the  King  and  th§ 


168 


FACTS  FOR   EVERYBODY! 


Rook,  whether  your  own  or  your  adver- 
sary's. 3.  You  cannot  castle  while  in  check, 
nor  to  a  square  where  the  King  would  be  in 
check  ;  nor  can  the  King  castle,  if,  in  doing 
so,  he  passes  a  square  which  is  attacked  by 
an  adverse  piece  or  Pawn.  The  two  Kings 
cannot,  of  course,  come  close  to  each  other, 
but  must  have  at  least  one  square  between 
them. 

The  Queen  is  by  far  the  most  powerful  of 
all  pieces,  combining  the  action  of  the  Hook 
and  the  Bishop.  It  moves  in  a  straight  line, 
rank  or  tile,  backwards  and 
forwards,   and    also   diago- 
nally, but  only  over  empty 
squares,  like  ail  other  pieces, 
queen.  except  one.     Place  a  Queen 

on  the  empty  board,  on  the  fourth  square, 
counting  from  the  King's  square  upwards , 
and  thus  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  board, 
Ehe  will  be  found  to  bear  upon  twenty-seven 
squares,  exclusive  of  the  one  she  occupies. 
Placed  in  one  of  the  four  corners,  where  her 
action  is  most  limited,  she  will  still  com- 
mand twenty-one  squares  besides  the  one 
she  stands  on. 

The  Rook,  also  called  the  Castle,  is  next  in 
importance  to  the  Queen.  She  moves  in  a 
straight  line,  backwards  or 
forwards,  or  sideways,  al- 
ways over  empty  squares. 
It  "is  a  peculiarity  of  this 
piece,  that,  whether  it  is 
middle  of  the  board,  or  in  a 
corner,  it  always  commands  the  same  num- 
ber of  squares,  fourteen,  besides  the  one  it 
stands  on. 

The  Bishop  moves  diagonally,  backwards 

and  forwards,   as    far    as  the  squares  are 

j^  «,       empty.   It  never  can  change 

MM        w}^      its     colour;    and    as    each 

1-g      J$sL*    plaver   nas  *w0»    ^ey  are 

placed,  one  on  a  black  square, 

eishop.         an(j  t jie  jjjJjqj,  on  a  ^jte  one, 

the  former  called  the  Black  Bishop,  the  latter 
the  White  Bishop. 

The  move  of  the  Knight  is  very  peculiar, 
and  difficult  to  describe.  The  Knight  is 
the  only  piece  that  has  the  privilege  to  leap 
over  another  piece.  It  moves  one  square  in 
a  straight  line,  and  one  ob- 
liquely. Thus,  for  instance, 
the  White  Knight,  which  at 
the  beginning  of  a  game 
K.MtrHT.  stan(js  to  the  right  of  the 
White  King  (see  diagram),  can  at  once  be 
moved  to  the  third  square  of  the  Bishop,  or 
to  the  third  square  of  the  Rook,  thus  spring- 
ing over  the  intervening  Pawns.  This 
movement,  being  of  a  complicated  nature, 
should  be  practised  carefully  by  the  student. 


The  Pawn  moves  only  in  a  straight- 
forward direction,  one  square  at  a  time  . 
but,  unlike  the  pieces,  which  take  an  ad* 
verse  man  in  the  same  way  they  move,  the 
Pawn  captures  diagonally.  It  never  moves 
nor  takes  backwards.  Any 
Pawn  can,  on  starting  from 
its  original  place,  which,  as 
the  diagram  shows,  is  the 
second  rank,  make  two  steps,  PAWIf- 

but,  in  doing  so,  cannot  capture  an  adverse 
man,  but  is  liable  to  be  taken  in  passing  the 
intermediate  square  by  an  adverse  Pawn, 
but  not  by  any  piece  or  officer.  For  ex- 
ample . — your  opponent,  playing  the  black, 
has  a  Pawn  of  his  on  the  fourth  square, 
counting  upwards  from  your  Queen.  You 
advance  your  Pawn  in  front  of  your  King 
two  squares;  he  has  the  option  of  either 
allowing  it  to  pass  or  to  take  it  with  his 
Pawn,  as  if  you  had  moved  it  only  one 
square,  and  in  "thus  capturing  your  Pawn  in 
passing,  he  must  place  his  own  on  the  third 
square  from  your  King— not  on  the  fourth. 

On  Taking  an  Adverse  Man. — The  art  of 
capturing  an  adverse  man  is  by  removing  it 
from  the  board  and  placing  your  man  on  the 
square  which  the  captured  piece  or  Pawn 
occupied.  All  the  eight  men  standing  in 
the  first  rank  of  the  board  take  in  the  same 
direction  in  which  they  move ;  not  so  the 
Pawn,  which,  as  stated  above,  captures  dia- 
gonally. Any  of  your  men  can  be  captured 
by  an  "adverse  one,  except  the  King :  he  is 
never  taken,  but  checkmated.  The  King 
being,  as  before  mentioned,  the  soul  of  the 
game,  each  player  directs  his  efforts  towards 
attacking  the  adverse  King,  and  carefully 
surrounding  his  own  by  his  officers  and 
Pawns.  Any  piece  or  Pawn  attacking  the 
adverse  King,  this  is  called  giving  check 
or  checking,  and  such  an  attack  must  be 
notified  by  saying,  check;  whereupon 
your  opponent  must  attend  to  this  im- 
mediately, by  either  capturing  the  man  that 
thus  attacks  or  checks  him,  or  by  interposing 
some  of  his  men  between  the  checking-piece 
and  his  King,  or  lastly  by  removing  his 
King  to  another  square.  But,  should  you  be 
unable  to  get  out  of  check  by  either  of  the 
above  ways,  then  your  King  is  checkmated, 
—that  is,  you  have  lost  the  game.  Captur- 
ing is  optional  in  all  cases  save  one — when 
your  King  is  in  check,  and  you  incapable  to 
move  out  of  check,  except  by  taking  the 
Pawn  or  piece  that  checks,  you  are  obliged 
to  do  so. 

ALIQUANT  PARTS.  Numbers  which 
will  not  divide  or  measure  a  whole  number 
exactly.  Thus,  seven  is  an  aliquant  part 
of  sixteen.  (See  Aliquot  Parts,  p.  161.) 


1   1118  OF   USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


1C9 


MEALY  AND  WAXY  POTATOES,  Ad 
examination  of  the  potato  with  a  mi  i 

has  proved  the  relative  worth  of  the  mealy 
oik!  waxy  kinds  of  this  useful  vegetable. 
On  examining  a  thin  slice,  It  La  Been  to  be 
almost  entirely  composed  of  cells,  which  are 
sometime!  filled  with,  and  sometime*  con- 
tain clusters  of,  beautiful  little  oval  grains. 
These  grains  remain  unohanged  in  cold 
Water;  out  when  it  is  wanned  they  dissolve 
in  it,  and  the  whole  becomes  a  jeliy,  and 
occupies  a  Larger  space  than  it  did  in  the 
form  of  grains.  When  a  potato  is  boiled, 
then  each  of  these  cells  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed becomes  a  little  vessel  full  of  jolly  ; 
and,  if  there  be  not  a  great  quantity  of 
Starch  in  the  cells,  it  may  be  gelatinized 
without  bursting  them.  But,  if  the  number 
of  grains  or  their  size  be  very  great,  the  cells 
of  the  potato  are  broken  on  all  sides  by  the 
expansion  of  the  little  masses  of  jelly,  and 
the  appearance  of  mealiness  is  produced. 
Hence  we  see  that  mea'y  potatoes  are  the 
Biost  valuable,  and  waxiiiess  denotes  a  de- 
ficiency of  starch  or  nourishing  matter. 

MO  fHER-OF-PE  IRL.  This  is  the  hard, 
silvery,  brilliant,  internal  layer  of  several 
kinds  of  shells,  particularly  oysters,  which  is 
often  variegated  with  changing  purple  and 
azure  colours.  The  large  oysters  of  the  In- 
dian seas  alone  secrete  this  coat  of  sufficient 
thickness  to  render  their  shells  available  to 
the  purposes  of  manufactures. 

CORK.  Cork  is  the  exterior  bark  of  a 
tree  belonging  to  the  genus  of  the  oak,  and 
•which  grows  wild  in  the  southern  parts  of 
Europe,  particularly  France,  Spain,  Portugal 
and  Italy.  When  the  tree  is  about  twenty- 
six  years  old,  it  is  fit  to  be  barked,  and  this 
can  be  done  successively  every  eight  years. 
The  bark  always  grows  again,  and  its  quality 
improves  with  the  increasing  age  of  the  tree. 

EMERY.  This  sul>tance  is  the  most 
powerful  for  grinding  down  surfaces,  from 
the  extreme  hardness  of  its  particles,  which 
are  harder  thin  sand.  It  is  a  variety  of  co- 
rundum, the  hardest  known  substance  except 
diamond.  It  comes  from  the  Isle  of  Naxos 
in  the  Archipelago. 

LIQUIDS  (DECANTING,  STRAINING, 
AND  FILTERING  OF).  The  decanting  of 
liquids  is,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  an 
opcation  sufficiently  simple  to  require  no 
explanation;  but  the  ease  and  certainty 
with  which  it  can  be  performed  depend 
entirely  upon  the  form  of  the  vessel  from 
which  the  liquid  is  poured,  the  adhesion 
existing  between  liquids  and  solids  giving 
i  tendency  in  the  former  to  run  down 
the  outside  of  the  vessel ;  and,  if  the  latter 
is    nea-ly   full,  or  very  largo   in   circum- 


ference, or  the  sides  approach  the  perpen- 
dicular direction,  this  accident  almost  always 
occurs.  The  difficulty  of  returning  i 
of  wine  to  the  decanter,  or  of  pouring  from 
one  lull  tumbler  into  another,  are  well- 
known  examples  of  this  inconvenienoe. 

Advantage  may,  however,  he  taken  of  the 
adhesion  of  liquids  to  solids,  and  by  it  tho 
former  may  be  led  into  the  required  direc- 
tion. This  cannot  be  better  illustrated  than 
hv  a  description  of  the  moans  by  which  a 

^lass  of  Wine  may  he  returned,  without 
spilling,  to  the  decanter  If  a  teaspoon  is 
dipped  into  the  wine,  so  as  to  become  wetted 
with  it,  and  then  held  perpendicularly  with 
the  bowl  downwards,  and  the  point  over, 
but  not  touching,  the  en  I  ranee  into  the  de- 
canter, and  the  edge  of  the  glass  be  made  to 
touch  the  back  of  the  spoon,  it  will  bo 
found,  on  inclining  the  former,  that  tho 
wine,  having  a  perpendicular  solid  body  to 
adhere  to  and  run  down,  will  do  so  in  pre- 
ference to  trickling  along  the  ohlique  outer 
surface  of  the  wineglass;  and,  in  this  mode, 
a  liquid  may  be  poured  steadily  out  of  any 
similar  vessel  with  so  little  disturbance  ai 
not  to  agitate  any  sediment  that  may  exist 
in  it.  In  the  laboratory  of  the  chemist,  a 
piece,  of  glass  rod  is  usually  employed  for 
this  purpose  ;  but  a  spoon,  or  pencil,  or  any 
simi'ar  suhstance  having  a  surface  capable; 
of  being  wetted  by  the  liquid,  answers  well. 

If,  however,  the  vessel  out  of  which  it  is 
wished  to  decant  is  large,  very  full,  or  the 
sides,  on  pouring,  are  nearly  perpendicular, 
the  plan  is  not  successful ;  thus,  it  could 
not  be  employed  in  aiding  the  transfer  of  the 
liquid  from  one  full  tumbler  to  another. 
Even  this  may  be  accomplished  without  tho 
aid  of  a  funnel,  or  without  spilling,  by  pre- 
venting the  adhesion  of  the  liquid  to  tho 
edae  or  side  of  the  vessel  out  of  which  it 
is  poured,  which  may  be  readily  done  by 
greasing  the  rim,  when  it  will  be  found  quite 
practicable  to  pour  out  of  a  nearly  full 
tumbler  without  spilling. 

In  many  instances,  the  employment  of  a 
syphon  in  decanting  will  be  found  very  ad- 
vantageous, particularly  when  the  contain- 
ing vessel  is  large,  and  cannot  be  readily 
moved,  or  when  there  isany  sediment  which 
it  is  desirable  not  to  disturb.  The  most 
simple  form  of  this  instrument  consists  of  a 
tube,  bent  as  in  fig.  1,  with  one  leg  shorter 
than  the  other;  this  may  be  made  of  glass, 
pewter,  or,  in  fact,  of  any  kind  of  stiff* 
tubing  that  will  retain  its  form — a  piece  of 
gutta-percha  pipe,  carefully  bent  by  a  mo- 
derate warmth,  whilst  a  piece  of  stout  cord 
is  in  the  interior  to  prevent  the  sides  closing 
together,   answers  very  well.     Before  use, 


m 


FACTS  for  everybody: 


the  syphon  must  be  filled  with  liquor ;  this 
is  best  accomplished  by  turning  it  upside 
down,  with  the  opening  to  the  short  leg 
raised  on  a  level  with  that  of  the  long  one, 
■when  the  liquid  should  be  poured  into  the 
former.  When  both  legs  are  tilled,  they 
should  be  closed  with  the  fingers:  the 
shorter  leg  introduced  into  the  liquid  it  i3 
wished  to  draw  off;  and  the  opening  of  the 
louger  leg  brought  to  a  lower  level  than  that 
of  the  shorter, 
and  on  remov- 
ing the  fin- 
gers, the  li- 
quid will  flow 
as  in  fig.  1, 
until  it  is  be- 
low the  level 
of  the  short 
leg.  If  the  sy- 
phon is  made 
of  small  tub- 
ing, or  is  less- 
ened at  the 
apenings  so  as  not  to  exceed  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  there  will  be  no  occa- 
sion to  close  the  end  of  more  than  one  leg 
with  the  fingei-,  as  the  liquid  will  not  flow 
when  it  is  brought  to  the  proper  position, 
unless  both  orifices  are  open ;  and  thus  the 
necessity,  of  plunging  the  finger  into  the 
liquid  is  obviated,  and  the  syph'.n  can  also 
be  used  with  a  narrow-necked  bottle,  into 
■which  the  hand  could  not  be  passed. 

To  do  away  with  the 
necessity  of  tilling  the 
syphon  before  use,  the 
instrument  is  usually 
made  with  a  sucking 
tube,  as  in  fig.  2 ;  La 
this  case,  all  that  is 
requisite  is,  to  intro- 
duce the  short  leg,  close 
the  opening  to  the  long 
one,  and,  by  the  action 
of  the  mouth,  draw  up 
the  liquid  until  both 
legs  are  full,  when,  on 
removing  the  finger, 
Fig.  2.  the  stream  will  flow.  A 

very  ingenious  syphon  of  this  kind  is  de- 
scribed by  the  German  chemist  Mohr  ;  it  is 
thus  constructed  : — Take  a  long  Eau-de-Co- 
logne bottle,  and  with  a  file  and  turpentine, 
make  a  deep  notch  across,  about  an  inch  and 
a-half  from  the  bottom  ;  then,  with  a  char- 
coal point  or  pastile,  or  hot  iron,  produce  a 
crack,  and  cut  off  the  bottom,  grinding  it 
smoothly  ;  then  take  a  tube  bent  at  an  angle 
of  forty-five  degrees,  and,  by  means  of  a 
good  cork,  perforated  with  a  rat-tail  rasp,  fit 


it  tightly  in  the  bottom  of  the  bottle,  and  add 
also  another  piece  of  tubing  for  the  suction 


Fig.  3. 
tube;  the  whole  will  then  have  the  appear- 
ance represented  in  fig.  3,  and  will  form 
an  exceedingly  useful  and  very  convenient 
syphon. 

"  In  emptving  large  stone  bottles  or  car- 
boys, the  following  plan  may  be  had  recourse 
to  : — Perforate  a  sound  cork  with  two  open- 
ings by  a  rat-tail  rasp,  and  fit,  air-tight, 


Fig.  4. 
two  tubes  bent  as  in  fig.  4.  On  blowing 
through  the  upper,  the  liquid  will  be  forced 
to  ascend  and  run  over  the  bend  of  the 
other,  which  will  then  act  as  a  syphon. 
This  plan  is  exceedingly  useful  in  emptying 
carboys  of  corrosive  liquids,  as  oil  of  vitriol, 
&c.  ;  *  and  if  all  the  joints  are — as  they 
should  be  —  air-tight,  the  flow  may  be 
arrested  by  closing  the  upper  tube  with  the 


A.  LrflSCELLANY   OP  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


171 


ftDger.  In  the  figure,  the  outer  legof  the 
l\phon  is  shortened,  to  save  space ;  in  prac- 
tice, it  must  be  of  sufficient  length  to  be 
Iowt  than  the  inner  leg  within  the  vessel. 

rf  a  syphon  is   required   frequently   for 
decanting  the  same  kind  of  liquid,   it   is 
found  troublesome  to  be  constantly  filling 
it  before    each    time    of 
using;  this  trouble  is  ob- 
viated  by  the  use  of  an 
instrument  formed  with 
legs    of     equal     length. 
which  are  turned  up  at 
the  ends,    as  in    fig.   5  ; 
this,    having   been  tilled, 
may  be  hung  up  in  the 
erect   position,    and  the 
Fig.  5.  liquid    will    not  esc  ape  ; 

but,  on  plunging  one  end  into  a  liquid,  it 
will  be  found  immediately  to  flow  from  the 
ether,  provided  that  the  "latter  is  below  the 
level  of  the  surface  of  the  liquid. 

n.ning  and  Filtering.  The  ope- 
rationo  of  straining  and  filtering  are  fre- 
quently required  in  domestic  manipulations, 
aii'I  the  apparatus  employed  usually  consists 
of  rieves  and  a  jelly-bag.  As  in  many  other 
instances,  it  will  be  found  advantageous  to 
import  several  contrivances  from  the  labo- 
ratory to  the  kitchen.  One  of  the  most  useful 
(because  most  simple)  strainers  consists  of  a 
square  frame,  formed  of  four  pieces  of  wood 
nailed  together  al  the  corners,  with  apiece  of 
calico,  linen,  or  canvas,  of  suitable  fineness, 
tacked  to  the  four  sides.  This  strainer  is 
particularly  useful  in  separating  any  solid 
substance — as  the  residue  in  making  wines; 
or  if  grated  potatoes  are  put  on  one  made  of 
Coarse  cloth,  the  starch  can  be  readily  washed 
through,  leaving  the  useless  portion  on  the 
strainer;  the  cloth  should  not  be  tacked 
very  loosely,  as  it  bags  down  when  any  sub- 
stance is  put  on  it,  and  the  liquid  runs  away 
below  from  the  centre.  This  strainer  is  a 
most  useful  one  ;  it  is  readily  made,  of  any 
of  fineness,  and  of  any  ;-ize  ;  and  it 
also  possesses  the  great  advantage,  that,  if 
ry,  the  tacks  fastening  the  cloth  can 
easily  be  withdrawn,  when  the  substance 
remaining  can  be  rolled  up  in  the  cloth,  and 
tightly  squeezed,  to  express  the  last  portions 
of  liquid,  which  are  frequently  the  most 
valuable. 

In  cases  where  a  finer  filtration  is  required 
than  can  be  obtained  by  means  of  a  cloth,  as 
in  cleaning  turbid  wirie  or  spirit,  the  use  of  j 
filtering- paper  is  recommended.    This  paper  ■■ 
is  merely  a  stouter  kind  of  blotting-paper,  ! 
thick  varieties  of  which  answer  very  well 
for  domestic  purposes ;  it  is  most  simply  used 
by  taking  a  square  piece,   folding  it  into 


half — by  bringing  the  two  opposite  edge?  to- 
ge  her  —  and  then  folding  the  oblong  so 
ob  aired  across  its  length.     By  this  means  a 

small  square  is  obtained,  one  quarter  the 
original  size,  which  may  be  opened  into  a 
hollow  cup,  having  three  thickie 
paper  on  one  side,  and  one  on  the  other; 
this  is  to  be  placed,  With  the  point  down- 
wards, in  a  funnel,  and  the  liquid  poured 
in  ;  and  as  soon  as  the  pons  of  the  paper 
are  expanded  by  the  moisture,  it  will  be 
found  to  llow  through  perfectly  clear.  Care 
must  be  taken,  in  making  the  filter,  not  to 
finger  it  much  where  the  two  foldings  cross 
each  other,  as  a  hole  is  readily  made  at  that 
part,  and  the  filter  spoiled.  The  objection 
to  this  simple  contrivance  is,  that  from  its 
fiat  sides  applying  themselves  closely  to 
those  of  the  tunnel,  the  flow  of  the  liquid  is 
impeded,  and  is  therefore  slow.  This  effect 
may  be  obviated  by  the  use  of  the  plaited 
filter,  the  construction  of  which  we  will 
endeavour  to  describe.  A  square  piece  of 
filtering  or  stout  blotting-paper,  is  to  he 
doubled,  and  the  oblong  so  obtained  is  to  be 
again  folded  in  half,  when,  if  the  last  fold 
is  opened,  it  will  have  the  appearance  of 
fig.  6.  From  the  corners,  b  b,  folds  are  to 
be  creased  in  the  direction  towards  «,  but 
not  reaching  it  for  half-an-inch  ;  these  are 
.  d  by  the  dotted  lines,  which  divide 
b  b 

d 


Fig.  6. 
the  double  paper  into  four  triangles,  each  of 
which  is  to  be  again  folded  into  eights;  and 
care  must  be  taken  that  all  the  folds  are 
made  the  same  way,  that  is.  projecting  to 
the  same  side  of  the  paper.  When  complete, 
the  doubled  and  creased  paper  will  appear  as 
fig.  7.      Now  divide  each  eighth  into  half, 


Hg.7. 

by  a  fold  in  the  opposite  direction  to  those 
previously  made,  when  it  will  be  found  that 
the  whole  will  readily  fold  up  like  a  paper 
fan.  The  projecting  loose  ends  which  are 
formed  by  the  corners  b,  should  be  cut  off, 


FACTS   FOB.  EYERYIiODY 


Fig.  8. 


and  the  double  sides  separated  for  the  first 
time  by  blowing  them  apart,  when  the 
whole  may  be  readily  opened  out  as  in  fig.  8. 
In  making  this  filter, 
which  takes  a  much 
less  time  than  to  fol- 
low the  description, 
two  precautions  are  , 
requisite.  The  folds 
should  be  made  at 
once  with  one  firm 
pressure,  and  not  with 
a  ser.es  of  rubbings ; 
and  all  the  creases 
should  stop  short  of 
the  middle,  otherwise 
a  hole  will  be  made  at  that  point  long  before 
the  filter  is  completed.  The  advantages  of 
this  filter  are,  that  it  exposes  a  large  sur- 
face for  the  liquid  to  pass  through ;  and  from 
its  only  being  in  contact  with  the  funnel 
where  the  angles  project,  the  current  flows 

always  readily From  Inquike  Within. 

WRITING  AND  CONVERSATION 
(MODES  OF  ADDRESS  IN).  There  are 
many  who  well  know  how  to  use  the  pen  as 
far  as  handwriting  is  concerned,  but  when 
they  are  called  upon  to  address  their  supe- 
riors in  life,  they  are  quite  ignorant  as  to 
the  proper  and  polite  mode;  and  having 
seen  much  perplexity  manifested  from  not 
knowing  how  to  accomplish  this  art,  we 
shall  enter  somewhat  largely  on  prescribed 
forms  of  superscription. 

The  Baronetage.  This  order,  instituted 
by  King  James  I.,  1611,  is  said  to  have  been 
suggested  by  the  minor  barons,  so  called,  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  great  barons, 
though  both  barons  by  tenure ;  the  one  re- 
taining their  territorial  possessions,  the 
other  having  alienated  them.  The  title  is, 
however,  of  very  ancient  standing,  both  in 
England  and  France,  and  was  used  in  the  i 
former  for  banneret,  when  it  was  meant  to  j 
designate  a  knight-banneret,  who  had  the  j 
privilege  of  sitting  in  parliament.  When 
this  herxlHary  order  was  instituted,  or 
revived — for  we  read  concerning  knights 
going  forth  in  quest  of  adventures  as  far 
back  as  the  feudal  times — it  happened  that 
a  rebellion  raged  in  the  northern  province 
of  Ireland,  and  it  was  therefore  deemed  ex- 
pedient that  each  newly-created  baronet 
should,  after  the  example  of  the  ancient 
knights,  who  rendered  due  service  to  the 
king,  pay  into  the  exchequer  a  sum  of  money 
adequate  to  the  maintenance  of  thirty 
Soldiers  for  three  years,  at  eight-pence  per 
finy ;  this  sum,  increased  by  fees,  amounted 
to  nearly  twelve  thousand  pounds.  It  was 
required  further,  that  the  candidate  should 


be  a  gentleman  by  birth,  and  in  possession 
of  a  clear  estate  of  one  thousand  per  annum. 
The  word  "Sir"  is  affixed  to  the  christian 
name  of  a  baronet,  as  it  is  used  before  that 
of  a  simple  knight;  and  his  wife  is  en ti:  led 
"Lady,  "  Madam,"  or  "  Dame,"  according 
to  the  custom  of  speaking.  Baronets  and 
their  heirs  male,  have  place  in  battle  near 
the  royal  standard,  which  they  are  bound  to 
defend.  Baronets  lose  all  distinction  of  rank 
when  they  sign  their  names;  even  the 
"lordly  line  of  high  St.  Clair,"  being  simply 
baronets,  affix  merely  their  christian  names. 
A  letter  to  a  baronet  is  superscribed— "To 
Sir  X.  Y.,  Baronet,  or  Bart.;" — to  a  knight, 
"To  Sir  A.  B." 

Barons  by  Letters  Patent.  The  king, 
in  olden  times,  used  to  invest  a  newly-created 
baron  in  open  parliament ;  and  so  late  as 
the  time  of  King  James  I.,  that  monarch,  in 
person,  solemnly  enrobed  each  peer  in 
scarlet,  with  a  furred  hood;  but  in  the  same 
year  it  was  determined  to  discontinue  these 
ceremonies  in  future,  the  delivery  of  letters 
patent  being  deemed  sufficient.  Barons, 
when  addressed  officially  by  the  crown,  are 
styled,  "Right  trusty  and  well-beloved." 
Letters  sent  to  them,  by  private,  persons, 
must  bear  a  superscription  as  follows : — 
"To  the  Right  Honourable."  (For  a  baron's 
coronet,  see  p.  129.) 

Viscount.  The  next  grade  in  the 
ascending  scale  to.vards  the  highest  estate 
of  the  realm,  is  that  of  vice 'omes,  or 
viscount,  which  title  was  formerly  applied 
to  the  sheriff  of  a  county,  but  was  not  used 
as  a  designation  of  nobility  before  the  reign 
of  Henry  VI.  A  viscount  is  uniformly 
created  by  patent,  and  descends  from  father 
to  son,  unless  especially  provided  against. 
The  honour  was  originally  conferred  as  an 
advancement  to  barons;  but  afterward! 
created  frequently  with  the  barony ;  and, 
in  modern  times,  it  has  been  conferred  on 
private  gentlemen,  as  a  reward  for  dis- 
tinguished services.  Thus,  for  example, 
Viscount  Sid  mouth,  Viscount  Leinster, 
Viscount  Goderich,  Viscount  Exmouth,  &o. 
Viscounts  are  addressed  by  the  crown  as 
"Our  right  trusty  and  well- beloved 
Cousins."  Letters  to  them  bear  the  super- 
scription—  "To  the  Right  Honourable 
Viscount  A.  or  B."  The  sons  and  daughters 
are  simply  "the  Honourable." 

Earl.  The  dignity  of  earl,  which  ex- 
isted in  this  country  previous  to  the  time  of 
William  the  Conqueror,  was  originally 
annexed  to  a  particular  piece  of  land,  and 
comprised  three  descriptions  of  earldoms. 
First — pertaining  to  an  entire  county,  in 
which  case  the  county  became  palatine,  cr 


A   MISCELLANY  OP  IREFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


173 


the  possessor  of  royal  privileges.    Secondly 

— derived  only  from  a  oounty,  but  without 
Che  privilege  of  holding  high  courts,  and 

and  without  any 
sioua;  and  with  revenues  ariaii 
participating  in  profits  derived  from  the 
pleas  id'  the  oounty  court.  Thirdly— a  kind 
of  earldom  constituted  by  a  grant  of  laud 
from  the  crown.  The  titles  in  eacb  are  often 
.  nor  ouly  from  towns  or  counties,  but 
from  pr  9,  or  villages,  and  family 

surnames.  When  officially  addressed  by 
the  crown,  earls  are  termed  "Our  right 
fan  sty  and  right  well-beloved  Cousin." 
This  mode  of  address  was  first  adopted  by 
Henry  IV.  The  king  being  either  by  his 
wife,  his  mother,  or  his  sisters,  actually  re- 
late.!, or  allied  to  every  earl  in  the  kingdom, 

i:ly  acknowledged  that  connexion  in 
all  his  letters,  and  other  public  acts;  from 
Whence,  according  to  Riaekstone,  the  usage 
has  descended  to  his  successors  on  the  British 
throne,  though  the  same  reason  does  not 
exist.  An  earl,  on  some  special  occasions. 
also  the  title  of  "Puissant  Prince." 
When  addressed  by  letter,  as  follows — "To 
the  Bight  Honourable  the  Earl  of — "  The 
eldest  sons  of  Earls  are  Lords ;  the  sisters 
also  have  the  title  of  Ladies.  (For  Coronet, 
see  p.  US.) 

Mahquis.     A  marquis  (marchio),  is  the 
next  degree  of  nobility.  His  office,  formerly, 

guard  the  frontiers  and  limits  of  the 
kingdom,  which  was  called  the  marches, 
from  the  Teutonic  word  marehe,  a  limit;  as 
in  p  irticular  were  the  marches  of  Wales  and 
Scotland,   before  those   countries  were  an- 

to  Britain.  The  persons  who  guarded 
the  frontiers  were  called  Lords  Marches, 
or  Marquises;  their  authority  was  abolished 

ue  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  as  no 
longer  necessary.  Ruins  on  the  border- 
lands still  attest  the  power  and  extent  of 
those  strongholds,  where  lords  of  the 
marches  presided  in  nearly  regal  splendour. 
Such  is  Ludlow  Castle,  on  the  borders  of 
"Wales,  amid  scenes  of  sylvan  beauty,  where 
Milton  wrote  his  "Co'mus."  and  among 
whose  fields  and  woods  he  laid  the  scene  of 
that  inimitable  poem.  The  first  English 
marquisate  was  conferred  by  King  Richard 
II.,  in  1386,  upon  Robert  de  Vere,  after- 
wards created  Duke  of  Ireland;  the  second 
creation  occurs  in  the  same  reign;  after 
wldch.  the  dignity  remained  dormant  till 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI. ,  but  thenceforward 
it  became  a  regular  and  common  grade  of 
nobility.  His  otlicial  address  is  ''Our  right 
trusty  and  entirely-beloved  Cousin.''  I 
bears  the  title,  on  some  occasions,  of  "  Puis- 
sant Prince."     His  sons  are  Right  Honour- 


able,   and    Lords;     his    da  ^liters    Right 

Honourahles,   and  Ladies.      'I  he  style  of  a 

Marquis  is  "Most  Honourable."  If  addressed 

r,  the  direction  should  be  asfollows: — 

(' To  the  Most  Honourable  the  Marquis  of — ." 

(For  ,i  marquis'  coronet,  see  p.  14o.) 

IH'kk.    The  dukedom,  the  most  elevated 

in  the  British  peerage,  was  first  in- 

i  by  Edward  III.,  who  created  his 
eldest  son,"  Edward  the  Black  Prince  (so 
called  on  account  of  his  sable  armour),  Duke 
of  Cornwall,  and  subsequently  Prince  of 
Wales;  when  the  dukedom  merged  in  the 
principality,  and  has  ever  since  been  rest  d 
in  the  heir-apparent  to  the  throne,  who,  at 
his  birth,  becomes  Duke  of  Cornwall.  A. 
duke  is  officially  addressed  by  the  crown, 
"Our  right  trusty  and  right  entirely  beloved 
Cousin  and  Councillor."  He  is  also  entitled 
upon  .some  occasions,  "Puissant  Prince." 
All  letters  to  him  are  thus  superscribed: — 
"To  His  Grace  the  Duke  of — ,"  or  "To  the 
Most  Noble  the  Duke  of — ."  His  sons  are 
Right  Honourables,  and  Lords;  bis 
daughters  Right  Honourables  and  Ladies. 
Thus,  in  addressing  them  by  letter — "To 
the  Right  Honourable  Lord  A  or  B."  The 
sons  of  a  royal  duke  are,  however,  styled 
princes.  In  writing  to  a  duke  or  marquis, 
it  is  usual  to  distinguish  him  from  nobility 
of  minor  rank  by  using  the  words,  "My 
Lord  Duke,"  or  "My  Lord  Marquis."  in 
writing  to  an  earl,  a  viscount,  or  a  baron, 
you  simply  say  "My  Lord."  In  like 
manner,  an  archbishop  who  takes  prece- 
dence of  a  duke,  and  is  "Ilia  Grace,"  is 
addressed  by  letter  in  no  other  form  than, 
simply  "My  Lord  "  You  give  him,  and  a 
duke,  the  title  of  "Grace"  at  the  termi- 
nation of  the  letter,  when  you  say,  "I  re- 
main, my  Lord,  your  Grace's  most  obedient, 
&c."  To  all  others,  the  marquis  included, 
you  simply  say,  "Your  Lordship's  most 
obedient,"  &c.  And  yet,  notwithstanding 
such  high-sounding  titles  are  addressed  to 
different  orders  of  nobility,  and  as  if  the 
simple  word  "Sir"  was  after  all  the  highest 
title  of  respect,  the  term  "Sire,"  which  is 
precisely  the  same  word  as  "Sir,"  or 
"Sieur,"  in  its  original  meaning,  exclu- 
sively belongs  to  the  king.  He  stands  alone 
at  the  apex  of  society,  and  hence  to  him  is 
assigned,  as  by  Tight,  an  appellation  signi- 
fying hud,  or  master.  (For  a  duke's  coronet, 
see  p.  141.) 

The  addition  of  squire,  after  a  surname, 
formerly  belonged  solely  to  a  man  of  con- 
siderable landed  property,  next  in  rank  to  a 
knight;  to  an  attendant  on  some  nobie 
wan  ior ;  or  to  one  who  had  a  place  at  court. 
Since  the   days    of   Shakspeare,  who  thus 


174 


FACTS  FOE  EYEEYBODY: 


applied  the  word  squire,  it  has  been  very 
generally  appropriated,  and  is  now  given  as 
a  term  of  courtesy,  to  every  one  who  holds  a 
respectable  position  in  society. 

The  word  "gentleman,"  on  the  contrary, 
is  more  restricted ;  it  pertains  to  persons  of 
good  and  honourable  birth.  In  reference 
to  which,  and  the  great  changes  that  take 
place  in  society,  are  the  verses  of  an  old 
song,  which  we  quote  from  memory : — 

"The  king  can  make  a  belted  knight, 
With  banner  bold,  and  spurs  so  bright, 
All  meet  for  tournament  or  light — 
But  not  a  gentleman." 

According  to  rules  established  in  the 
Herald's  Office,  a  person  is  entitled  to  the 
rank  of  gentleman,  whatever  may  be  his 
condition,  or  however  dispossessed  of  broad 
lands  and  ancestral  homes,  who  can  show  a 
coat  of  arms  for  five  generations. 

Spiritual  Frees.  Archbishops  have  the 
ducal  title  of  "Grace,"  and  take  precedence 
of  all  dukes,  next  to  those  of  royal  birth. 
The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  ranks  as  lirst 
peer  of  the  realm,  and  the  Archbishop  of 
York  as  third,  coming  immediately  after 
the  Lord  Chancellor.  His  Grace  of  Canter- 
bury st3Tles  himself  "by  divine  providence;" 
■while  the  Archbishop  of  York,  and  the 
bishops,  adopt  the  term  "  permission "  in- 
stead of  "providence."  Bishops  are  styled 
"  Lords,"  and  "Eight  Reverend  Fathers  in 
God."  The  wives  of  ecclesiastics  are  not 
designated  by  the  titles  of  their  husbands. 
"Reverend,"  belongs  to  all  clergymen  under 
the  rank  of  archdeacon.  The  archdeacon 
is  addressed  as — "  The  Venerable  the  Arch- 
deacon  ."      The    dean  as — "The  very 

Reverend  the  Dean  of ."     The    bishop 

as — "The  right  Reverend  the  Bishop  of " 

The  archbishop  as — "The  most  Reverend 
the  Archbishop  of ."  But  the  arch- 
bishop being  equal  in  rank  to  a  duke,  his 
letters  are  addressed  as  follows: — "To  his 
Grace  the  Archbishop  of  Y.  or  Z." 
"  Worship"  is  a  title  that  belongs  to  magis- 
trates and  municipal  corporations.  The 
corporation  of  London  is  "right  worship- 
ful," others  are  only  "worshipful."  "Your 
Worship,"  is  a  term  addressed  to  a  magis- 
trate sitting  in  judgment;  even  a  justice 
of  the  peace  is  entitled  to  this  form  of  ad- 
dress, when  engaged  in  official  duties. 
The  superscription  of  letters  sent  to  ladies, 
follows  the  same  rule  as  that  which  serves 
for  gentlemen,  merely  changing  the  pro- 
noun from  him  to  her.  thus — "To  her 
Grace  the  Duchess  of  B.  The  wife  of  a 
baronet  or  knight  is.  styled  "Lady."  A 
lady  who  derives  the  title*  of  "  Honourable" 
by  "descent,  as  the  daughter  of  an  earl  or 


viscount,  if  marrying  a  private  gentleman, 
is  always  addressed  by  her  Christian  name; 
thus — "The  Honourable  Charlotte  de 
Courcy."  Whereas,  the  wife  of  a  gentle- 
man who  boars  the  title  of  "Honourable" 
by  virtue  of  birth,  or  some  offieial  situation, 
is  addressed  as  — "The  Honourable  Mrs.  C. 
In  writing  to  the  Queen,  the  form  of  ad- 
dress runs  thus: — "Madam,  may  it  please 
vour  Majesty;"  the  superscription  on  the 
ktter  being  uniformly — "  To  your  Majesty." 
It  is  presumed  that  her  Majesty  listens  to 
the  request  of  the  petitioner;  she  is  there- 
fore feigned  to  be  present,  and  being  pre- 
sent, is  addressed  with  the  pronoun  you. 
To  write  otherwise  is  an  utter  breach  of 
etiquette. 

INCLINED-PLANE.  A  natural  mecha- 
nical power,  which  deflects  a  body  aside, 
when  moving  perpendicularly  towards  the 
centre  of  the  earth,    by  which  the  force 


"'ilito-'fi'ttaJiillM 

towards  the  centre  is  modified.  Its  common 
application  is  to  elevate  bodies,  which  are 
raised  perpendicularly  while  they  are  moved 
up  the  plane ;  and  the  force  gained  is  as  the 
increased  distance  moved  over,  that  is,  as  the 
length  of  the  inclined-plaue  is  to  the  per- 
pendicular height  gained. 

BEAVER.  An  interesting  and  intelligent 
animal,  which  builds  substantial  dwellings 
on  rivers,  and  is  hunted  and  destroyed  by 
man  for  the  down  of  which  hats  are  made; 

i 


but  silk  and  fine  wool  are  now  substituted. 
The  engraving  represents  a  colony  of  these 
creatures  in  a  sort  of  council,  before  they 
begin  any  work. 


A   MISCELLANY   OF   FSFFFL   KNOWLEDGE. 


175 


TRANCE.     Magnetic    deep,    or   trance, 
!  red  at  all  times  to  perplex  the  world 

by  the  Strange  breach  it  seems  to  make  be- 
tween the  bodily  and  mental  functions,  by 
its  unexpectedness  in  some  cases,  and  by 
the  peculiar  agency  producing  it  in  others. 
l)r.  Holland  observes  that,  "as  respects 
magnetic  Bleep,  or  trance,  in  all  its  alleged 

ihtipes,    there  is  no   well-authenticalod   fact 

making  it  needful  to  believe  that  an  in- 
fluence is  received  from  without  beyond 
those  impressions  on  the  senses  which  are 
capable,  according  to  the  temperament  and 
other  circumstances,  of  exciting  disordered 
as  well  as  healthy  actions,  throughout  every 
part  of  the  nervous  system,  and  especially 
in  the  sensorial  functions." 

NEPTUNE.    The  god  of  the  ocean,  in  the 
Greek  mythology. 


izj£&* 


TRANSPARENT  PAPER.  Paper  can 
be  made  as  transparent  as  glass,  and  capable 
of  being  substituted  for  it  for  many  purposes, 
by  spreading  over  it  with  a  leather  a  very 
thin  layer  of  resin  dissolved  in  spirits  of 
wine  Fine  thin  post  paper  is  best,  and  the 
mixture  must  be  applied  on  both  sides 

MAGNETISM.  A  phenomenon  of  the 
^action  and  reaction  of  the  gases  which  till 
"space,  and  to  which  the  surface  of  iron 
presents  a  peculiar  reaction.  The  plate 
represents  the  curved  forms  in  which  par- 
ticles of  steel-dust  range  themselves  when 


%; .  ■  ?:  ? 

sifted  on  paper  laid  over  a  magnet.  There 
is  no  mystery  in  it,  nor  anv  fluid  circulating, 
because  every  particle  of  the  steel  is  to  be 
regarded  as  a  magnet  with  two  poles  ;  and  it 
is  found  that  if  a  considerable  number  of 
magnetized  needles  were  placed  round  the 
same  magnet,  they  would  be  directed  into 
curves  just  like  those  of  the  steel-dust.  The 
whole  lis  a  mere  mechanical  affection. 


FIG-TREE.    A  tree  which,  in  warm  cli- 
mates,   produces    delicious    and   nutritive 


fruit,  and  succeeds  in  America  in  warm 
situations,  and  against  walls. 

CHRISTIAN  NAM  ES.  Christian  names 
are  so  called  from  their  having  originally, 
been  given  to  converts  at  baptism,  as  sub- 
stitutes for  their  former  pagan  appellatives, 
many  of  which  were  borrowed  from  the 
names  of  their  gods,  and  therefore  rejected 
as  profane. 

LIGHT-HOUSE.  Aloftybuilding,erected 
on  sea-coasts  to  warn  and  guide  ships  by 
night.  They  are  very  curious  structures, 
consisting  of  an  intense  body  of  light,  ra- 


m 


fofc...     ,  ,i :____—. 


diated  by  concave  reflectors  and  convex 
lenses,  sometimes  coloured  for  distinction'! 
sake,  and  made  to  change  and  revolve  M 
further  means  of  distinction. 


176 


FACTS  FOR   EVERYBODY: 


SKIN  (DARK  COLOUR  OF  THE). 
Darkness  of  complexion  has  been  attributed 
to  the  sun's  power,  from  the  age  of  Solomon 
to  this  day, — "  Look  not  upon  me,  because 
I  am  black,  because  the  sun  hath  looked 
upon  me;"  and  there  cannot  be  a  doubt, 
that,  to  a  certain  degree,  the  opinion  is  well 
founded.  The  invisible  rays  in  the  solar 
beams,  which  change  vegetable  colour,  and 
have  been  employed  with  such  remarkable 
effect  in  the  Daguerreotvpe,  act  upon  every 
substance  upon  which  they  fall,  producing 
mysterious  and  wonderful  changes  in  their 
molecular  state,  man  not  excepted. 

ESSENCE  OP  FLOWERS  (TO  EX- 
TRACT). Procure  the  petals  of  any  flowers 
that  have  an  agreeable  fragrance,  card  thin 
lavers  of  cotton-wool,  which  dip  into  the 
finest  Florence  or  Lucca  oil,  sprinkle  a 
small  quantity  of  fine  salt  on  the  flowers, 
and  lay  them  on  a  layer  of  cotton  and  a 
layer  of  flowers,  until  an  earthen  jar  or 
■wide-mouthed  glass-bottle  is  full ;  tie  the 
top  close  with  bladder,  then  lay  the  vessel 
in  a  south  aspect  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and 
in  fifteen  days,  when  you  uncover  it,  a  fra- 
grant oil  may  be  squeezed  out  of  the  cotton 
mass  altogether,  which  will  be  found  little 
inferior  to  the  celebrated  otto  of  roses,  if 
those  flowers  have  been  used. 

FLOWERS  'CLASSES  OF).  Flowers 
are  commonly  classed  as  bulbs,  tubers, 
herbaceous  perennials,  biennials,  and  an- 
nuals. The  first  are  chiefly,  as  well  as  a 
few  of  the  tubers,  spring  flowers,  and  of 
course  require  to  be  planted  in  prepared 
beds,  boxes,  or  pots,  in  the  autumn,  sooner 
or  later,  according  to  the  place  or  purpose 
for  wliich  the  flowers  are  wanted.  Tulips, 
hyacinths,  polyanthus-narcissus,  are  the 
principal  bulbs';  and  together  with  crown- 
imperials,  gladiolas,  crocuses,  snow-drops, 
scillas,  &c,  are  all  planted  in  autumn, 
sooner  or  later,  according  to  the  option  or 
judgment  of  the  manager.  Of  tubers,  the 
anemone,  and  ranunculus  are  the  chief  of 
the  bed  flowers ;  and  when  a  succession  of 
these  are  wished  for,  the  tubers  may  be  put 
into  the  ground  at  the  end  of  every  two 
months,  which  will  bring  their  blossoms  at 
corresponding  intervals. 

S.NA1LS.  In  France  the  snail  is  becom- 
ing a  fashionable  article  of  diet,  and  for  some 
time  past  a  particular  place  has  been 
appropriated  for  their  sale  in  the  Paris  fish- 
market,  in  the  south-east  angle,  near  the 
lobsters  and  fresh-water  fish.  "Snails," 
says  one  of  the  French  journals,  "  were 
highly  esteemed  by  the  Romans,  our  masters 
iu  gastronomy,  and  are  now  raised  in  many 
of  the  departments  with  success.    In  the 


sixteenth  century,  the  Capuchins  of  Fri- 
bourg  recovered  the  art  of  breeding  and 
fattening  snails,  an  art  which  is  not  lost  in 
our  day;  fa-  in  Franehe-Comte,  Lorraine, 
and  Burgundy,  they  raise  excellent  snails, 
which  find  a  sure  demand  in  the  Paris  mar- 
ket. There  are  now  fifty  restaurants,  and 
more  than  twelve  hundred  private  tables  in 
Paris,  where  snails  are  accepted  as  a  deli- 
cacy by  from  eight  thousand  to  ten  thousand 
consumers.  The  monthly  consumption  of 
this  molluscan  is  estimated  at  half  a  million. 
The  market  price  of  the  great  vineyard 
snails  is  from  2f.  50c.  to  3f.  50c.  per  hun- 
dred, while  Jhose  of  the  hedges,  woods,  and 
forests,  bring  only  from  2f.  to  2f.  25o.  The 
proprietor  of  the  snaillery  in  the  vicinity  of 
Dijon  is  said  to  net  over  7,000  francs  an- 
nually. 

WINE  (HOW  TO  CHOOSE).  Choose 
port  wine  which  runs  smooth  on  the  palate, 
and  is  free  from  all  heat  and  harshness.  It 
should  be  soft  as  velvet,  if  for  immediate 
consumption,  and  have  none  of  that  astriu- 
<ceucy  which  somewhat  resembles  Peruvian 
bark.  In  wines  new  from  the  country,  this 
taste  is  sure  to  be  perceptible ;  but  if,  after 
due  care  and  keeping,  it  be  found  to  remain 
on  bottling,  the  wine  is  bad.  Medical  men 
have  sometimes  recommended  port  wine  for 
this  very  quality;  but  it  is  a  defect  in  the 
wine,  and  will  not  remedy  by  age.  Some 
call  it  stalkiness.  Flavours  are  not  easily 
defined  in  their  gradations  by  language — 
richness  of  flavour  bordering  upon  sweet- 
ness; brightness  of  colour,  hue  neither 
purple,  nor  reddish,  nor  too  deep  ;  generous 
in  taste,  and  what  wine-merchants  call 
fruitiness,  are  qualities  with  port-wine 
drinkers, — imitated  in  an  adulteration  with 
gerupega, — and  what  may  be  called  oilinesB, 
rather  than  dryness.  Care  must  be  taken 
that  the  wines  purchased  in  bottle  are  of  the 
right  age,  neither  too  green  nor  too  slight. 
Thev  should  be  clear  and  bright. 

TOAST  AND  WATER.  Cut  a  clean  piece 
of  bread  about  three  inches  square,  and  not 
quite  half  an  inch  thick  ;  toasting  it  brown 
all  over  without  burnmg  it,  and  then  put 
it  into  a  pint  mug  tilled  with  clean  cold 
water,  clapping  a  saucer  over  the  top  to  keep 
the  steam  from  escaping.  In  about  ten  mi- 
nutes  a  pint  of  nice,  cooling,  and  refreshing 
drink  will  be  produced. 

BREAD  (ETYMOLOGY  OF  THE 
WORD).  Bread  is  brayed  grain,  from  the 
verb  to  bray,  or  pound  ;  expressive  of  the 
old  method  of  making  the  meal.  Dough 
comes  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  word  deawian, 
tc  wet,  to  moisten.  Loaf  is  from  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  lif-ian,  to  raise,  to  lift  up — as  raided 


A   MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


j:: 


bread.     Leaven  is  derived  from  the  French 

word   lever,  to   raise,    or   the   Saxon   word 
lit  -  iii n. 

'  PASSING  BELL.  It  is  so  ealled  be- 
cause the  defunct  has  passed  from  one  state 
to  another,  audit  owes  its  origin  to  an  idea 
of  sanctity  attached  to  bells  by  the  early 
Romanists,  who  believed  that  the  sound  ox 
these  holy  instrument!  of  percussion 
actually  drove  the  evil  spirit  away  from  the 
soul  ot  the  departing:  Christian.  Durand, 
who  flourished  about  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
century,  tells  us  in  his  "Rationale," 
"  When  any  one  is  dying,  bells  must  be 
tolled,  that  the  people  may  put  up  their 
prayers;  twice  for  a  woman,  and  thrice  for 
a  man  ;  if  f>r  a  clergyman,  as  many  times 
as  he  had  orders;  and,  at  the  conclusion, 
a  peal  on  all  the  bells,  to  distinguish  the 
quality  of  the  person  for  whom  the  people 
are  to*  put  up  their  prayers.  A  bell,  too, 
must  be  rung  when  the  corpse  is  conducted 
to  church,  and  during  the  bringing  it  out  of 
the  church  to  the  grave."  Shakspeare,  in 
one  of  his  poems,  says  : — 

"  Come  list  and  hark,  the  bell  doth  toll 
For  si>;i:e  but  now  departing  soul, 
"Whom  even  now  those  ominous  fowle, 
The  bat,  the  night-jar,  or  screech-owl, 
Lament ;  hark  !  1  bear  the  wiide  wo  lie  howle 
In  'his  black  night  that  seems  to  scowle, 
All  these  my  black  book  shall  enscrole. 
For  hark!  still,  still  the  bell  doth  toll 
For  some  but  now  departing  soul." 

MODELS.  The  first  models  were  figures 
of  living  persons,  and  Dibutates,  the  Co- 
rinthian, was  the  inventor  of  those  in  clay. 
His  daughter,  known  by  the  designation  "of 
the  Corinthian  Maid,  being  about  to  be 
separated  from  her  lover,  who  was  going  on 
a  distant  journey,  traced  his  profile  by  his 
shadow  on  the  wall;  her  father  filled  up  the 
outline  with  clay,  which  he  afterwards 
baked,  and  thus  produced  a  figure  of  the 
object  of  her  affection,  giving  rise  to  an  art 
till  then  unknown,  about  nine  hundred  and 
eighty-five  years  before  Christ.  One  of  the 
urprising  efforts  ever  achieved  by 
human  industry  was  that  undertaken  by 
General  Plifi'ner,  to  model  the  mountains  of 
Switzerland.  It,  was  begun  in  1766,  and 
completed  in  178-5,  a  period  of  nearly  twenty 
years.  Bonaparte  was  a  patron  and  lover 
of  this  art,  many  admirable  performances 
in  which,  as  a  reward  to  the  artist,  he 
purchased,  weight  for  weight,  according  to 
their  hulk,  in  silver  or  gold.  On  one  occa- 
sion, a  humble  price  of  400  francs  being  set 
upon  a  work,  he  erased  the  word  francs,  in 
hen  of  which  he  inserted  Napoleons,  and 
directed  them  to  be  paid. 


WATER.     A  fluid,  of  which  a  cubic  foot 
weighs  1,000  ounces,  ar  8.!.";  times  more  than 

foot  of  atmospheric  air:  the  con- 
stituents of  which  are  one  part,  by  weighty 
of  hydrogen,  and  7h  of  oxygen;  and  two 
parts,   by  bulk,   of  hydrogen,   and  one  of 

It  becomes  solid  at  '■>  2°  of  Fahren- 
heit, and  boils  or  evaporates,  ami  becomes 
no  hotter,  at  212°,  though,  by  compression, 
ithas  been  heated  red-hot.  When  expanded 
in  steam,  at  212°,  it  acquire*  1,800  tunes  its 
bulk,  and  presses  with  the  force  ot  atmo- 
spheric air  ;  at  2'2G°  it  expands  9,000  times, 
and  36,000  times  at  2.J7°.  A  volume  of  ice 
is  made  fluid  by  as  much  excitement  as 
will  raise  an  equal  volume  of  water  140°. 
Vegetables  decompose  it,  the  hydrogen 
forming  their  unctuous,  resinous,  and  sac- 
charine principles,  in  combination  with  the 


arbon  of  the  soil ;  the  oxygen  being  evolved 
by  the  leaves,  and  a  supply  thereby  kept  up 
of  what  is  fixed  by  animal   respiration  and 


combustion.  In  the  ocean,  it  is  combined 
with  l-30th  of  its  weight  of  muriate  of  soda, 
or  sea-salt;  but,  as  salt  does  not  crystal- 
lize so  soon  as  water,  sea-water  remains 
liquid  till  the  thermometer  is  3.5  Lower  than 
for  other  water.  In  like  manner,  the  salt 
does  not  evaporate  at  the  heat  which  va- 
porizes water,  and,  therefore,  the  two 
processes  of  crystallizing  and  evaporating 
separate  the  water  from  the  salt.  Hence, 
the  clouds  which  rise  from  the  sea.  rain, 
fresh  water,  and  water  evaporated  by  art, 
yield  salt  in  the  proportion  of  one  ton  from 
3o  of  water.  In  crystallizing,  Faculties 
arise,  which  enlarge  the  bulk :  hence,  frozen 
water  splits  roeks  and  trees,  and  ice  floats 
upon  water.  Water  combines  with  iron, 
sulphur,  lime,  and  various  substances,  under 
a  great  variety  of  names;  hard  water  arises 
from  carbonic  acid  in  water  which  then 
combines  with  lime.  Waters  are  called 
hard  when  they  contain  a  salt  which  de- 
composes the  soap  instead  of  dissolving  it. 
The  deductions  drawn,  in  regard  to  the 
decomposition  of  water,  from  the  experiment 
of  discharging  a  galvanic  battery  through. 
water  are  erroneous;  for  the  poles  of  t ho 
hat!  cry  themselves  produce  the  oxygen  and 
hydrogen  supposed  to  be  produced  by  the 
water,  being,  in  fact,  the  constituents  of  the 
solution  lying  between  the  plates,  and 
identical  with  positive  and  negative  elec- 
tricity in  all  cases  and  circumstances.  (See 
p.  16). 

PAPER-HANGINGS.  A  safe  rule  with 
regard  to  paper-hangings  is  to  choose  no- 
thing that  looks  extravagant  or  unnatural: 
no  staring  pattern  or  colour,  which  would 
only  be  fit  to  make  caps  for  May-day  sweeps. 


178 


FACTS  tor  everybody: 


Kegard  should  be  had  to  the  uses  of  an 
apartment  s  a  drawing-room  should  be  light 
and  cheerful,  a  parlour  should  look  warm 
and  comfortable  without  being  gloomy : 
bed-room  papers  should  be  cool  and  quiet, 
and  generally  of  <i  small  pattern,  and  of 
such  colours  as  harmonise  with  bed  furni- 
ture and  other  fittings. 

TRUFFLE  BEETLE.  Entomologists, 
who  search  carefully  along  the  hedge-banks, 
athwart  which  innumerable  spiders  have 
thrown  their  elegaut  tracery,  may  chance  to 
find  the  truffle  beetle  (Leiodes  cinmtmo- 
mea)  feeding  on  the  fungus  from  which  he 
derives  his  name.  Unlike  many  of  his  bre- 
thren, who  delight  in  sunny  months,  and 
inhabit  the  loveliest  flowers,  the  truffle  beetle 
4ri 


is  found  between  the  months  of  October  and 
November,  often,  too,  on  windy  and  open 
downs  as  those  of  Wiltshire,  Hampshire, 
and  Kent,  and  bleak,  and  woodless  tracts 
in  Scotland,  regardless  of  fierce  winds,  and 
storms  of  sieet,  though  small  and  delicately 
formed,  and  apparently  ill- adapted  to  resist 
the  extremity  of  cold. 

MENSURATION.  The  art  of  determining 
the  square  and  cubic  dimensions  of  super- 
fices  and  solids,  effected  in  supertiees  by 
multiplying  the  length  by  the  breadth,  and 
in  solids  by  the  further  multiplication  of  the 


depth ;  figures  when  irregular  being  reduced 
to  regular  ones.  Thus  4  dimensions  one 
way  and  3  another,  give  12  squares,  or  4 
multiplied  by  3. 

TRI  AXu  LE.  A  figure  having  three  sides 
and  three  angles,  called  right-angled,  when 
two  of  the  sides  are  perpendicular  to  each 
other,  and  oblique-angled,  when  not  so. 
The  three  angles  are  equal  to  two  right 
augles,  the  sides  are  propoi-tionate  to  their 
opposite  angles,  and  the  sides  of  different 


triangles  having  equal  angles  are  propor- 
tionate to  each  other.  These  principles  are 
the  foundations  of  trigonometry,  and  of 
much  mathematical  science,  because  all 
figures  may  be  reduced  to  triangles;  and  it 
hence  appears  that  every  ligure  contains 
twice  as  m any  rigiit  angles  less  by  four  as  it 
has  sides,  as  3  x  2  =  6 — 4  =  2,  for  a  triangle  ; 
or  7  x  2  =  14, — 4,  or  10  right  angles  for  an 
heptagon. 

JACK.  In  mechanics,  a  very  powerful 
engine,  by  which  great  weights  are  lifted 
in  building,  &c. 


JACK.  A  very  useful  implement  in  kit- 
chens, sometimes  turned  by  the  force  with 
which  smoke  and  rarihed  air  ascend  in  a 
chimney.  The  Smoke-jack  consists  of  a 
horizontal  wheel,  the  radii  of  which  are 
placed  obliquely,  so  as  to  permit  the  smoke 
to  pass  through  them ;  the  axle  then  turns 
a  small  crank-wheel,  which  works  into 
another  at  right  angles,  and  at  the  end  is  a 
pulley  with  a  chain  to  turn  a  spit  set  before 
the  fire,  with  any  arlicle  intended  to  be 
turned  and  roasted.  Many  jacks  are,  how- 
ever, turned  by  means  of  a  weight,  which 
pulls  round  a  cylinder,  and  thereby,  with 
the  intervention  of  a  chain,  rotates  the  spit. 

BANK  OF  ENGLAND.  This  institu- 
tion, which  for  centuries  has  exercised  such 
an  influence  upon  the  commerce  and  wars 
of  the  world,  was  first  projccteu  by  a  mer- 
chant named  Patterson.  It  was  incorporated 
by  William  III.  in  1694,  when  the  whole 
of  its  capital  was  lent  to  Government.  The 
profits  of  the  company  arise  from  the  inte- 
rest of  the  Government  debt,  their  annual 
advances  on  Exchequer  bills,  and  many  other 
sources. 

YANKEES.  _  The  term  Yankee,  applied 
to  Americans,  is  said  to  have  originated  in 
the  in  inner  in  which  the  native  Indians  of 
America  pronounced  the  word  English— they 
called  the  early  settlers  from  Great  Britain 
"  Yengeese,"  which  corruption  led  to  thei? 
being  termed  Yankees. 


A   MISCT-T.LATTF   OF   FSP-FTTT,    KNOWLEDGE. 


3  79 


"WATCH.  A  pocket  instrument  for  mea- 
suring time,  excited  into  action  by  a  steel 
spring  coiled  up,  and  acting  bj  various  In- 
genious contrivances.  Ihe  spring 
a  brass  box,  called  the  barrel,  and  combined 
with  a  pyramidal  fusee,  on  which  a  con- 
necting chain  is  wound  by  the  key.  The 
6pring  being-  fastened  at  "one  end"  to  the 
.  and  at  the  other  end  to  an  arbor,  or 
axle,  unwinds  oft'  the  fusee,  turning  it,  and 
keeping  the  watch  going,  while  the  action 
accouls  by  its  various  size  with  the  varied 
energy  of  the  spring.  The  force  being  thus 
WketU,  $c,  •/  a  Watch. 


produced,  other  -wheels  are  put  in  motion, 
and  time  is  exactly  measured  by  the  hauds 
on  the  dial.^  "Watches  were  invented  about 
the  year  1500,  and  are  much  esteemed  in 
all  countries.  "Watches  are  manufactured 
to  a  great  extent  at  Geneva,  and  at  Paris, 
and  three  or  four  other  towns  in  France; 
in  England,  at  Liverpool  and  Coventry. 
But  ii  is  in  London  where  the  art  of  watch- 
making reigns  with  unrivalled  sway,  both 
in  extent  and  perfection.  The  extreme 
variation  in  twelve  months  of  two  watches 
made  in  London,  by  the  same  artist,  was  only 
from  nine-tenths  *0f  a  second  to  2"  8  in  a 
temperature  varying  from  82p  to  39°,  ac- 
cording to  an  official  report  made  from  the 
Royal  Observatory  at  Greenwich. 

6AS  (ECONOMY  OF,  FOR  DOMESTIC 
PURPOSES).  In  situations  where  gas  is 
to  be  obtained,  it  forms  a  ready,  and,  for 


some   |  ;  ry  economical  means  of 

obtaining   heat;   its  economy    does  not   arise 

from   its  cheapness   compared    with 

means,  but  from  the  fact  that  it  need  not  bo 
ted  till  the  instant  it  [» 
required,  and  can    he   ;,* 
quickly  extinguished  when 

it  has   done    its    required 

duty.  For  heating  any 
containing  liquids, 
especially  if  the  l, 
-*  required  to  be  only  of  short 
V^ir]  continuance,  gas"  will  he 
,;  found  extremely  advanta- 
geous; aring-burm  r,  eou- 
structed  as  shown  in  tig.  1, 
less  than  three  inches  in. 
diameter,  will  quickly  boil  a  gallon  of  water 
in  a  metallic  vessel.  Burners  of  this  descrip- 
tion are  usually  used  in  the  laboratory,  sur- 
rounded by  a*  case  made  of  sheet-iron  or 
tinned  plate,  as  fig.  2.  This  serves  to  sup- 
port the  vessel  to  be  heated,  to  steady  the 
jets  of  name, 
and  to  con- 
duct every 
portion  of  hot 
air  against 
the  bottom; 
the  door  also 
gives  a  ready 
to  the 
burner  for 
the  purpose 
of  lighting 
the  gas. 

For  the  do- 
mestic use  of 
Fig. 2.  gas  in  heat- 

ing, there  is  no  contrivance  so  useful  as  the 
following:  a  circular  hole,  from  two  to  lour 
or  more  i  ches  in  diameter,  is  cut  in  the 
dresser,  through  which  is  passed  a  sheet* 
iron  tube,  supported 
by  three  little  el- 
bows. Thistube  pro- 
jects a  few  inches 
above  the  table, 
and  about  a  foot  and 
a-half  below;  its 
lower  end  is  open, 
and  into  it  projects 
a  gas-pipe,  fur- 
nished with  a  Stop- 
co  k ;  the  upper 
extremity  is  co- 
vered with  s  sheet 
of  wire  gauze,  si- 
milar t<>  that  usej 
Fig.  3.  for  blinds,on  which, 

as  shown  in  fig.  3,   may  be  placed  uonie 


180 


FACTS   FOR  EYEltYBODr: 


piecesof  pumice -stone,  surrounded  and  kept 
together  by  a  broad  ring — neither  the  pu- 
mice-stone nor  the  ring,  however,  are  essen- 
tial parts  of  the  contrivance.  The  action  of 
this  arrangement  is  as  follows  :— When  the 
gas  is  turned  on  it  escapes  from  the  pipe, 
rising  through  the  tube,  and  mixing  with 
the  air  contained  within  it ;  this  mixture 
then  escapes  through  the  wire  gauze,  and 
may  be  lighted  on  its  upper  side,  without 
passing  through  it  to  the  gas  below.  The 
ilame  should  be  perfectly  free  from  smoke, 
which  indicates  too  much  gas — should  be 
pale,  colourless,  and  not  soil  any  bright 
metal  placed  in  it.  If  the  dame  is  in  the 
slightest  degree  yellow,  it  will  do  this,  and 
then  the  gas  should  be  partly  turned  oil';  on 
the  contrary,  if  there  is  notenough  gas,  the 
flams  will  be  extinguished.  When  lighted, 
the  pumice  becomes  red-hot,  and  throws  out 
a  great  heat  When  used  in  boiling,  the 
vessel  should  be  supported  a  short  distance 
over  the  flame  by  a  trevet ;  if  it  is  made  to 
rest  on  the  top  of  the  ring,  and  is  sufficiently 
large  to  close  it  entirely,  the  current  is 
stopped  and  the  flame  extinguished,  whilst 
the  unburned  gas  still  escapes  below.  This 
contrivance  is  most  useful,  it  is  lighted  in  an 
instant,  is  perfectly  free  from  smoke,  and  no 
unburned  gas  escapes;  it  throws  out  great 
heat;  and  may  be  employed  to  heat  bright 
tools  with  much  more  convenience  than  a 
charcoal  fire.  The  objections  to  its  use  are, 
that,  inhuming,  it  produces,  as  all  gas  does, 
a  Quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  deterio- 
rating the  air,  and  that  the  flame  cannot  be 
very  much  enlarged  or  diminished  ;  so  that 
if  fires  of  different  power  are  required,  two 
or  more  of  the  contrivances  must  be  put  in 
order.  Otherwise,  the  instantaneous  action, 
small  cost,  great  heating  power,  and  clean- 
liness of  the  plan,  strongly  recommend  it. 
In  81111111101-  weather,  in  many  small  families, 
it  can  be  made  to  dispense  altogether  with 
the  use  of  a  fire.  By  a  little  variation,  the 
whole  contrivance  may  be  made  to  stand  on 
the  table  like  fig.  1.  In  this  and  other 
cases,  vulcanized  India-rubber  will  be  found 
to  form  by  far  the  best  kind  of  flexible  tube, 
being  quite  impervious,  very  durable,  and 
excessively  pliant.  Those  who  wish  to  try 
the  experiment  of  heating  on  this  plan  may 
readily  do  so  by  covering  the  top  of  the 
giass  chimney  of  any  common  burner  with 
a  piect  of  wire  gauze,  folding  it  over  the 
fides;  the  gas  may  then  be  turned  on,  and 
lighted  above  the  gauze,  after  it  has  min- 
gled with  the  air  in  the  chimmy;  a  small 
burner,  however,  does  not  afford  sufficient 
gas  for  the  purpose,  and,  there  being  too 
tn  ueh  air,  the  flame  is  weak  aud  liable  to  go  out. 


GUN  BARRELS  (TO  BROWN).     Take 

of  nitric  acid,  half  an  ounce  ;  sweet  spirit,  of 
nitre,  half  an  ounce;  blue  vitriol,  two 
ounces;  tinctireof  steel,  one  ounce;  mix 
all  together  in  eight  gills  of  water;  apply 
this  mixture  with  a  sponge,  then  heat  the 
barrel  a  little,  and  move  the  oxide  with  a 
hard  brush.  This  operation  may  be  repeated 
a  third  or  fourth  time,  till  you  have  the 
brown  required ;  it  is  then  to  be  carefully 
wiped  and  sponged  with  boiling  water,  in 
which  there  has  been  put  a  small  quantity 
of  potass.  The  barrel,  being  taken  from  the 
water,  must  be  made  perfectly  dry,  aud  then 
rubbed  smooth  with  a  burnisher  of  hard 
wood  ;  afterwards  heated  to  the  height  of 
boiling  water,  and  varnished  with  the  fol- 
lowing varnish  : — 

Varnish  for  Gun  Barrels  that  have 
Undergone  the  Process  of  Browning. 
Take  of  spirits  of  wine,  two  parts  ;  dragon's 
blood,  powdered,  three  drachms;  shellac, 
bruised,  one  ounce;  dissolve  all  together. 
This  varnish,  being  laid  on  the  barrel,  and 
become  perfectly  dry,  must  be  rubbed  with 
a  burnisher  to  render  it  smooth  and  glossy. 

AUTOGRAPHS  (TO  PRESERVE).  The 
best  plan  to  preserve  autographs  is  to 
fix  them  in  what  is  usually  known  as 
an  invoice-book,  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
enable  the  collector  to  take  them  in  and 
out  at  pleasure.  The  thin  India-rubber 
thread  may  be  used  conveniently,  running 
from  corner  to  corner  across  the  note  or 
letter.  The  thread  should  be  passed  through 
a  bit  of  card  on  the  other  side  of  the  paper 
(to  prevent  the  knot  tearing  the  paper), 
and  knotted.  If  the  autographs  are  gummed 
or  pasted,  they  cannot  be  removed  without 
injur  v. 

COINS  (TO  TAKE  IMPRESSIONS 
FROM.)  Procure  tin  or  lead-foil,  as  thin 
as  possible,  place  it  on  the  coin,  and  with  a 
pin's  head,  or  any  small  smooth  instrument, 
work  it  into  e  ery  part ;  then  take  it  off, 
re .  ert  it  into  a  shallow  box,  and  pour  plas- 
ter into  its  concave  side.  A  durable  plaster 
cast  is  thus  obtained,  covered  with  tin-foil, 
which  will  resemble  silver. 

MONTH.  The  calendar  month  is  a 
twelfth  division  of  the  year.  A  solar  month 
is  the  time  in  which  the  sun  passes  through 
a  whole  sign  of  the  zodiac — it  is  .30  days, 
10  hours,  29  minutes,  and  5  secor.ds.  A 
lunar  month,  or  the  period  of  one  moon, 
is  29  days,  12  hours,  44  minutes,  and  3 
seconds.  A  civil  month  consists  of  a  cer- 
tain number  of  days,  according  to  the  laws 
and  customs  of  different  countries.  In  the 
year  there  are  twelve  solar  months,  and 
thirteen  lunar  months. 


A.  MISCELLANY  OF   USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


181 


70DTA.C.  A  space  round  the  heavens 
am"  ig  the  fixed  stars,  L5  degrees  wide,  the 

Centre  of  u  I i i (  h  Is  the  plane  <S  the  ecliptic, 

and  it  corresponds  ua  breadth  with  the  in- 

ii  el  the  Hui's  axis  of  70^30^  which 
thereby  produces  a  maximum  of  force  in 
tha'  plans  of  the  medium  of  space,  hut 
expanding'  as  it  diffuses  around.  The  dis- 
tant stais  within  it  are  divided  into  twelve 
portions,  called  signs:  six  to  the  north  of 
the  earth's  equator,  and  six  to  the  south ; 
altogether  fanciful,  but  referring  to  the 
business  of  the  season,  when  first  applied, 
though  to  these  superstition  has  annexed 
whimsical  intluences.  The  names  of  these 
signs,  their  hieroglyphics,  and  the  days  on 
Wjueh  the  sun  enters  them,  are  as  follow : 
Northern-  Signs — Y"  Aries,  the  Ram,  21st 
of  March.  Q  Taurus,  the  pall,  19th  of 
April,  n  Gemini,  the  Twins,  20th  of  May. 
£5  Cancer,  the  Crab,  21st  June.  "£>  Leo, 
the  Lion,  22nd  of  July.  TTT  Virgo,  the  Vir- 
gin, 22nd  of  August.  Southern  Signs — 
s£  Libra,  the  Balance,  23rd  of  September. 
JT\  Scorpio,  the  Scorpion,  23rd  of  October. 
jt  Sagittarius,  the  Archer,  22nd  of  No- 
vember. V?  Capricorntts,  the  Goat,  21st  of 
December.  ££  Aquarius,  the  "Water-hearer, 
20th  of  January.  X  1'isces,  the  Fishes, 
19  th  of  February.  As  we  reckon  the  year 
by  the  earth's  motions,  and  the  solar  year 
is  5025"  ol  a  degree  shot  ter  t  ban  the  sidereal, 
so  the  time  when  the  sun  is  on  our  equator 
is  earlier  every  year  by  20' 23"  of  time; 
hence  the  equinoctial  points  recede  among 
the  stars;  but  as  we  always  call  the  ascend- 
ing point  Aries,  so  the  original  stars  go  for- 
ward, and  the  equinoctial,  with  reference 
to  them,  recedes  50'  25"  in  a  year ;  1°  23' 45" 
in  a  century;  a  sisrn  in  2,150  years;  and 
the  whole  circle  25.791  Tears.  "It  is,  how- 
ever, a  mere  change  in  relative  appearances, 
and  produces  no  mundane  affection  what- 
ever. 

GUM  ARABIC.  The  purest  and  finest 
gum  arabic  is  brought  in  caravans  to  Cairo, 
by  the  Arabs  of  the  country  round  Mounts 
Tor  and  Sinai,  who  bring  it  from  this  dis- 
tance on  the  backs  of  camels,  sewn  up  in 
b^gs,  and  often  adulterated  with  sand,  &c. 
The  gum  exudes  spontaneously  from  the 
bark  and  trunk  of  the  branches  of  the  tree, 
in  a  Boft,  nearly  fluid  state,  and  hardens  bv 
exposure  to  the  air,  or  heat  of  the  sun.  It 
begins  to  flow  in  December,  immediately 
after  the  rainy  season,  near  the  flowering 
time  of  the  tree.  Afterwards,  as  the  wea- 
ther becomes  hotter,  incisions  aie  made 
through  the  bark,  to  assist  the  transuda- 
tion of  the  juice. 

"WAX  AND  YvAFEBS.    Francis  Kous- 

9 


seau,  a  native  of  Auxerre,  who  travelled  a 
long  time  in  Persia,  Pegu,  and  other  parts  ol 
the   East  Indies,  and  who,  in  1692,  resided 

at  St.  Domingo,  was  the  inventor  of  seal ir.g- 
wax.  A  lady,  of  the  name  of  Longueville, 
made  this  wax  known  at  court,  and  caused 
Louis  XIII.  to  use  it ;  after  which  it  was 
purchased  and  used  throughout  Paris.  By 
this  article,  Rousseau,  lu  fore  the  expiration 
of  s  year,  gained  50,000  livres.  The  oldest 
seal  with  a  red  wafer  ever  yet  found  is  on 
a  letter  written  by  Dr.  Krapt,  at  Spires,  in 
the  year  1624,  to  the  Government  at 
Bareuth. 

SOAP-BUBBLE.  A  soap-bubble,  as  it 
floats  in  the  light  of  the  sun,  reflects  to  the 
eye  an  endless  variety  of  the  most  gorgeous 
tints  of  colours.  Newton  showed,  that  to 
each  of  these  tints  corresponds  a  certain 
thickness  of  the  substance  forming  the  bub- 
ble :  in  fact,  he  showed,  in  general,  that  all 
transparent  substances,  when  reduced  to  a 
certain  degree  of  tenuity,  would  reflect  these 
colours.  Near  the  highest  point  of  the 
bubble,  just  before  it  bursts,  is  always  ob- 
served a  spot  which  reflects  no  colours  and 
appeal's  black.  Newton  showed  that  the 
thicknesses  of  the  bubble  at  this  black  point 
was  the  2,500,000th  part  of  an  inch  !  Now, 
as  the  bubble  at  this  point  possesses  the 
properties  of  water  as  essentially  as  does  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  it  follows  that  "the  ultimate 
molecules  forming  water  must  have  less 
dimensions  than  this  thickness. 

BRIDE  CAKE.  Bride  cake  is  used  at 
weddings,  because  of  its  origin  in  confarrea- 
tion^  or  a  token  of  the  most  firm  conjunction 
between  man  and  wife,  with  a  cake  of  wheat 
or  barley,  from  far  (Latin),  bread  or  corn. 
Dr.  Mofl'att  tells  us,  that  "the  English, 
when  the  bride  comes  from  church,  were 
wont  to  cast  wheat  upon  her  head."  Her- 
rick  says,  speaking  to  the  bride  : 

"  While  some  repeat 
Your  praise,  and  bless  you,  sprinkling  you  with 
wheat." 

BULBOUS  ROOTS.  The  time  to  put 
these  in  is  from  September  to  November, 
and  the  earliest  ones  will  begin  blowing 
about  Christmas.  The  glasses  should  he 
blue,  as  that  colour  best  suits  the  roots;  put 
water  enough  so  as  to  cover  the  bulb  one- 
third  of  the  way  up,  less  rather  than  more; 
let  the  water  be  soft,  change  it  once  a  week, 
and  put  in  a  pinch  of  3alt  every  time  you 
change  it.  Ki  dp  the  glasses  in  a'place  mo- 
derately warm,  and  near  to  the  light.  A 
parlour  window  is  a  very  common  place  for 
them,  but  is  often  too  warm,  and  brings  on 
the  plants  too  early,  and  causes  them  to  be 
weakly. 


182 


FACTS   FOlt  EVERYBODY 


KNIGHTS  of  the  Garter,  Bath,  Thistle, 
and  St.  Patrick,  are  installed  members  of 
those  orders  entitled  to  wear  stars  and 
ribands,  and  ore  limited  in  number.  All 
Knights  Bachelors,  or  Knights  of  Foreign 


Orders  recognized  in  the  "London  Gazette," 
bear  the  title  of  Sir,  and  their  wives  that  of 
Lady.  The  engraving  represents  an  ancient 
Knight  in  his  armour.  (See  Knighthood, 
p.  117.) 

DEATH'S-HEAD  HAWK-MOTH.  That 
beautiful  creature  is  the  bee-tiger,  or  death's- 
head  hawk-moth  (Acherontia  atroposj, 
frequently  seen  during  the  month  of  Sep- 


tember. Men  in  old  times  regarded  her 
■with  superstitious  dread.  "  The  ill-omened 
insect,"  said  they,  "bearing  the  impress  of 
a  death's-head  upon  her   shoulders,  is  a 


messenger  of  ill;  wherever  she  alights  upon 
the  sill  of  a  window,  sorrow  is  coming  fast; 
or  sickness  will  seize  upon  some  member  of 
the  family."  Thus  they  spoke  ;  but  the 
lover  of  insects  now  rejoices  when  this 
magnificent  moth  crosses  his  way.  Her 
home  is  not,  indeed,  within  yonder  glittering 
oak  ball,  though  well  it  might  become  her ; 
she  rather  prefers  to  hide  beneath  the  leaves 
of  creeping  plants,  or  underground,  by  which 
means  she  is  protected  from  the  piercing  rays 
of  the  sun,  and  the  attacks  of  unfriendly 
ichneumontda. 

WINDMILL.  A  machine  erected  in  ele- 
vated positions,  and  provided  with  vanes  or 
sails,  which,  placed  in  a  certain  angle  to  the 
wind,  turns  millstones,   by  which  corn  if 


ground,  and  apparatus  worked  by  which 
it  is  sifted  and  prepared  for  use  by  the 
baker. 

BARONS  OF  THE  EXCHEQUER.  The 
four  judges  who  officiate  in  the  Court  of 
Exchequer,  at  Westminster  or  London. 

PNEUMATIC  APPARATUS.  An  appa- 
ratus for  generating,  collecting,  and  ex- 
hibiting gases.  A,  is  a  vessel  containing 
some  ingredients  for  generating  gas ;  B,  a 


pipe  to  convey  it  to  the  glass  vessel;  Dt 
tilled  with  water,  which  is  driven  out  as  the 
gas  enters  ;  C,  is  a  resting  bar,  and  a  vessel 
of  water  to  let  in  D  when  full  of  gas  for  use. 


A  MISCELLANY   OF   USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


183 


MAT  is  the  third  month  of  Romulus' s 
year;  but  the  fifth  month  as  reformed  by 
Numa  and  Julius  Ca  Bar.  Romulus  assigned 
thirty-one  daya  to  this  monih;  Numa  re- 
duced the  number  to  thirty;  and  Julius 
Gaeaar  restored  it  to  the  original  length, 
which  it  now  retains.  There  is  some  doubt 
about  the  origin  of  the  name  of  this  month  ; 
because,  although  the  Romans  offered  sacri- 
Maia,  the  mother  of  Mercury,  upon 
the  first  day  of  this  month,  yet  it  appears 
pretty  evident  that  the  name  was  fixed  long 
before  the  time  of  Romulus. 

Among  our  British  and  Saxon  ancestors 
this  month  was  hailed  as  the  genial  har- 
of  approaching  summer,  and  cele- 
brated sometimes  with  religious  observances, 


and  at  others  amid  general  festivity.  On 
May-eve  the  Druids  made  large  fires  on 
eminences,  in  honour  of  Real,  or  Bealan, 
the  Celtic  or  Irish  word  for  the  sun.  Two 
of  these  fires  were  kindled  in  every  village, 
between  which  the  men  and  beasts  devoted 
to  sacrifice  were  compelled  to  pass,  one  of 
them  being  killed  on  the  kairn,  and  the 
other  on  the  ground  ;  hence  the  Irish  pro- 
verb applied  to  a  person  in  a  dilemma, 
" Itter  dha  teine  Bhcil"  (between  Bel's  two 
fires). 

Synonymes. — In  Latin,  Mains ;  French, 
Mai;  Italian,  Maggio  ;  Portuguese,  Maio  ; 
Saxon,  Tri+milchi;  and  ancient  Cornudi, 
Me.  Yerstegan  says,  that  "  the  pleasant 
month  of  May  they  (the  Anglo-Saxons) 
termed  by  the  name  of  Iri-milchi,  or  Tri- 
miUi.  because  in  that  month  they  began 
to  milk  their  kine  three  times  in  the  day. 

Symbol  or  Allegory  of  the  Month. — A 
young  man,  with  a  beautiful  face,  clad  in 
green,  embroidered  with  various  bright 
flowers,  and  a  garland  of  white  and  damask 
roses  upon  his  head.  In  one  hand  he  held 
a  lute,  and  on  the  forefinger  of  the  other  a 
nightingale,  allegorical  of  the  "eve  6ong" 
of  this  bird,  which  is  first  warbled  durin? 
the  month.  The  sign  of  Gemini,  the  Twins, 
also  accompanied  him,  aUuding  to  the  sun 


entering  that  sign  on  the  20th  of  the  month. 
(See  our  engraving). 

There  is  not  a  day  in  the  year  that  is 
devoid  of  historic  interest,  and  May  has  her 
fair  share  of  the  number. 

The  1st,  commonly  called  May- day.  is 
a  very  remarkable  one  in  our  calendar. 
It  is  dedicated  to  St.  Philip  and  St.  James 
the  Less.  St.  Philip  was  horn  at  Bcthsaida, 
near  Tiberias,  and  U  supposed  to  have  been 
the  first  of  our  Saviour's  disciples  and  an 
apostle  ;  he  died  at  Hierapolis,  in  Phrygia, 
St.  James  the  Less  underwent  martyrdom  in 
a  tumult  in  the  temple,  about  the  year 
a.d.  62. 

May-day  festivities  are  said  to  have  ori- 
ginated with  the  Romans,  who  worshipped 
Flora,  aud  celebrated  her  festivals  by  re- 
joicings and  offerings  of  spring  flowers,  and 
the  branches  of  trees  in  bloom.  In  our  own 
country,  in  former  times,  the  village  lads 
and  lasses  left  their  homes  at  break  of  day — 

"On  a  May-day  morning,  to  fetch  in  May." 

These  good  old  times  have  long  since  parsed 
away,  and  are  now  little  more  honoured 
than  in  mere  remembrance.  Then  we  had 
the  May-pole,  painted  with  various  colours, 
dressed  with  garlands  and  streamers,  and 
surmounted  by  a  large  crown ;  and  there 
was  the  village  fiddler,  seated  upon  a  cask, 
and  vigorously  scraping  away  for  the  lads 
and  laa*ea  to  skip  round  the  May-pole. 

In  May.  1773,  the  ports  of  New  York  and 
Philadelphia  were  closed  against  vessels  with 
cargoes  of  tea,  and  they  were  compelled  to 
return  to  England.  At  Boston,  a  party  of 
men  disguised  as  Indians  hoarded  several  ves- 
sels, and  broke  open  342  chests  of  tea,  which 
they  emptied  into  the  harbor,  iu  the  presence 
of  thousands  of  spectators. 

May  10,  1775.  The  Continental  Congress 
assembled  at  Philadelphia,  and,  after  electing 
John  Hancock  president  of  the  body,  among 
other  important  measures,  voted  to  raise  an 
army  of  20,000  men. 

May  11,  1771).  General  Provost,  with  a 
large  British  force,  having  invented  Charles- 
ton, summoned  the  city  to  surrender ;  but 
the  approach  of  General  Lincoln,  who.  had 
been  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  south- 
ern arm}7,  compelled  him  to  retreat. 

May  16,  1811.  The  British  ship-of-war, 
Little  Belt,  Captain  Bingham,  was  hailed  in 
the  evening  on  the  coast  of  Virginia  by  the 
United  States  frigate  President,  Captain 
Bodgen,  but  instead  of  receiving  a  satisfi  - 
tory  answer,  a  shot  was  fired  hi  return,  when 
a  brief  engagement  followed,  in  which  eleveu 
of  the  enemy  w'-re  killed  and  twenty-one 
wounded.  The  President  had  only  one  uau 
wounded. 


184 


FACTS    FOR    r.TKTJYBOTJT: 


In  May,  1782,  the  independence  of  America 
was  acknowledged  by  Holland,  Sweden,  Den- 
mark, Spain  and  Russia.  Early  in  May  Sir 
Guy  Carletou,  successor  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton, 
as  coiuinander  of  all  the  forces  in  America, 
arrived  in  New  York,  with  instructions  to 
promote  an  accommodation  with  the  United 
States,  aud  of  course  there  were  no  subsequent 
military  operations  of  importance. 

The  treaty  of  Ghent,  which  terminated 
the  war  of  1812,  had  scarcely  been  ratified, 
when  it  became  necessary  to  commence  an- 
other war  for  the  protection  of  our  commerce 
and  seamen  against  Algerine  piracies,  and  in 
M  iy,  1815,  a  squadron  under  Commodore  De- 
catur sailed  for  the  Mediterranean,  where  the 
naval  force  of  Algiers  was  cruising  for  Amer- 
ican vessels.  After  capturing  two  of  the 
enemy's  best  frigates  in  that  sea,  Decatui 
proceeded  to  tiie  Bay  of  Algiers,  and  there 
dictated  a  treaty  of  peace  which  secured  the 
United  Slates  from  any  further  molestation 
from  that  quarter.  Similar  treaties  were  also 
concluded  with  the  other  Barbary  powers 
securing  to  the  United  States  her  just  de- 
mtud  tor  the  protection  of  American  com- 
merce. 

The  26th  dny  is  dedicated  to  St.  Augus- 
ti»,  a  monk  sent  to  England  by  Pope 
Gregory  the  Great,  to  convert  the  Saxons, 
lie  accomplished  his  mission  satisfactorily, 
for  he  converted  King  Ethelbert,  who  ap- 
pointed him  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
which  he  held  until  his  death,  in  610. 

The  29th  day  is  commonly  called  the  Re- 
storation-day, because  in  1660  Charles  II. 
was  brought  back  to  England,  and  restored 
to  the  throne  of  his  ancestors.  In  some 
parts  of  England  people  wear  oak-leaves  and 
oak-apples  (gilt)  in  their  hats,  in  commemo- 
ration of  the  concealment  of  Charles  in  an 
oak  tree  at  Bo.<cobel,  after  his  defeat  by 
Cromwell,  at  the  battle  of  Worcester,  Sep- 
tember 3,  1651. 

The  6th  day  of  May,  1859,  will  ever  be 
memorable  as  the  date  of  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander Von  Humboldt,  whose  profouud  genius, 
rare  scientific  acquirements,  aud  kindly  vir- 
tues have  made  his  name  a  household  word. 
■  Voltaihe  and  Columbus  were  born  in 
this  month.  The  fonner  is  the  voluminous 
French  writer,  who  was  born  at  Chatenay, 
near  Sceaux,  in  1694,  and  died  Aug.  30, 
1778.  His  most  celebrated  works  are  the 
i4  Henriade"  and  the  "  Life  of  Charles  XII." 
His  collected  works  form  seventy  volumes. 

Chkistophek   Columbus,  the  illustrious 
navigator,  who  first  discovered  the  American 
continent,    was   born  at   Genoa,   in   1437. 
After  vainly  seeking  aid  from  Genoa,  Por-  i 
tugal,  and  England,  he  at  length  induced  j 


Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain  to  equip 
and  man  three  vessels,  with  which  he  made 
the  important  transatlantic  discoveries  for 
which  his  name  is  so  distinguished.  After 
enduring  many  insults  and  disappointments, 
he  died  at  Valladolid  in  1506. 

JUNE.  This  was  the  fourth  month  of 
the  old  Itoman  year,  but  the  sixth  month  as 
reformed  by  Numa  and  Julius  Cajsar. 
Romulus  assigned  to  it  thirty  days  as  the 
proper  limit,  thereby  increasing  it  four 
days.  Numa  Pompilius  reduced  the  num- 
ber of  days  to  twenty -nine;  but  Julius 
Ca'sar  confirmed  its  position,  and  restored 
the  day  which  Numa  had  taken  away  from  it. 

Divers  opinions  exist  as  to  the  origin  of 
the  name  of  this  month.  Some  derive  it 
from  Junius  Brutus,  who  expelled  the  Tar- 
quins  from  Pome  on  the  first  of  this  month, 
and  settled  the  Government  upon  the  people; 
others  assert  that  it  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  word  Junius,  because  it  is  considered 
as  the  month  for  young  persons.  The  most 
probable  and  more  generally  received  opinion 
is,  that  it  derives  its  name  from  the  goddess 
Juno,  in  honour  of  whom  a  festival  was 
celebrated  at  the  commencement  of  the 
month. 

The  Synonymes  of  the  month  are  as  fol- 
low : — In  Latin,  Junius;  French,  Juin; 
Italian,  Giuyno  ;  Portuguese,  Junho ;  and 
Saxon,  Sere  Jlonath,  or  dry  month. 

In  the  earliest  times,  our  Saxon  ancestors 
called  June  Weyd-monat,  because,  says 
Verstegan,  "  their  beasts  did  then  weyd  in 
the  meddowes,  that  is  to  say,  goe  to  feed 
there,  and  hereof  a  meddow  is  also  in  the 
Tutonicke,  called  a  weyd,  and  of  weyd  we  yet 
retain  our  word  wade,  which  we  understand 
of  going  through  watrie  places,  ouch  as  med- 
dowes are  wont  to  be." 

The  ancients  represented  this  month  as  a 
young  man,  clothed  in  a  mantle  of  dark 
grass-green  colour,  having  his  head  orna- 
mented with  a  coronet  of  flowers,  while  he 
held  an  eagle  in  his  left  hand,  and  bore  a 
basket  of  summer  fruits  upon  his  right  arm. 
At  his  right  was  the  sign  of  Cancer,  the 
crab,  alluding  to  the  sun  entering  that  sign 
on  the  22nd  of  the  month,  to  make  the  sum- 
mer solstice.     (See  the  engraving). 

In  this  month  the  wind  is  still  cold,  but 
Flora  reigns  triumphant,  and  every  hedge, 
and  bank,  and  bush,  and  field  are  in  full 
bloom.  The  blossoms  of  the  fruit-trees, 
however,  gradually  dropoff,  the  grass  in  the 
meadows  gets  high,  and  partially  obscures 
the  yellow  ranunculi,  which  decorated  them 
in  spring. 

Our  calendar  contains  several  remarkable 
days  in  June.    The  1st  is  dedicated  to  St. 


A   MISCET.LANY   OP  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


185 


Jficomtdt,  who  was  a  pupil  of  St.  Peter,  and 
was  discovered  to  be  a  Christian  by  his 
honourably  burying  Felicula,  a  martyr. 


The  6th  day  is  dedicated  to  St.  Boniface, 
who  was  a  Saxon  presbyter,  born  atCrediton, 
in  Devonshire.  His  name  was  Winfred,  or 
Winefrid;  and,  after  being  educated  in  a 
Benedictine  monastery,  at  Exeter,  he  was 
sent  to  Friesland  as  a  missionary.  In  745 
he  was  created  Archbishop  of  Mentz,  and  was 
murdered  in  7->5  by  the  peasantry  in  East 
Friesland,  while  holding  a  confirmation. 

The  11th  day  is  dedicated  to  St.  Bar- 
nabas, whose  proper  name  was  Jores.  He 
was  descended  from  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  was 
bom  at  Cyprus,  but  educated  under  Gamaliel, 
at  Jerusalem,  and  was  associated  with  St. 
Paul,  preaching  the  Gospel  in  various  coun- 
tries, for  upwards  of  fourteen  years.  He  suf- 
fered martyrdom  at  Salamis,  in  his  native 
isle,  by  being  stoned  to  death  by  the  Jews. 
The  festival  of  this  saint  used  to  be  observed 
with  great  ceremony,  garlands  cf  roses  and 
woodroof  being  worn  during  the  observance. 

The  loth  day  is  dedicated  to  St.  Vitas, 
who  was  a  Sicilian  martyr,  under  Diocletian. 
Formerly  it  was  a  custom  to  offer  fowls  on 
the  festival  of  this  saint,  to  avert  the  disease 
called  St.  Vitus's  dance. 

The  17th  day  is  dedicated  to  St.  Alban, 
who  Buffered  martyrdom  in  303,  and  was  the 
first  Christian  martyr  in  this  island.  He 
was  converted  to  Christianity,  by  Ampliialus, 
a  priest  of  Caerleon,  in  "Monmouthshire, 
who,  flying  for  protection  from  persecution, 
was  hospitably  entertained  by  St.  Alban,  at 
Verulam,  in  Hertfordshire,  now  called,  after 
his  name,  St.  Alban's — Ampliialus,  being 
closely  pursued,  made  his  escape,  dressed  in 
Si.  Alb  m's  clothes.  This,  however,  being 
6oon  discovered,  exposed  St.  Alban  to  the 
fury  of  the  Pagans,  and  he,  refusing  to  per- 
form the  sacrifice  to  their  gods,  was  first 
miserably  tortured,  and  then  put  to  death. 
John  Wesley,  the  founder  of  the  religious 


sect  called  after  him  Wesleyan  Methodists, 
was  born  at  Epworth,  in  1703. 

19th.  On  this  day,  in  1215,  the  Barons 
of  England  compelled  King  John  to  sign  the 
Magna  Charta,  or  Great  Charter,  ;«t  Runny- 
ni'  de,  a  meadow  between  Staines  and 
Windsor.  In  1820  died  Sir  Joseph  Hanks, 
the  naturalist,  in  his  seventy-seventh  year. 

The  21st  of  this  month  is  the  longest  day 
in.  the  yean 

Jane  17,  1776.  A  sanguinary  battle  took 
;>lace  on  Breed's  Hill,  (,n>vv  generally  regard- 
ed us  Hunker  Hill),  in  which  the  British  were 
severely  cut  up,  hut  they  finally  gained  DOS? 
melon  of  the  hill,  the  Americans  retiring 
icross  Charlestown  Neck  with  inconsiderable 
'oss. 

The  24th  day  is  Midsummer-day.  It  is 
also  called  St.  John's-day,  being  held  in 
commemoration  of  the  nativity  of  John  the 
Baptist,  who  was  beheaded  by  the  stratagem 
of  the  wife  of  Herod. 

28th.  In  1577,  Peter  Paul  Rubens,  the 
most  celebrated  painter  of  the  Flemish 
school,  was  born  at  Cologne.  His  "  Village 
Fete,"  in  the  Louvre,  and  his  "  Battle  of 
the  Amazons,"  and  "  Last  Judgment,"  at 
Munich,  are  considered  by  many  judges  as 
his  best  paintings. 

The  29th  is  dedicated  to  St.  Peter,  and  is 
kept  with  great  pomp  at  Rome,  beinge  high 
festival  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

30th.  In  1474  the  first  book  printed  in 
England  was  completed  on  this  day  by  ('ax- 
ton,  and  was  called  "The  Game  and  Play 
of  the  Chesse." 

Ludovico  Ariosto,  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished poets  of  Italy,  at  a  period  when 
Europe  was  in  a  state  of  semi-barharism, 
was  also  born  in  this  month,  at  Reggio,  in 
1474,  and  died  at  Ferrara,  in  1533.  His 
principal  production  was  the  incomparable 
poem  of  "  Orlando  Furioso." 

LIP-SALVE.  White  wax,  two  and  a 
half  ounces;  spermaceti,  three  quarters  of 
on  ounce;  oil  of  almonds,  four  ounces.  Mix 
well  together,  and  apply  a  little  to  the  lips 
at  night.  Another — A*  d<  ssertspoonful  of 
salad  oil  in  a  saucer,  hold  it  over  a  candle, 
and  drop  melted  wax  over  it  till  the  oil  is 
thinly  covered;  when  they  are  incorporated, 
pour  it  into  boxes.     (Wax  taper  will  do.) 

WINDS.  A  change  in  the  temperature 
of  a  portion  of  air;  an  increase  or  a  diminu- 
tion of  the  quantity  of  water  which  it  holds 
in  a  state  of  vapour ;  in  short,  any  circum- 
stance which  causes  it  either  to  contract  or 
expand  destroys  the  equilibrium  among  the 
different  parts  of  the  atmosphere,  and  occa- 
sions a  rush  of  air,  that  is,  a  wind,  towards 
the  spot  where  the  balance  has  b"en  destroyed. 


18(5 


PACTS  FOIt  everybody: 


"Winds  may  be  divided  into  three  classes: 
those  which  blow  constantly  in  the  same 
direction;  those  which  are  periodical;  and 
those  which  are  variable.  The  permanent 
winds  are  those  which  blow  constantly  be- 
tween, and  a  few  degrees  beyond,  the  tropics, 
and  are  called  trade-ivinds.  On  the  north 
of  the  equator,  their  direction  is  from  the 
north-east,  varying  at  times  a  point  or  two 
of  the  compass  each  way :  on  the  south  of 
the  equator,  they  proceed  from  the  south- 
east. The  origin  of  them  is  this: — The 
powerful  heat  of  the  torrid  zone  rarefies,  or 
makes  lighter,  the  air  of  that  region  ;  the 
air,  in  consequence  of  this  rarefaction,  rises, 
and  to  supply  its  place,  a  colder  atmosphere 
from  each  of  the  temperate  zones  moves  to- 
wards the  equator.  But  these  north  and 
south  winds  pass  from  regions  where  the 
rotatory  motio7i  of  the  earth's  surface  is  less 
to  those  where  it  is  greater.  Unable  at  once 
to  acquire  this  new  velocity,  they  are  left 
behind,  and  instead  of  being  north  and  south 
winds,  as  they  would  be  if  the  earth's  sur- 
face d:d  not  turn  round,  they  become  north- 
east and  south-east  winds. 

The  Monsoons  belong  to  the  class  of  pe- 
riodical winds.  They  blow  half  the  year  from 
one  quarter,  and  the  other  half  from  the 
opposite  direction  :  wnen  they  shift,  variable 
Minds  and  violent  storms  prevail  for  a  time, 
which  render  it  dangerous  to  put  to  sea.  The 
monsoons  of  course  suiter  partial  changes  in 
particular  places,  owing  to  the  form  and 
position  of  the  lands,  and  to  other  circum- 
stances ;  but  it  will  be  sufficient  to  give  their 
general  directions  From  April  to  October, 
a  south-east  wind  prevails  north  of*  the 
equator,  southward  of  this  a  south-east 
Wind.  From  October  to  April,  a  north-east 
wind  north  of  the  equator,  and  a  north-west 
between  the  equator  and  10°  of  south  latitude. 

The   Land  and  Sea- Breezes,    which   are 
common  on  the  coasts  and  islands  situated 
between  the  tropics,   are  another  kind  of 
periodical  winds.     During  the  day,  the  air, 
over  the  land,  is  strongly  heated  by  the  sun,  j 
and  a  cool  breeze  sets  in  from  the  sea  ;  but 
In  the  night,  the  atmosphere  over  the  land 
gets  cooled,  while  the  sea,  and  consequently 
the  air  over  it,  retains  a  temperature  nearly 
even  at  all  times  ;  accordingly,  after  sun.-et, 
a  land-breeze  blows  off  the  siiore.    The  sea-  \ 
breeze  generally  sets  in  about  ten  in  the  j 
forenoon,  and  lasts  till  six  in  the  evening; 
at  seven  the  land-breeze  begins,  and  con- 
tinuea  till  eight  in  the  morning,  when  it  dies  ' 
away.    These  alternate  breezes  are,  perhaps, 
felt  more  powerfully  on  the  coast  of  Malabar  \ 
than  anywhere;  their  effect  there  extends 
to  a  distance  of  twenty  leagues  from  the  land. 


Thus,  within  the  limits  of  from  twenty- 
eight  to  thirty  degrees  on  each  side  of  the 
equator,  the  movements  of  the  atmosphere 
are  carried  on  with  great  regularity  ;  but 
beyond  these  limits,  the  winds  are  extremely 
variable  and  uncertain,  and  the  observations 
made  have  not  yet  led  to  any  satisfactory 
theory  by  which  to  explain  them.  It  appears, 
however,  that  beyond  the  region  of  the  trade- 
winds,  the  most  frequent  movements  of  the 
atmosphere  are  from  the  south-west,  in  the 
north  temperate  zone.  This  remark  must  be 
limited  to  winds  blowing  over  the  o^ean, 
and  in  maritime  countries;  because  those  in 
the  interior  of  continents  are  influenced  by 
a  variety  of  circumstances,  among  which, 
the  height  and  posit  on  of  chains  of  moun- 
tains are  not  the  least  important.  These 
south-west  and  north-west  winds  of  the 
temperate  zones  are  most  likely  occasioned 
in  the  following  manner: — In  the  torrid 
zone  there  is  a  continual  ascent  of  air,  which, 
after  rising,  must  spread  itself  to  the  north 
and  south  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the 
trade-winds  below:  these  upper  currents, 
becoming  cooled  above,  at  last  descend  and 
mix  themselves  with  the  lower  air ;  part  of 
them  may  perhaps  fall  again  into  the  trade- 
winds,  and  the  remainder,  pursuing  its  course 
towards  the  poles,  may  occasion  the  north- 
west and  south-west  winds  of  which  we 
have  been  speaking.  '1  his  interchange 
between  the  heated  air  of  the  tropics,  and 
the  cold  air  of  the  polar  regions,  greatly 
tends  to  moderate  the  climate  of  each.  Be- 
sides, the  air  from  the  tropics  being  richer 
in  oxygen,  on  account  of  the  more  luxuriant 
vegetation  decomposing  a  larger  quantity  of 
carbonic  acid,  is  well  calculated  to  supply 
any  deficiency  in  the  amount  of  this  most 
important  substance,  which  might  occur  from 
the  barrenness  of  a  less  favoured  climate. 

Hurricanes  have  been  supposed  to  be  of 
electric  origin.  A  large  vacuum  is  suddenly 
created  in  the  atmosphere,  into  which  the  sur- 
rounding air  rushes  with  immense  rapidity, 
sometimes  from  opposite  points  of  the  com- 
pass, spreading  the  most  frightful  devasta- 
tion along  its  track,  rooting  up  trees,  and 
levelling  houses  with  the  ground.  They  are 
seldom  experienced  beyond  the  tropics,  or 
nearer  the  equator  than  the  9th  or  lOih 
parallels  of  latitude ;  and  they  rage  with 
the  greatest  fury  near  the  tropics,  in  the 
vicinity  of  land  or  islands,  while  far  out  in 
the  open  ocean  they  rarely  occur.  They 
are  most  common  among  the  West  India 
islands,  near  the  east  coast  of  Madagascar, 
in  the  islands  of  Mauritius  and  Bourbon,  in 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  at  the  changing  of  the 
monsoons,  and  on  the  coasts  of  China. 


A   MISCELLANY  OP  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


187 


Whirlwinds  sometimes  arise  from  winds  | 
Moving  among  lofty  Rnd  precipitous  moun- 
tains, the  form  of  which   influences  then- 
direction,   and  occasions  gnats  to  <j 

wi.ii  a  spiral  or  whirling  motion.  They  are 
frequently,  however,  caused  by  two  winds 
meeting  each  other  at  an  angle,  and  then 
turning  upon  a  centre.  When  two  winds 
thus  encounter  one  another,  any  cloud 
which  happens  to  be  between  them  is  of 
<■•  in  se  condensed,  and  turned  rapidly  round ; 
and  all  substances  sufficiently  light  are 
carried  up  into  the  air  by  the  whirling  motion 
which  ensues.  The  action  of  a  whirlwind 
at  sea  occasions  the  curious  phenomenon 
culled  a  water-spout, 

HOOTS.  The  root  not  only  supports  the 
plant  by  fixing  it  in  the  soil,  but  affords  a 
channel  for  the  conveyance  of  nourishment. 
At  the  extremity  of  each  fibre  of  a  root, 
there  is  an  expansion  of  the  cellular  integu- 
ment, called  spongiole,  from  its  resemblance 
to  a  small  sponge;  being  full  of  pores,  it 
absorbs  the  water  from  the  soil.  There 
are  pores  in  every  part  of  a  plant,  above 
ground,  but  thev  are  almost  wholly  for  the 
purpose  of  exhalation.  The  roots  have  no 
pores,  except  in  the  spongioid  at  the  ex- 
tremiii  s.  It  would  be  useless  for  them  to  | 
be  furnished  with  evaporating  pores,  since 
they  arc  not  exposed  to  the  atmosphere, 
where  alone  evaporation  could  take  place. 
The  tendrils  of  vines,  and  of  other  climb- 
ing plants,  which  serve  to  fix  them  against 
a  wall,  or  the-  trunk  of  a  tree,  cannot  be 
considered  as  roots ;  since,  though  they  an- 
swer the  purpose  of  sustaining  the  plant, 
thev  are  unable  to  supply  it  with  nourish- 
ment. But  there  are  some  parasitical  plants, 
such  as  the  mistletoe,  which,  having  no 
immediate  communication  with  the  earth, 
strike  their  fibres  into  the  stems  or  branches 
of  a  tree,  and  derive  their  nourishment 
from  this  richly- prepared  soil :  yet,  as  the 
absorption  in  this  case  is  not  carried  on 
by  the  regular  mode  of  spongioles,  their 
fibres  are  not  denominated  roots.  The 
spongioles  act  only  by  capillary  attraction 
and  suck  up  moisture,  just  as  a  lump  of 
sugar  absorbs  the  water  into  which  it  is 
dipped.  As  a  proof  of  this  it  has  been  shown, 
that  if  roots,  saturated  with  moisture,  be 
transplanted  into  very  dry  earth,  the  latter 
Will  absorb  the  moisture  from  the  roots. 
Absorption  does  not  immediately  cease  upon 
the  death  of  a  plant,  as  the  blood  ceases 
t  circulate  upon  the  expiration  of  animal 
lif--;  but  when  the  vessels,  through  which 
th-  fluid  should  pass,  have  lost  their  vital 
i,.  rgy,  that  susceptibility  of  irritation  and 
(ii  | j action,  which  enabled  them  to  propel 


the  fluid  upward,  cease;:,  and  it  can  no  longer 
ascend  into  the  roots,  but  remains  stagnant 
in  the  spongioles,  which  soon  become  satu- 
rated,   bisease  and  putrefaction  follow;  and 
that  nourishment    which  was  designed  to 
sustain  life  now  serves  only  to  accelerate 
disorganisation.    The  fluid  is,  however,  si  ill 
performing  t1  e  part  assigned  to  it  by  the 
Creator,  for  it  it  be  necessary  to  supply  living 
plants  with  food,  it  is  also  necessary  to  de- 
stroy those  which  have  ceased  to  live,  m 
order  that  the  earth  may  not  be  encumbered 
with  bodies  become  useless,  and  that  their 
disorganized   particles    may  contribute    to 
tho  growth  of  living  plants.     Thus,  the 
putrefaction  of  leaves,   straw,  &c,  which 
reduces  the  bodies  to  their  simple  elements, 
prepares  them  to  become  once  more  com- 
ponent parts  of  living  plants.      Botanists 
distinguish   several    kinds  of  roots.     The 
radix  fibrosa,  or  fibrous  root,  is  the  most 
common  in  its  form :  it  consists  of  a  collection 
or  bundle  of  fibres.     The  roots  of  many 
grasses,  and  most  annual  herbs,  are  of  this 
description.    The  couch-grass  is  an  example 
of  the  radix  repens,  or  creeping-root.    If  an 
attempt  be  made  to  eradicate  such  roots,  a 
succession  of  bunches  of  fibres  are  metw  th, 
springing  from  an  apparent  root  which  grows 
horizontally,   and    appears  to    he  endless. 
This  long  horizontal  fibre  is,  however^not  a 
root,  but°a  subterraneous  branch,  for  it  has 
no  spongioles .  the  real  roots  are  the  small 
bundle  of  fibres  which  spring  from  it.    Such 
a  root  is  verv  tenacious  of  life,  as  any  por- 
tion in  which  there  is  an  articulation  will 
grow.   The  ox-eye,  whose  strong  penetrating 
roots  strike  dee.)  into  the  earth,  furnishes 
an  example  of  the  radix  fusifonnis,  or  spin- 
dle-shaped.    It  is  also  called  the  tap-root, 
from  its  tapering  so  considerably  towards 
the  end.    The  radix  bullosa,  or  bulbous- 
root,  such  as  that  of  the  lily,  the  hyacinth, 
or  the  onion,  is  improperly  so  called,  for  the 
tufts  of  fibres,  pendant  from  the  bulb,  are 
the  roots.     The  bulb  constitutes  the  stem  of 
the  plant.     The  potato  belongs  to  the  class 
of  tuberous,  or  knotted  roots,  which  are  of 
various  kinds,  comprehending  all  such  as 
have  fleshy  knobs,  or  tumours.    In  all  cases 
they  are  to  be  considered  as  reservoirs  of 
nourishment,  which  enable  the  plant  to  sus- 
tain the  casual  privations  of  a  barren  or  dry 
soil.     The  root  of  the  orchis  is  deserving  of 
notice,  from  its  singularity.     It  consists  of 
two  lobes,  somewhat  similar  to  the  two  parts 
into  which  a  bean  is  divided.     One  of  these 
perishes  every  year,  and  another  shoots  up  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  remaining  lobe.     The 
stem  rises  every  spring  from  between  the 
two  lobes,  and  since  the  new  lobe  does  not 


188 


FACTS  TOR  EVERYBODY 


occupy  the  same  place  as  its  predecessor, 
the  orchis  every  year  moves  a  little  onwards 
The  duration  of  roots  is  either  annual, 
biennial,  or  perennial.  To  the  first  belong 
plants  the  existence  of  which  is  limited  to 
one  season,  such  as  barley,  and  a  vast  number 
of  garden  and  field  flowers.  The  biennial 
roof,  produces,  the  first  season,  only  herbage, 
and  the  following  summer,  flowers  and  fruits, 
or  seed ;  after  which  it  perishes.  To  the 
perennial  belong  plants  which  live  to  an  in- 
definite period,  such  as  trees  and  shrubs.  (See 
Stems  and  Leaves,  p.  210). 

MITRE.    A  sacerdotal  crown,  formerly 
worn  on  the  head  by  bishops. 


VARNISH  (BLACK)  FOR  WOOD.  Put 
28  lbs.  of  common  black  pitch  and  28  lbs. 
of  common  asphaltum  into  an  iron  pot: 
boil  nine  hours,  and  let  it  stand  to  cool  for 
twelve  hours ;  then  set  it  again  upon  the  fire, 
and  as  soon  as  it  boils,  add  8  gallons  of  boiled 
oil;  introduce  afterwards  gradually  10  lbs. 
of  red  lead,  and  10  lbs.  of  litharge/and  boil 
until  it  will  roll  very  hard.  Leave  it  to 
cool,  and  then  mix  in  20  gallons  of  turpen- 
tine. This  is  a  cheap  black,  and  will  dry 
in  half  an  hour. 

BANANA,  OR  TLANTAIN.  An  inva- 
luable tropical  fruit-tree.  It  serves  the 
Indians  for  bread,  and  grows  to  the  height 


<^p$ 


of  15  or  20  feet.     At  the  top  of  the  stalk, 
leaves  expand  from  six  to  eight  feet  long, 


and  two  to  three  feet  broad,  which  grow  flo 
quick  that  their  expansion  may  l>e  discerned. 
The  flower  forms  a  spike  in  the  centre,  often 
nearly  four  feet  long  and  nodding  on  one 
side.  The  fruit,  or  plantains,  are  twelve 
incbes  lonir  and  two  in  diameter;  at  first 
green,  and  afterwards  of  a  pale  yellow. 
The  spikes  of  fruit  weigh  frow  30  to  40 
pounds.  They  are  generally  cut  before  ripe, 
the  green  stud  pulled  o!i;  and  the  heart 
roasted,  and  served  at  table  as  bread.  The 
negroes  almost  live  upon  them,  and  they 
serve,  likewise,  to  fatten  all  domestic 
animals.  Every  other  part  of  the  tree  is 
useful,  and  the  leaves  are  used  as  napkins 
and  table-cloths.  Of  another  sort,  the  fruit 
is  rounder  and  more  lucious,  and,  when 
ripe,  eaten  raw  or  fried  in  slices,  is  relished 
by  all  ranks  in  the  West  Indies.  It  is  only 
perennial  in  its  roots,  for  the  stalk  dies 
down  to  the  ground  every  year;  but,  by 
cutting  them  down,  suckers  rise  from  the 
root,  and  there  is  a  constant  succession  of 
fruit  all  the  year. 

SUMMER.  The  season  of  long  days  and 
warm  weather,  arising  from  the  inequality 
with  which  the  circles  of  rotation  are  cut  by 


lines  of  darkness,  owing  to  the  pole  being 

turned  towards  the  sun. 

WINTER.  The  season  of  long  nights, 
owing  to  the  revolving  circles  being  more  in 
the  dark  than  in  the  light,  and  to  the  pole 
turned  from  the  sun. 


SYMBOL.  An  emblem;  thus,  the  eer- 
nent  is  a  symbol  of  Time  or  Eternity. 
Symbols  were  the  bases  of  the  Egyptian 
hieroglyphics,  and  of  the  ancient  alpha- 
bets ;  thus,  a  mirror  was  the  symbol  of 
Beauty,  and  when  a  planet  was  called  Venus, 
the  symbol  ^  of  a  mirror  was  assigned 
to  Venus ;  and  so  with  other  things. 


A   MISCELLANY  OP  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


189 


TIDES  (TTIE).  Thetides  are  produced  by 
the  attraction  of  the  moon.  The  cohesion  of 
fluids  being  much  leai  than  that  of  solid  bo- 
dies, they  more  easily  yield  to  the  power  of 
gravity,  in  consequence  of  which,  the  wafers 
Immediately  below  the  moon  are  drawn  up 
in  a  protuberance,  producing  a  full  tide,  or 
what  is  oommonly  called  high-water,  at  the 
spot  where  it  happens.  According  to  this 
theory,  you  would  imagine  we  should  have 
full  tide  only  once  in  twenty-four  hours — 
that  is,  every  time  that  we  were  below  the 
moon — while  we  find  that  we  have  two  tides 
in  the  course  of  twenty- four  hours,  and  that 
it  is  high-water  with  us  and  with  our  anti- 
podes at  the  same  time. 

This  opposite  tide  is  rather  more  difficult 
to  explain  than  that  which  is  drawn  up  be- 
neath the  moon.  In  order  to  render  the 
explanation  more  simple,  let  us  suppose  the 
earth  to  be  everywhere  covered  by  the  ocean. 

B 


M  is  the  moon,  A  B  C  D  the  earth.  Now,  the 
waters  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  about  A 
being  more  strongly  attracted  than  in  any 
other  part,  will  be  elevated,  the  attraction 
of  the  moon  at  H  and  C,  being  less;  but  still 
it  will  be  greater  there  than  at  D,  which  is 
the  part  most  distant  from  the  moon.  The 
body  of  the  earth  will,  therefore,  be  drawn 
away  from  the  waters  at  D,  leaving  a  protu- 
berance similar  to  that  at  A ;  so  that  the 
tide  A  is  produced  by  the  waters  receding 
from  the  earth,  and  the  tide  D  by  the  earth 
receding  from  the  waters. 

The  influence  of  the  sun  on  the  tides  is 
less  than  that  of  the  moon ;  for  observe 
that  the  tides  rise  in  consequence  of  the 
moon  attracting  one  part  of  the  waters  more 
forcibly  than  another  part ;  it  is  this  in- 
equality of  attraction  which  produces  full 
and  ebb  tides.  Now,  the  distance  of  the  sun 
is  so  great,  that  the  whole  globe  of  the 
earth  U  comparatively  but  as  a  point,  and 
the  difference  of  its  attraction  for  that  part 
of  the  waters  most  under  its  influence,  and 
that  part  least  subject  to  it,  is  but  trifling; 
and  no  part  of  the  waters  will  be  much  ele- 
vated above  or  much  depressed  below  their 
general  surface  by  its  action.  The  sun  has, 
however,  a  considerable  effect  on  the  tides, 
and  increases  or  diminishes  them  as  it  acts 
in  conjunction  with,  or  in  opposition  to,  the 
moon. 

9* 


The  moon  is  a  month  in  going  round  the 
earth  ;  twice  during  that,  time,  therefore,  at 
full  and  at  change,  she  U  in  the  same  direc- 
tion as  the  sun.  Both  then  act  conjointly 
on  the  earth,  and  produce  very  great  tides, 
called  spring-tides  as  represented  at  A  and 
B;  but  when  the  moon  is  at  the  interme- 


diate parts  of  her  orbit,  the  sun,  instead  of 
affording  assistance,  weakens  her  power  bv 
acting  in  opposition  to  it ;  and  smaller  tides 
are  produced,  called  neap-tides. 


Since  attraction  is  mutual  between  the 
moon  and  the  earth,  we  produce  tides  in  the 
moon  ;  and  these  are  more  considerable,  in 
proportion  as  our  planet  is  larger.  Neither 
the  moon  nor  the  earth  in  reality  assume  an 
oval  form,  for  the  land  which  intersects  the 
water  destroys  the  regularity  of  the  effect. 
The  orbit  of  the  moon  being  nearly  parallel 
to  that  of  the  earth,  she  is  never  vertical 
but  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  torrid  /one  ; 
in  that  climate,  therefore,  the  tides  are 
greatest,  and  they  diminish  as  yon  recede 
from  it  and  approach  the  poles ;  but  in  no 
part  of  the  globe  is  the  moon  immediately 
above  the  spot  where  it  is  high  tide.  All 
matter,  by  its  inertia,  offers  some  resistance 
to  a  change  of  state  ;  the  waters,  therefore, 
do  not  readily  yield  to  the  attraction  of 
the  moon,  and  the  effect  of  her  influence  is 
not  complete  until  some  time  after  she  has 
passed  the  meridian. 

The  earth  revolves  on  its  axis  in  about 
twenty-four  hours;  if  the  moon  were  sta- 
tionary, therefore,  the  same  part  of  our 
globe  would,  every  twenty-four  hours, 
return  beneath  the  moon  ;  but  as  during 
our  daily  revolution  the  moon  advances  in 
her  orbit,  the  earth  must  make  more  than  a 
complete  rotation  in  order  to  bring  the 
same  meridian  opposite  the  moon :  we  are 
about  three-quarters  of  an  hour  in  overtak- 


I'M) 


PACTS  FOR  eveeybody: 


ing  her.  The  tides,  therefore,  are  retarded, 
for  the  same  reason  that  the  moon  rises 
feter,  by  nave-quarters  of  an  hour  every 
day.  This,  however,  is  only  the  average 
amount  of  the  retardation.  The  time  of  the 
h|ghest  tide  is  modified  by  the  sun's  attrac- 
tion, and  is  between  those  of  the  tides  which 
would  be  produced  by  the  separate  action  oi 
the  two  luminaries.  The  action  of  the  sun, 
therefore,  makes  the  interval  different  on 
different  days,  but  leaves  the  average 
amount  unaffected. 

SIMPLE  BODIES.  Oxygen  is  one  of 
the  most  important  of  the  elementary  bodies. 
In  a  simple  state,  it  is  obtained  only  in  the 
form  of  gas.  It  is  an  exceedingly  abundant 
body;  the  air  of  the  atmosphere  contains 
cne-fifth,  and  water  is  resolveable  into  a 
mixed  gas,  one-third  of  which,  by  bulk,  is 
oxygen,  and  the  remainder  hydrogen.  It 
al^q  exists  in  most  natural  products—  animal, 
vegetable,  and  mineral.  Oxygen  gas  is, 
like  common  air,  colourless,  invisible,  taste- 
less, inodorous,  and  elastic.  But  it  is  heavier 
than  common  air,  in  the  proportion  of  11^ 
to  10.  It  is  a  powerful  supporter  of  com- 
bustion ;  that  is  to  say,  when  any  inflamed 
body,  as  a  lighted  candle,  is  put  into  it,  it 
burns  very  vigorously — much  more  so  than 
when  in  common  air;  indeed,  it  is  owing  to 
the  oxygen  it  contains  that  common  air 
supports  combustion  at  all.  Its  presence  is 
also  necessary  for  the  eontinuanee  of  animal 
life.  We  cannot  breathe  air  which  has  been 
deprived  of  its  oxygen. 

Hydrogen  is  known  only  in  the  state  of 
gas,  and  is  sometimes  called  inflammable 
air.  It  is  the  lightest  of  all  bodies  that  can 
be  weighed.  It  is  one  of  the  ingredients 
which  form  water — from  which  it  can  be 
easily  procured.  Hydrogen  gas,  when  pure, 
po-sisses  ail  the  mechanical  properties  of 
common  air.  It  does  not  support  com bustio  , 
though  it  is  itself  one  of  the  most  combustible 
of  all  bodies ;  for  if  a  lighted  candle  be  put 
into  a  vessel  containing  hydrogen,  the  candle 
will  be  instantly  extinguished,  while  the 
gas  itself  will  be  inflamed.  It  is  not  fit  for 
respiration,  for  animals  which  breathe  it  die 
almost  instantaneously.  If  pure  oxygen  and 
hydrogen  be  mixed  together,  and  the  mix- 
ture set  fire  to,  it  explodes  with  great  vio- 
lence, and  forms  water.  Hence  we  see  the 
origin  of  the  term  hydrogen,  wh:ch  literally 
signifies  the  water-  former.  Hydiogen  gas 
is,  on  account  of  its  greater  levity,  employed 
to  fill  balloons. 

Nitrogen,  called  also  Azote,  is  a  gaseous 
body,  rather  lighter  than  common  air ;  of 
which  it  forms  four-fifth  parts,  the  remaining 
one-fifth  being  oxygen.    It  has  neither  co- 


lour, smell,  nor  taste.  It  does  not  support 
combustion,  nor  is  it  combustible  itself,  for 
if  a  lighted  candle  be  put  into  a  vessel  con- 
taining nitrogen,  itis  instantly  extinguished, 
and  the  gas  'tself  does  not  take  fire,  as  is  the 
case  with  hydrogen.  Nitrogen  is  fatal  also 
to  animal  life  ;  any  animal  put  into  it  dies 
in  a  very  short  time. 

Carbon.  When  wood  is  heated  to  a  cer- 
tain degree  in  the  open  air,  it  takes  fire,  and 
forms,  whilst  burning,  water  and  carbonic 
acid  gas,  till  the  whole  of  it  is  consumed.  A 
small  portion  of  ashes  is  the  sole  residue. 
But  if  the  wood  be  heated  to  redness  in  close 
vessels,  so  that  the  atmospheric  air  cannot 
have  free  access  to  it,  a  large  quantity  of 
gaseous  and  othervolatile  matters  isoxpelled, 
and  a  black,  hard,  porous  substance  is  left, 
cal.ed  charcoal. 

Charcoal  may  be  procured  from  other 
sources.  When  the  volatile  matters  are 
driven  off  from  coal,  as  in  the  process  for 
making  coal  gas,  a  peculiar  kind  of  charcoal, 
called  coke,  remains  in  the  retort.  Most 
animal  and  vegetable  substances  yield  it, 
when  ignited  in  close  vessels.  Thus  a  very 
pure  charcoal  may  be  procured  from  starch 
or  sugar,  and  from  the  oil  of  turpentine  or 
spirit  of  wine,  by  passing  their  vapour 
through  tubes  heated  to  redness.  When 
bones  are  made  red-hot  in  a  covered  crucible, 
a  black  mass  remains,  which  consists  of  char- 
coal mixed  with  the  earthy  matters  of  the 
bone.  It  is  called  ivory-black,  or  animal 
charcoal. 

Carbon  is  the  name  given  to  the  pure  in- 
flammable part  of  charcoal,  of  which  sub- 
stance the  diamond  is  only  a  variety  in  a 
pure  crystallized  state;  for  pure  charcoal 
and  diamond,  when  treated  in  the  same 
manner,  produce  .precisely  the  same  results. 
Carbon  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  infusible 
by  the  most  intense  heat,  provided  air  be 
excluded.  Animal  and  vegetable  oils  are 
composed  almost  entirely  of  carbon  and  hy- 
drogen. The  same  may  be  observed  of  gum, 
sugar,  and  starch.  These  bodies,  however, 
contain  oxygen. 

Charcoal  absorbs  the  odoriferous  and  co- 
louring principles  of  most  animal  and  vege- 
table substances.  When  coloured  infusions 
of  this  kind  are  digested  with  a  due  quantity 
of  charcoal,  a  solution  is  obtained,  which  is 
nearly  if  not  quite  colourless.  Tainted  flesh 
may  be  rendered  sweet  and  eatable  by  this 
means,  and  foul  water  may  be  purified  by 
filtering  through  charcoal. 

Sulphur  occurs  as  a  mineral  production 
in  some  parts  of  the  earth,  particularly  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  volcanoes,  as  in  Italy  and 
Sicily.    It  is  commonly  found  in  a  massivo 


A   MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


191 


elate;  but  is  sometimes  met  with  in  a  crys- 
tallized rorm.  It  is  procured  abundantly  in 
combination  with  several  metals,  such  as 
silver,  copper,  antimony,  lead,  and  iron.  It 
is  obtained  in  large  quantities  by  exposing 
the  common  iron  pyrites  to  a  red* heat  in 
disc  reaaels. 

Sulpbnr  is  well  known  under  the  name  of 
oriinstone.  It  is  B  brittle  solid  body,  of  a 
greenish-yellow  colour,  emits  a  peculiar 
odour  when  rubbed,  and  has  little  taste.  It 
is  insoluble  in  water;  but,  if  poured. into  it 
when  liquified,  it  retains  its  softness,  and  is 
in  this  state  employed  for  taking  impressions 
from  seals  and  medals. 

Phosphorus  was  discovered  about  the 
year  1609,  by  Brandt,  an  alchemist  of  Ham- 
burgh. It  is  a  semi-transparent  yellowish 
matter,  of  the  consistence  of  wax.  It  is 
procured,  in  general,  by  the  decomposition 
of  bones.  It  is  exceedingly  inflammable. 
Sxpoeed  to  the  air  at  common  temperatures, 
it  undergoes  a  slow  combustion;  it. emits  a 
dense  white  smoke,  which  has  the  smell  of 
garlic,  appears  luminous  in  the  dark,  and  is 
gradually  consumed.  On  this  account,  phos- 
phorus should  always  be  kept  under  water. 
On  account  of  its  very  combustible  nature, 
it  requires  to  be  handled  with  great  caution ; 
gentle  pressure  between  the  fingers  is  suffi- 
cient to  kindle  it.  It  burns  rapidly,  emitting 
a  splendid  white  light,  and  earning  an  in- 
tense heat. 

Chlorixe  was  discovered  in  1770.  It  is 
a  substance  of  much  importance,  being,  in 
combination  with  other  substances,  exten- 
sively used  in  the  arts.  Chlorine  is  a  yel- 
lowish-green coloured  gas,  which  has  an 
astringent  taste,  and  a  disagreeable  odour. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  suffocating  of  the  gases, 
exciting  great  irritability  in  the  windpipe, 
even  when  considerably  diluted  with  air. 
"When  strongly  and  suddenly  compressed,  it 
emits  both  heat  and  light — a  character  which 
it  possesses  in  common  with  oxygen  gas. 
Under  considerable  pressure  it  assumes  the 
form  of  a  limpid  liquor  of  a  bright  yellow 
eolour.  Chlorine  is  a  supporter  of  com- 
bustion. If  a  lighted  taper  be  plunged  into 
chlorine  gas,  it  burns  with  a  small  red  flame 
and  emits  a  large  quantity  of  smoke.  Phos- 
phorus takes  tire  in  it  spontaneously.  Se- 
v-era  lof  the  metals,  6uch  as  tin,  copper,  ar- 
senic, antimony,  and  zinc,  when  introduced 
into  chlorine  in  the  state  of  powder,  or  in 
fine  leaves,  are  suddenly  inflamed.  Chlorine, 
though  foimerly  called  an  acid,  possesses  no 
acid  properties.  It  has  not  a  sour  taste,  nor 
doe9  it  redden  the  blue  colour  of  plants, 
which  nearly  all  acids  do.  One  of  the  most 
important  properties  of  chlorine  is  its  bleach- 


ing power.  All  animal  and  vegetable  colours 
are  speedily  removed  by  chlorine  ;  and  when 
the  colour  ia  once  discharged,  it  can  never 
be  restored.      Chlorine,    however,    cannot 

bleach  unless  water  be  present.  Chlorine 
is  useful  also  for  the  purposes  of  fumigation, 
and  is  used  to  purify  the  air  in  fever  hos- 
pitals The  infection  of  the  small-pox  is 
also  destroyed  by  this  gas,  and  matter  that 
has  been  submitted  to  its  influence  will  no 
longer  generate  that  disease. 

Iodine  is  a  substance  much  resembling 
chlorine  in  some  of  its  properties.  It  may 
be  procured  by  drying  and  powdering  com- 
mon sea- weed,  and  heating  it  with  sulphuric 
acid  and  peroxide  of  manganese :  a  violet 
coloured  vapour  rises,  which,  if  received  in 
a  cool  vessel,  will  condense  on  its  sides,  and 
will  form  scaly  crystals  of  a  somewhat  me- 
tallic lustre.  'These  crystals  are  the  sub- 
stance :  from  the  violet  colour  of  its  vapour 
it  is  called  iodine.  It  has  the  property  of 
forming  a  beautiful  blue  colour,  when  mixed 
with  a  little  powdered  starch,  diffused 
through  cold  water ;  hence  iodine  and  starch 
are  used  as  tests  of  the  presence  of  each 
other.  Iodine  stains  the  fingers  yellow,  but 
not  permanently.  Like  chlorine,  it  destroys 
vegetable  colours,  though  not  so  powerfully. 
Iodine  is  used  in  medicine :  in  small  doses 
it  increases  the  appetite ;  but  in  large  doses, 
or  continued  too  long,  it  produces  remark- 
able emaciation. 

To  these  simple  non-metallic  bodies  we 
might  add  bromine,  selenium,  boron,  fluorine 
(the  base  of  ftuor  spar),  and  silicon  (the  base 
of  flint).  But  as  they  are  of  less  importance, 
and  as  the  nature  of  some  of  them  is  still  a 
subject  of  dispute  with  chemists,  we  shall 
omit  the  consideration  of  them  for  the 
present. 

ANCHOVY.  The  anchovy  is  abundant 
in  the  Mediterranean,  and  along  the  coast* 
of  Spain  and  Portugal  and  France.  It 
occurs  also  on  various  parts  of  our  coast,  as 
Hampshire,  Cornwall,  Wales,  &c.  The 
anchovy  has  been  celebrated  from  the  earliest 
times,  and  a  sauce  or  condiment  called 
garum,  prepared  from  it,  was  held  in  high 
estimation  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
In  preparing  this  fish  for  use,  the  head  and 
viscera  are  removed,  otherwise  the  pickle 
would  be  intensely  bitter  ;  the  anchovy  was 
in  fact  once  supposed  to  have  the  gall  in  its 
head.  A  fish  called  the  sardine,  common  in 
the  Mediterranean,  and  belonging  to  the 
same  genus  (E.  melletta,  Cuv.)  is  frequently 
mixed  v/ith  real  anchovies,  or  even  sold 
salted  and  barrelled  as  the  genuine  fish. 
The  sardine  may  be  known  by  its  long  taper 
form,  its  brown" colour,  and  pale  flabby  flpsh. 


192 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY 


ORGAN  (MECHANISM  OF  AN).  Since 
the  bellows  are  of  so  much  consequence,  we 
■will  begin  by  explaining  their  construction. 
They  are  what  is  termed  double  bellows, 
consisting  of  two  moveable  parts  and  keeping 
up  a  continual  blast.  Fig.  1  shows  them  in 
section  as  they  appear  when  full  of  wind. 


Fig.  1. 
They  consist  of  three  boards,  A,  B,  C, 
united  by  leather  as  in  a  common  pah- 
used  in  a  house.  The  two  lower  boards 
have  a  hole  in  them,  covered  by  a  valve  of 
leather,  opening  upwards.  The  upper 
board  is  weighted,  the  middle  one  being 
fixed,  and  the  lowest  capable  of  moving  up 
and  down  by  the  handle  G.  In  the  dia- 
gram, the  valves  are  shown  in  the  position 
which  they  take  just  as  the  lowest  board 
begins  to  be  raised  by  the  handle ;  the  air 
contained  in  the  lower  part  will  close  E, 
and  open  F,  through  which  it  enters  the 
upper  compartment:  Thus,  all  the  air  will 
pass  upwards,  till  the  board  C  reaches  its 
highest  position ;  then,  on  letting  go  the 
handle  G,  C  will  full  by  its  weight,  more 
air  will  enter  from  without  by  E,  and  that 
contained  in  the  upper  part,  closing  F,  is 
driven  through  D  into  the  organ  by  the 
falling  of  the  upper  board  :  thus,  if  C  is 
again  raised  before  the  air  in  this  upper 
chamber  is  exhausted,  a  constant  blast  will 
be  kept  up.  (Whenever  double  bellows  are 
used,  whether  for  organs,  forges,  or  other 
apparatus,  they  are  always  constructed 
with  three  boards  and  valves  in  this  way.) 
From  these  bellows,  the  air  passes  into  a 
box,  called  the  wind-chest;  this  also  has 
a  valve,  opening  inwards,  and  placed  just 
over  the  hole  at  whi^h  the  nozzle  of  the 
bellows  enters.  Over  this  is  placed  the 
sounding  board,  which  forms  a  cover  to  it 
throughout  its  length,  but  extends,  as  to  its 
Width,  far  beyond  it.  This  sounding-board 
is  the  most  important  part  of  the  organ, 
and  must  be  very  carefully  made,  and  all 
its  parts,  as  well  as  the  wind-chest,  made 
perfectly  air-tight.  The  construction,  how- 
ever, of"  this  part  being  somewhat  difficult 
to  describe  without  a  diagram,  we  have  made 
a  sketch  of  it  as  it  would  appear  if  open, 
and  shall  add  another,  placing  it  in  its  pro- 
per position,  and  connected  with  the  wind- 
chest,  which  is  dotted  in  fig:.  2. 


It  will  here  be  seen  that  the  sounding- 
board  is  a  shallow  box,  divided  lengthwise 


Fig.  2. 
into  as  many  compartments  as  there  are  to 
be  notes.  At  the  part  where  the  wind  - 
chest  is  joined  to  it,  a  portion  of  the  bot- 
tom of  each  division  is  cut  away ;  under 
each  of  these  slits  is  a  valve,  opening 
downwards,  and  held  up  till  the  key  is 
pressed  down  by  a  spring,  as  well  as  by  the 
wind  in  the  wind -chest.  This  will  be 
shown  in  a  separate  figure.  In  fig.  2,  A 
is  the  sounding-board,  B  the  wind-chest, 
C  the  nozzle  of  the  bellows,  with  its  valve  ; 
A  A  the  slits  to  be  covered  below  by  the 
valves  connected  with  the  keys.  Now,  if 
we  suppose  this  sounding-board  to  be 
covered  by  a  flat  board,  and  the  wind- 
chest  filled,  and  one  of  the  key-valves 
opened,  the  air  will  flow  into  the  compart- 
ment belonging  to  that  valve  ;  and  if,  in 
this  cover-board,  a  ho"le  were  made  and  a 
pipe  inserted,  the  air  would  escape  into  it, 
and  cause  it  to  sound.  But,  our  readers 
are  probably  thinking  that  all  this  grooved 
apparatus  would  not  be  needed  to  sound  a 
row  of  pipes ;  nor  is  it,  but  in  An  organ 
there  are  several  rows,  and  we  shall  pre- 
sently find,  that,  for  the  purpose  of  sounding 
or  stopping  certain  pipes  at  pleasure,  the 
above  arrangement  is  absolutely  necessary. 
Take,  for  instance,  the  compartment  ou  the 
right  side,  and  say  that  it  represents  the 
note  A.  In  the  flat  cover  we  supposed, 
let  six  holes  be  bored  in  the  direction  of  the 
length  of  the  compartment,  and  let  six 
pipes  of  different  construction,  some  wood 
and  some  metal,  be  inserted  in  these  holes, 
all  turned  to  A.  Then,  by  opening  the  first 
valve,  all  these  will  sound' that  note,  and,  by 
arranging  pipes  over  the  other  compart- 
ments in  like  manner,  any  tunes  can  be 
and  the  effect  will,  from  the  nura- 
of  pipes  to  each  note,  be  very  grand. 
But  in  this  way  we  eould  only  play  very 
loudly,  and  with  what  is  termed  the  full 
organ.  We  must,  therefore,  describe  the 
plan  bALwhich  any  row  of  pipes  can  be  played 
alone  ;^hr  instance,  a  row  of  wooden  ones, 


&/• 


)Y  Will 

V 


1  MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


108 


or  metal,  or  both  together.  Instead  of 
covering  the  sounding-board,  already  drawn, 
with  a  solid  flat  board,  let  another  be  put 
over  it,  divided  in  the  same  way,  but  shal- 
lower, and  with  the  compartments  running 
in  the  contrary  direction. 

In  the  figure  below,  A  is  the  wind-chest; 
B,  the  part  of  the  sounding-b ^ard  shown  in 
fig  2  ;  C,  the  upper  part,  forming  its  cover, 
and  divided,  as  shown  at  L,  E  (the  dotted 
lines  show  the  position  of  the  compartments 
beneath).  It  will  be  seen  that  a  scries  of 
holes  are  made  in  the  bottom  of  this  upper 
tray  corresponding  with  the  compartments, 
both  in  itself  and  those  below.  Some  boards, 
like  F,  slide  into  these  upper  divisions,  the 
holes  in  which  tally  with  those  below,  and 
also  with  others  in  the  flat  board,  which 
covers  the  whole,  shown  at  K  and  H. 
These  boards,  however,  oj^t  tally  when 
pulled  out  a  little  by  me^^if  the  stops. 
G  represents  one  so  pulled  out.  Now,  sup- 
pose all  the  slides  pushed  in  but  one,  and 


^^  •  •  «  • 


^ 


Fig.  3. 
the  outer  board  put  on,  and,  in  the  holes  in 
this  latter,  pipes* placed.  If  a  valve  is  opened 
by  the  key  pressed  (say  the  first  to  the 
right,  as  before),  the  air  will  pass  from  the 
wind-chest  into  the  channel  between  1  and 
2,  and  its  only  vent  being  through  the  first 
hole  in  the  slide  that  is  pulled  out,  it  will 
pass  by  it  into  the  pipe  that  is  placed  over 
it  in  the  board  covering  the  whole  (shown 
at  H  and  K) ;  and  so,  in  every  note  played, 
the  row  of  pipes  only  over  the  slide  that  is 
drawn  out  can  sound,  as  none  of  the  other 
sets  of  holes  tally.  Thus  we  can,  by  means 
of  stops  or  handles  connected  with  these 
slides,  use  one  or  more  at  pleasure,  a,  b,  c 
are  wires  by  which  the  valves  are  connected 
with  the  keys,  which  valves  we  will  now 
explain.  (Fig.  4).  G  is  a  part  of  the  wind- 
chest,  and  F  the  sounding-board ;  H  the 
valve,  K  the  spring,  B  the  key,  turning  on 
a  centre,  as  does  also  the  lever  C.     1)  is 


the  wire  from  the  valve.  The  divisions  wc 
stated  in  the  sounding-board  would  run 
lengthwise  between  the  valves,  as  shown  by 
the  dotted  line.  We  think  a  glance  at  the 
diagram  will  make  it  all  quite  clear ;  and  we 
would  advise  our  young  friends  to  read  over, 
as  far  as  this,  several  times,  so  as  to  get  a 


Fig.  4. 
clear  idea  of  the  construction  before  pro- 
ceeding to  learn  about  the  pipes  and  other 
matters.  We  will  now  describe  the  construc- 
tion of  the  pipes,  beginning  with  the 
wooden  ones.  Fig.  5  represent  s  one  of  these. 
It  is  made  square,  of  seasoned  wood ;  the 
front  is  cut  oil",  near  the  bottom,  and  be- 
velled, as  seen  more  plainly  by  the  section 
at  e;  the  lower  part  is  a  solid  plug  of  wood, 
and  bo  cut  that  when  the  piece  a,  fig  6, 


Fig.  7.  Fig.  6  Fig.  5. 

is  put  on  (marked  b  in  fig.  5),  a  narrow  slit 
is  left  just  below  the  edge  of  the  bivel. 
Through  this  slit  (shown  in  the  section  and 
at  o,  fig.  7),  the  air  rushes  from  the  wind- 
chest,  and  being  cut,  as  it  were,  by  the 
bevel*,  produces  a  sound,  deep  or  shrill, 
according  to  the  length  of  the  pi]  e;  if  the 
upper  part  is  stopped  by  a  plug,  o.  fig.  6,  the 
sound  is  still  more  sharpened,  ard  a  higher 
note  produced.     In  this  way  the  wooden 


194 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


pipes  may  be  tuned  to  any  pitch.  One  set 
of  the  metal  pipes  are  also  ntadi  in  a  similar 
way ;  but  there  is  another  kind,  called 
reed-pipes,  the  principle  of  which  is  some- 
what different,  and  the  sound  of  them  more 
like  that  of  a  clarionet.  Indeed,  the  latter 
instrument  is  made  in  a  similar  way,  ex- 
cept that  its  reed  is  not  made  of  metal. 
The  following  diagrams  represent  one  of  this 
kind.  In  figs.  8,  9,  10,  B  is  the  primary  tube 
of  metal,  like  the  one  in  the  last  diagram  ; 
within  this  is  a  half  tube,  c,  of  which  a  sec- 
tion is  given  a$  A.  The  flat  part  of  this 
tube  is  covered  by  a  slip  of  brass,  the  lower 
part  of  which  is  left  to  vibrate  ;  this  is 
marked  o.  In  figs.  8  and  10,  a  piece  of  wood, 
S,  is  iuserled  in  the  outer  pipe,  forming  a 
plug,  and  also  a  support  for  the  inner  tube, 
which  is  passed  into  it.  Thus  all  the  air 
that  enters  the  outer  pipe  must  pass  through 
the  inner  tube,  and  in  so  doing  it  causes  the 
part  o  to  vibrate,  which  produces  a  sound. 
The  tone  is  regulated  by  the  wire  d,  shown 
dotted  in  fig.  8.  The  lower  part  of  this 
wire  rests  on  the  reed,  or  vibrating  slip  o, 
and  thus  any  length  may  be  left  to  vibrate ; 
and  according  as  a  long  or  short  piece  is 


& 


M 


Fig.  10. 


Fig.  8. 


A 


This 
is  an- 


Fig.  9. 
left  loose,  the  tone  is  deep  or  shrill 
wire  passes  through  the  plug  S ;  E 
other  tube,  also  inserted  in  the  piece  of 
wood  S,  and  is,  in  fact,  a  continuation  of  the 
inner  tube.  The  shape  of  it  varies  according 
to  the  different  style  of  tone  required. 

These  are  the  "chief  ppcs  in  an  organ. 
There  are  others,  especially  in  large  instru- 
ments ;  but  we  must  not  lengthen  this  paper 
by  describing  them.  We  need  only  add  that 
if  a  pipe  of  12  inches  long  gives  a  certain 
note,  one  of  24  inches  will  give  its  octave 


below,  and  one  of  six'inches  an  octave  above. 
So,  also,  if  an  open  pipe  gives  C,  it  will  give 
the  C  above  if  closed.  Thus  it  is  easy  to 
arraiTge  the  pipes,  after  one  of  a  certain 
known  length  is  fixed  on  for  a  fundamental 
note. 

We  will  conclude  this  explanation  of  the 
pipes  by  stating  that  they  are  often  32 
feet  long  in  large  organs,  and  so  numerous 
that  at  Weingarten,  in  Germany,  they 
number  no  less  than  6,666;  and  "in  that 
organ  are  no  less  than  63  stops.  At 
Haarlem  also  is  one  containing  60  stops.. 
The  flute-stop  in  the  Temple  church  in 
London  is  very  sweet ;  and  any  of  our 
friends  that  get  the  chance  should  hear 
that  organ,  as  they  will,  if  fond  of  music, 
find  there  a  great  treat. 

We  must  now  tell  you  about  two  additions 
to  the  mech^msm  of  an  organ — the  swell 
and  trembmU  The  first  is  usual  in  good 
organs,  but  the  latter  is  not  so  often  used 
in  this  country.  The  swell  consists  of  a 
number  of  open  pipes  placed  in  a  box  in 
the  organ.  This  box  has  a  moveable  cover, 
connected  with  a  pedal  in  front.  By  put- 
ting the  foot  o  i  this  pedal  the  cover  is 
slowly  raised,  by  which  means  the  tone 
comes  forth  gradually,  swelling  louder  and 
louder  till  the  box  is  quite  open ;  and  by 
slowly  letting  the  pedal  go,  the  tones  sink 
and  grow  softer  and  softer,  till  they  die 
away  by  degrees.  The  effect  is  beautiful,  if 
the  player  has  good  taste,  and  introduces 
■he  swell  with  judgment,  which  however  is 
often  not  the  case.  The  tremblant  is  a 
valve  situated  over  the  entrance  of  the 
bellows,- by  which  the  air  is  allowed  to 
enter  by  fits,  giving  a  trembling  mournful 
sound  to  the  notes.  There  is  a  tremblant 
in  the  organ  at  the  German  chapel  at  the 
Savoy. 

There  are  two  or  three  ether  contrivances 
that  we  must  explain,  as  they  are  of  great 
use,  the  first  of  which  is  the  tell-tale,  by 
which  the  organist  can  see  how  much  wind 
there  is  in  the  organ.  To  the  top  board  of 
the  bellows  a  cord  is  attached,  which  passes 
over  a  pulley,  as  in  fig.  11.    A  is  a  section 


Fig.  11. 
of  the  bellows;  B,  the  pulley;  C,  a  gra- 
duated piece  of  board,  placed  in  front  of 


A.  MISCELLA.KT   OF   USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


195 


the  organ,  and  in  si^ht  of  the  player :  D,  a 
jiir  .  I  lead  attached  to  the  eord.  It  will 
thus  be  Been  that  when  the  upper  board  of 
the  bei  OWI  is  at  its  height,  the  lead  will 
have  sunk  on  the  hoard  to  a  mark  made 
on  it,  showing  the  bellows  to  be  full  of 
wind;  but  as  this  wind  is  expended,  the 
upper  board  sinks  and  the  lead  rises.  At 
Eisa  safety-valve,  to  prevent  the  bellows 
from  bursting.  It  opens  inwards  as  soon 
as  the  board  is  raised  so  high  that  a  peg  or 
piece  of  wire  attached  to  it  eomea  into 
contact  with  a  stop  placed  over  it.  There 
is  usually  a  tell-tale  in  front  of  the  organ, 
and  one  by  the  bellows-blower. 

Such  is  the  organ  in  its  simplest  form,  as 
constructed  for  churches,  and  sometimes 
also  for  private  houses;  but  of  late  years 
the  grinding,  or  barrel  organ,  has  come  into 
use  to  a  great  extent,  being  constructed^  for 
the  use  of  those  who  are  nofl^acquainted 
with  music,  or  are  incompetent  to  play 
upon  those  made  with  keys.  When  in- 
tended only  for  street-playing  there  is  but 
one  set  of  pipes ;  but  "when  made  for 
churches  there  are  stops  as  in  the  finger 
organs.  In  each  case  the  bellows  are 
worked  by  a  crank  upon  the  axis  on  which 
the  playing-handle  is  fixed,  and  the  valves 
are  opened  by  levers  communicating  with 
t  series  of  pegs  on  a  barrel  turn'  d  by  the 
same  handle.     Fiji.  12  is'a  section  of  such  a 


Fig.  12. 
Carrel,  with  the  pegs  and  levers.  The 
different  notes  and  tunes  depend  on  the 
position  of  the  pins  in  the  barrel,  each  pin, 
as  is  evident,  acting  on  the  particular  lever 
under  which  it  revolves.  The  duration  of 
each  note  depends  on  the  length  of  each 
pin,  for  the  long  ones,  as  a,  necessarily 
Keep  the  valve  open  longer  than  such  as 
b.      Several  tunes    are    arranged    on    one 


barrel,  the  barrel  being  shifted  lengthwise 
at  each,  and  retained  in  the  same  position 
by  a  catch  acting  on  notches  cut  in  one 
end  of  the  axis.  It  is  usual,  also,  when  a 
irivat   number  of  tunes  BK  desired,   to  have 

several  different  barrels  fi.ted  to  the  same 
organ,  either  of  which  may  be  used  at 
pleasure. 

There  is  a  great  advantage  in  barrel  or- 
gans, inasmuch  as  any  one  can  play  them, 
the  only  thing  necessary  being  to  turn  the 
handle  at  the  same  rate;  and  for  this  reason 
they  are  often  used  in  churches  where 
music  would  otherwise  have  been  imprac- 
ticable on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  finding 
a  person  able  to  play  upon  a  finger  organ, 
At  the  same  time,  it  is  impossible  to  play 
the  various  tunes  with  as  great  effect  as  on 
the  latter,  which  is  certainly  a  drawback, 
when  it  is  considered  how  much  effect  adds 
to  the  grandeur  of  any  piece  of  music  exe- 
cuted. 

GLASS-PAINTING'  (TRANSPARENT) 
FUR  WINDOWS,  &c.  The  producing  a 
transparent  pattern  on  the  semi-opaque  sur- 
face of  ground-glass  is  thus  effected: — 

Having  determined  on  the  kind  of  win- 
dow which  is  to  be  made,  and  the  size  of  its 
panes,  we  cut  out  in  drawing-paper  the 
shape  of  the  pane  or  panes,  and  sketch  the 
pattern  on  this  paper  with  Indian-ink  in 
clear  distinct  lines.  The  pattern  should  he 
something  bold  and  artistic;  a  scroll;  any 
variety  of  star,  or  style  of  diamond,  or  lat- 
tice-work; or  groups  of  vine-leaves  and 
grapes,  or  oak-leaves  and  acorns ;  or  mottos, 
or  initials  in  old  English  letters.  It  is  by 
no  means  necessary  that  all  the  panes  should 
be  alike  in  pattern  or  in  size,  diversity  in 
these  points,  if  tastefully  managed,  being 
an  improvement  rather  than  an  inj  ury  to  the 
effect. 

When  the  pattern  is  drawn,  lay  the  pane 
of  ground-glass  on  it,  with  the  rough  or 
ground  8ide  upwards,  and  with  a  fine  camel- 
hair  pencil,  moistened  in  copal  varnish, 
trace  the  outlines  of  the  pattern  on  to  the 
glass.  This  done,  remove  the  pane  of  ?lass 
on  to  a  sheet  of  pure  white  paper,  which 
will  enable  the  tracing  to  be  seen,  and  then, 
with  appropriate  brushes,  put  in  the  shading 
and  the  clear  parts,  and  perfect  the  pattern. 
Wherever  it  is  intended  that  the  "lass  shall 
be  clear,  there  with  copal  varnish  fill  up  the 
space,  as  every  touch  of  the  vanish  clears 
the  glass;  the  untouched  portions,  by  re- 
taining their  whitish,  :-emi-oi  aque  appear- 
ance, serve  as  a  back-ground,  and  throw  up 
the  pattern. 

The  varnish  used  should  be  obtained  at 
an  artists'  colourman's,  and  should  be  as 


196 


FACTS  FOR  EYEEOODl  : 


clear  and  devoid  of  colour  as  possible.  The 
camel-hair  pencils  should  be  only  moistened 
with  it,  for  if  loaded  or  saturated,  they  are 
apt  to  make  blots,  or  jagged,  uneven  out- 
lines and  strokes ;  enough  varnish  to  render 
the  glass  transparent,  but  no  more  than 
enough,  is  to  be  laid  on,  or  the  pattern  will 
look  rough  and  unequal,  instead  of  smooth 
and  even.  A  small  phial  ot  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine should  always  be  standing  by,  in 
which  the  camel-hair  pencils  may  be  washed 
before  they  begin  to  dry,  for  if  suffered  to 
dry,  or  put  away  with  any  varnish  in  them, 
they  harden,  and  become  utterly  useless. 
They  must,  therefore,  be  immediately  well 
washed  in  spirits  of  turpentine,  and.  then 
carefully  wiped  in  a  soft  lmen  rag,  or  an  old 
Bilk  handkerchief. 

When  the  pattern  has  been  duly  elabo- 
rated, in  the  manner  described,  the  pane  of 
glass  must  be  set  aside  for  eight  or  ten  hours, 
in  a  warm  dry  place,  where  nothing  is  likely 
to  touch  it,  and  where  dust  cannot  settle 
upon  the  sticky  surface.  After  it  has  thus 
had  time  to  become  slowly  and  thoroughly 
dry,  it  must  be  immersed  in  clear  cold 
spring  water  for  five  or  ten  minutes,  and 
then  be  placed  on  edge  to  drain  itself.  If 
the  varnish  is  good,  the  pattern  will  now  be 
firmly  set,  and  stand  out  in  clear  relief  on 
the  semi-opaque  ground. 

Exposure  to  moderate  heat  will  turn  the 
transparent  parts  of  the  glass  from  crystal- 
white  to  orange-brown  ;  but  this  is  an  ope- 
ration requiring  great  care,  as  too  great  heat 
will  often  split  the  glass,  or  at  least  render 
it  very  brittle. 

A  pretty  window  may  be  easily  and 
quickly  prepared  thus : — It  may  contain 
twelve  square  panes,  and  thirty-one  long 
narrow  ones ;  or  six  square  panes  and  thir- 
teen long  narrow  ones ;  or  any  number  of 
each  which  will  admit  of  each  square  pane 
being  set  in,  or  framed  by,  four  of  the  narrow 
ones.  The  square  panes  are  to  contain  a 
transparent  pattern  on  the  ground  glass; 
the  narrow  ones  are  all  to  be  of  one  colour, 
as  rich  blue,  or  carmine,  or  yellow,  or  violet. 
To  render  them  thus  we  must  use  waier- 
colours  in  cakes,  as  Prussian  blue,  carminr, 
gamboge,  or,  for  the  violet,  Prussian  blue 
and  carmine.  Having  rubbed  down  the 
paint  we  intend  to  use  on  a  China  palette, 
with  a  full  camel-hair  brush,  we  lay  the 
shade  evenly  and  smoothlx  over  the  whole 
of  the  narrow  pane,  and,  when  the  paint  is 
dry,  varnish  it  with  the  copal  varnish,  and 
then,  having  allowed  the  varnish  the  re- 
quisite number  of  hours  to  dry,  immerse  the 
pane  in  water,  aud  again  dry  it,  when  it 
will  be  fit  for  use. 


The  cake  water-colours  are  those  used  for 
this  transparent  painting.  We  need  not 
add  that  the  best  will  alone  produce  such 
effects  as  will  confer  pleasure.  Those  which 
are  opaque  must  be  avoided.  The  following, 
with  the  combinations  they  are  capable  of 
producing,  will  be  found  sufficient  for  most 
purposes  :  Prussian  blue,  ultra-marine, 
indigo,  gamboge,  yellow-lake,  burnt-sienna, 
purple-lake,  carmine,  scarlet  or  crimson- 
lake  ;  Vandyke-brown,  madder-brown,  and 
ivory-black.  The  greens  must  be  made  by 
combining  gamboge  with  one  of  the  blues; 
as  almost  all  cake  greens,  except  verdigris 
are  opaque. 


We  lay  the  square  of  glass  which  is  to  be 
painted  on  the  copy,  with  the  ground  side 
towards  us,  and  the  glassy  one  downwards; 
with  a  fine  lead  pencil  we  then   trace  the 


* 


A  MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


197 


outlines  on  to  the  ground  surface,  and 
fcaying  done  so,  remove  the  square  on  to  a 
eliect  of  white  paper,  and  proceed  to  work 
txaetly  as  if  we  were  about  to  paint  a  group 
of  flowers,  or  a  landscape  with  water  colours 
ou  card-board,  working  it  up  as  artistically, 
an.)  ms  carefully  avoiding  all  that  looks  like 
daubing.  , 

It  is  generally  as  well  to  let  one  shade 
dry  before  we  add  another  to  it,  or  work  it 
np  by  deeper  touches ;  for  if  the  paint  is 
washed  out,  or  taken  otf  by  the  touch  of  the 
•rush,  a  patchy  appearance  is  given  to  the 
thing. 

When  the  painting  is  completed  and 
thoroughly  dry,  it  is  to  be  smoothly  var- 
nished all  over  with  the  copal  varnish ;  but 
this  is  a  manipulation  requiring  great  care, 
for  if  the  outline  be  not  perfectly  kept,  the 
transparency  extends  to  the  white  parts  of 
the  glass,  and  mars  the  effect  of  what  should 
be  the  ground- work  of  the  picture.  When 
the  varnish  is  dry,  the  pane  is  to  be  im- 
mersed in  water  as  before  directed,  and 
placed  to  dry. 

In  the  design  exhibited  in  page  196,  the 
square  panes  have  a  transparent  pattern  on 
the  white  ground  glass,  and  the  narrow-side 
panes  contain  wreaths  of  convolvulus, 
painted  and  thrown  up  in  transparency  on 
the  ground  glass.  All  the  black  lines  and 
marks  in  the  cut  are  intended  to  represent 
the  transparent  or  varnished  parts  of  the 
pattern,  while  the  white  is  the  untouched 
ground  glass. 

In  the  following  design,  the  square  panes 
contain  transparent  groups  of  painting, 
while  the  narrow  ones  have  a  pattern  in 
clear  glass  on  the  white  ground ;  or  the 
ovals  and  lozenges  in  the  narrow  panes  may 
be  made  of  some  transparent  colour,  while 
the  lint-s  and  dots  are  simply  transparent. 

All  kinds  of  armorial  bearings  and  heraldic 
devices  may  be  given  with  great  brilliancy 
and  effect  in  this  transparent  glass- 
painting. 

Scriptural  subjects,  either  with  the  quaint, 
hard  outlines  and  glowing  tints  which  we 
see  in  some  illuminated  missals,  or  deli- 
cately worked  up  and  finished  off';  groups 
of  brightly-plumaged  birds,  or  gorgeous 
butterflies,  mottos,  devices,  shaded  scrolls; 
in  short,  anything  fancy  and  taste  may  dic- 
tate and  combine,  and  skill  wqrk  out,  can 
be  produced. 

Brilliancy  of  effect  must  be  aimed  at,  and 
at  the  same  time  a  lightness  and  smooth- 
ness of  colouring  maintained. 

The  simplicity  of  this  art,  and  its  perfect 
adaptation  for  a  drawing-room  occupation, 
as  well  as  its  usefulness  in  beautifying  an 


abode,  and  giving  an  air  of  elegance  to  what 
would  else  be  merely  common-place,  render* 
it  one  that  ought  to  become  generally  known. 


HONEY-SOAP.  Cut  thin  two  pounds 
of  yellow  soap,  into  a  double  saucepan,  oc- 
casionally stirring  it  till  it  is  melted,  which 
will  be  in  a  few  minutes  if  the  water  is  kept 
boiling  around  it;  then  add  a  quarter  of  a 

{)ound  of  palm  oil,  quarter  of  a  pound  of 
loney,  three  penny-worth  of  true  oil  of  cin- 
namon; let  all  boll  together  another  six  or 
eight  minutes;  pour  out  and  stand  it  by  till 
next  day,  it  is  then  fit  for  immediate  usp. 

PENCIL  MASKS  (TO  PRESERVE). 
If  you  have  anything  drawn  or  written  with 
a  lead  pencil  that  you  wish  to  preserve  from 
rubbing  out,  dip  the  paper  into  a  dish  of 
skimmed  milk.  Then  dry  it,  and  iron  it  on 
the  wrong  side.  In  ironing  paper  do  not  let 
the  iron  rest  a  moment,  (as  it  will  leave  a 
crease  or  mark,)  but  go  over  it  rapidly. 


198 


PACTS  FOR  everybody: 


SEASONS  (THE).  The  variation  of  the  j 
seasons  and  the  difference  of  the  length  i 
of  days  and  nights  in  those  seasons,  result  j 
from  the   same  cause.     In  moving   round 


the  sun,  the  axis  of  the  earth  is  not  perpen- 
dicular to  the  plane  of  its  orbit — in  other 
words,  its  axis  does  not  move  round  the  sun 
nj  an  upright  position,  hut  slanting,  or  ob- 
lique. This  may  be  understood  more 
cleVrly  by  carrying  a  small  globe  round  a 
candle,  which  is  to  represent  the  sun.  You 
must  consider  the  ecliptic  drawn  on  the 
eniall*globe  as  representing  the  plane  of  the 
earth's  orbit ;  and  the  equator,  which  crosses 
the  ecliptic  in  two  places,  shows  the  degree 
of  obliquity  of  the  axis  of  the  earth  in  that 
orbit,  which  is  nearly  23£  degrees.  The 
points  in  which  the  ecliptic  intersects  the 
equator  are  called  nodes.  The  globe  at  A  is 
situated  as  it  is  in  the  midst  of  summer,  or 
what  is  railed  the  summer  solstice,  which  is 
on  the  21st  of  June.  The  north  pole  is  then 
inclined  towards  the  sun,  and  the  northern 
hemisphere  enjoys  much  more  of  his  rays 
than  the  southern.  The  sun  now  shines 
over  the  whole  of  the  north  frigid  zone,  and, 
notwithstanding  the  earth's  diurnal  revolu- 
tion, it  will  continue  to  shine  upon  it  as 
long  as  it  remains  in  this  situation,  whilst 
the  south  frigid  zone  is  at  the  same  time 
completely  in  obscurity. 

Let  the  earth  now  set  off  from  its  position 
in  the  summer  solstice,  and  carry  it  round 
the  sun ;  observe  that  the  axis  must  be  al- 
ways inclined  in  the  same  direction,  and 
the  north  pole  point  to  ths  same  spot  in  the 
heavens.  There  is  a  fixed  star  situated 
near  that  spot,  which  is  hence  called  the 
north  p^lar  star.  The  earth  at  B  h"te  gone 
through  one  quarter  of  its  orbit,  andl^  ar- 
rived at  that  point  at  which  the  eclip  incuts 
or  crosses  the  equator,  and  which  is  c^led 
the  autumnal  equinox.  The  sun  now  shines 
Iroin  one  pole  to  the  other.  At  this  period 
in  the  year,  the  days  and  nights  are  equal 
of  every  part  of  the  earth ;  but  the  next 


step  she  takes  in  her  orbit  involves  the  north 
pole  in  total  darkness,  whilst  it  illumines 
tliat  of  the  south.  This  change  was  gra- 
dually preparing  as  th  !  earth  moved  from 
sum juer  to  autumn.  The  instant  the  earth 
pa>ses  the  autumnal  equinox,  the  long  night 
of  the  north  pole  commences,  and  the  south 
pole  begins  to  enjoy  the  light  of  the  sun. 
As  the  earth  proceeds  in  her  orbit,  the  days 
shorten  and  the  nights  lengthen  throughout 
the  northern  hemisphere,  until  it  arrives  at 
the  winter  solstice,  on  the21si  of  December, 
when  the  north  frigid  zone  is  entirely  in 
darkness,  and  the  southern  enjoys  uninter- 
rupted daylight.  Exactly  half  «;f  the  equator, 
it  will  be  observed,  is  enlightened  in  every 
position,  and  consequently  the  day  is  there 
always  equal  to  the  night. 

Observe,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  torrid 
zone  have  much  more  heat  than  we  have,  as 
the  sun's  rays  fall  perpendicularly  on  them, 
while  they  shine  obliquely  on  the  temperate, 
and  almost  horizontally  on  the  frigid  zone; 
for  during  their  long" day,  the  sun  moves 
round  at  no  great  elevation  above  their 
horizon,  without  either  rising  or  setting. 

To  a  person  placed  in  the  temperate  zone, 
the  sun's  rays  will  shine  neither  so  obliquely 
as  at  the  poles,  nor  so  vertically  as  at  the 
equator;  but  will  fall  upou  him  more  ob- 
liquely in  autumn  and  in  winter  than  in 
summer.  Therefore,  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth  between  the  polar  circles  and  the 
equator  will  not  have  merely  one  day  and 
one  night  in  the  year,  as  happens  at  the 
pole ;  nor  will  they  have  equal  days  and 
equal  nights,  as  at  the  equator,  but  their 
davs  and  nights  will  vary  in  length  at  differ- 
ent times  of  the  year,  according  as  their 
respective  poles  incline  towards  or  from  the 
sun,  and  the  difference  will  be  greater  in 
proportion  to  their  distance  from  the  equator. 
During  the  other  half  of  her  orbit,  the  same 
effect  takes  place  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere as  wehave  just  remarked  in  the  north- 
ern. When  the  earth  arrives  at  the  vernal 
equinox,  D,  where  the  ecliptic  again  cuts 
the  equator,  on  the  22nd  of  March,  she  is 
situated  with  respect  to  the  sun  exactly  in 
the  same  position  as  in  the  autumnal 
equinox  ;  excepting  that  it  is  now  autumn 
in  the  southern  hemisphere,  while  it  is 
spring  time  with  us ;  for  the  half  of  the 
gh.be,  which  is  enlightened,  extends  exactly 
from  one  pole  to  the  other.  On  the  two 
davs  of  the  equinox  the  sun  is  visible  at 
both  poles,  but  only  half  of  it  is  seen  from 
either,  the  other  half  being  concealed  by  the 
horizon. 

METALLIC  PENS  (TO  PREVENT  INK 
DAMAGING).         Throw    into    the    ink- 


A  MISCELLANY   OP  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


109 


gland,  or  the  ink  bottle,  a  few  nails,  or  any 

of  iron  i.ot  rusted.      The  action  of  t lie 

iu  id   n  die  ink  will  be  expended  on  the  iron. 

-MOON    AND    ECLIl'SES    (Ofl  TDK). 

This  satellite  revolves  round  the  earih  in 
the  ipaoe  of  i  wen!} -.-even  days  eight  noun, 
in  us  orbit  nearly  coinciding  with  the  plane 
of  the  ettrth's  orbit,  and%ccoinpiuiefl  tn  in 

our  revolution  round  the  sun  Her  motion, 
therefore,  is  of  a  complicated  nature ;  for, 
as  the  earth  advances  m  her  orbit,*  whilst 
the  moon  goes  round  her,  the  moon  proceeds 
in  a  sort  of  progressive  circle.  # 

The  moon  always  presents  the  same  face,, 
to  us,  by  which  it  is  evident  that  she  tdfns 
but  once  upon  her  axis  while  she  performs  a 
revolution  round  the  earth  ;  so  that  tl»e  in- 
habitants of  the  moon  have  but  one  day  and 
one  night  in  the  course  of  a  lunar  month. 
Since  we  always  see  the  same  hemisphere  of 
the  moon,  the  inhabitants  of  that  hemi- 
sphere alone  can  see  the  earth.  One  half  of 
the  moon,  therefore,  enjoys  our  light  every 
night,  while  the  other  half  has  constantly 
nijjhrs  of  darkness;  and  we  appear  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  moon  under  all  the 
changes,  or  phases,  which  the  moon  exhibits 
to  ns. 

When  the  moon  is  in  the  same  direction 
from  us  as  the  sun,  we  cannot  see  her,  as 
her  dark  side  is  towards  us ;  but  her  dis- 
ippearnnee  is  of  very  short  duration,  and  as 
she  advances  in  her  orbit,  we  perceive  her 
under  ti:e  form  of  a  new  moon.  When  she 
ha-  gone  through  one-ntxlh  of  her  orb.t, 
one  quarter  of  her  enlightened  hemisphere 
•will  be  turned  towards  the  earth,  and  she 
will  then  appear  horned.  When  she  has 
performed  one  quarter  of  her  orbit,  she 
shows  us  one  half  of  her  enlightened  side. 
She  next  appears  gibbous;  and  after  that 
full.  As  she  proceeds  in  her  orbit  she  be- 
comes again  gibbous,  and  her  enlightened 
hemisphere  turns  gradually  away  from  us, 
till  she  completes  her  orbit  and  disappears  ; 
and  then  again  resumes  her  form  of  anew 
moon. 

When  the  moon  is  full,  she  is  always  in 
Opposition  to  ihe  sun — when  a  new  moon,  in 
conjunction  with  it.  At  each  of  theso  times 
the  sun.  the  moon,  and  the  earth  are  in  the 
same  right  line;  hut  in  the  first  case,  the 
earth  is  between  the  Run  and  the  moon  ;  in 
the  second,  the  moon  is  between  the  sun  and 
Ihe  earth  An  eclipse  can  only  take  place 
when  the  sun,  moon,  and  earth  are  in  a 
Straight  line,  or  nearly  so.  When  tho  moon 
passes  between  the  sun  and  the  earth,  she 
intercepts  his  rays,  or  iu  other  words,   easts 


is  passing  over  us.  Wlion,  on  the  contrary, 
the  earth  is  between  the  sun  and  the  moon, 
it  is  we  who  intercept  the  sun's  rays,  ana 
east  a  shadow  on  the  moon  ;  she  then  disap- 
pt  an  from  our  view,  and  is  eclipsed. 

Why,  it  may  be  asked,  have  we.  not  a  solar 
and  a  lunar  eclipse  every  month?  Because 
tJ.e  planes  of  the  orbits  of  the  earth  and 
moon  do  not  exactly  coincide,  but  cross  or 
intersect  each  other;  and  the  moon  gene- 
rally passes  either  on  one  side  or  the  other, 
w.hen  she  is  in  conjunction  with,  or  in  op- 
position to,  the  sun  ;  and,  therefore,  does 
not  intercept  the  sun's  rays,  or  produce  an 
ellipse;  for  this  can  only  take  place  when 
the  earth  and  moon  are  in  conjunction  near 
those  parts  of  their  orbits  which  cross  each 
other  (called  the  nodes  of  their  orbits),  be- 
cause it  is  then  only  that  they  are  both  in 
the  same  plane,  and  in  a  light  line  with  the 
sun.  A  partial  eclipse  takes  place  when  the 
moon,  in  passing  by  the  earth,  does  not  en- 
tirely escape  her  shadow.  When  the  eclipse 
happens  precisely  at  the  nodes,  they  art;  not 
onlv  total,  but  last  for  some  length  of  time. 

When  the  sun  is  eclipsed,  the  total  dark- 
ness is  confined  to  one  particular  spot  of  the 


earth,  as  the  moon's  shadow  is  not  large 
enough  to  cover  the  earth.  'Ihe  lunar 
eclipses,   on  the  contrary,  are  visible  from 


every  part  of  the  earth,  where  the  moon  is 
above  the  horizon. 

MAST.  An  elevated  pole  in  a  ship,  to 
which  are  attached  the  sails  to  catch  the 
wind.  It  is  supported  hy  an  ingenious  com- 
bination of  ropes,  adapted  to  ascend  for  the 
purpose  of  adjusting  the  sails.  Masts  are 
divided  into  fore,  main,  and  mizen  ;  and  the 
middle  or  main-mast  in  huge  ships  is 
divided  into  lower,  top,  aivd  top-gallant. 

6 E V EN  WONDERS  (1 11 K) .  They  were 
the  Egyptian  pyramids;  the  mausoleum 
erected  bv  Artemisia;  the  Temple  of  Diana 
at  Ephesus;  the  walls  and  hanging  gardens 
of  Babylon;   the  Colosstis  at  Rhodes;    the 


a  shadow  on  the  earth  :  this  is  an  eclipse  of  '  statue  of  Jupiter  Olympus ;  and  the  Pharos, 
the  sun,  and  it  continues  whilst  the  shadow  !  or  watch-tower,  at  Alexandria, 


200 


FACTS  FOTt   EVERYBODY' 


RIGGING.  The  system  of  ropes  belonging 
to  a  ship,  by  which  the  masts  are  sustained 
and  ascended,  and  the  sails  managed.    The 


names  and  uses  of  the  several  ropes,  and  the 
dexterous  management  of  them,  constitute 
an  able  sailor. 

ROSES  (PROPAGATION  OF).  Roses 
require  a  strong,  loamy  soil,  and  the  deeper 
it  is  the  better,  if  the  subsoil  be  dry.  Where 
the  ground  is  not  naturally  rich,  a  quantity 
of  rotten  manure  should  be  added  to  it,  and, 


every  spring,  manure  forked  in  about  the 
plauts.  Roses  are  propagated  chiefly  by 
cuttings,  layers,  and  buds.  Cuttings  of  the 
hardy  kinds  of  roses,  such  as  the  hybrids  of 
the  Chinese  and  Bourbon,  the  BoursauH, 
Ayrshire,  Evergreen,  Multiflora,  and  the 
Hybrid  Perpetual,  may  be  struck  in  the 
open  ground.  The  best  time  is  in  autumn, 
just  before  the  fall  of  the  leaf.     The  cutting 


may  be  from  nine  inches  to  a  foot  in  length, 
and  should  be  taken  oil' close  to  the  old  wood, 
with  what  gardeners  term,  a  heel.  Fig.  1 
represents  a  cutting  ready  for  planting,  a 
is  the  heel.    "When,  the  cutting  is  planted, 


Fig.  I. 
two  or  three  eyes  should  be  left  above  the 
ground.  If  you  have  a  quantity,  they  may 
be  inserted  about  an  inch  apart,  and  a  few 
small  boughs,  or  fern  fronds,  stuck  in 
amongst  them,  as  a  shelter  from  sun  and 
frost.  In  spring,  those  that  have  not  struck 
root,  should  be  pulled  out;  and  in  autumn, 
those  which  have  succeeded  may  -be 
transplanted  to  where  it  is  intended  they 
are  to  flower.  Cuttings  of  the  more  tender 
kinds— as  the  Bourbon,  Noisette,  Chinese, 
and  Tea-scented,  should  be  placed  under  a 
hand-glass.  The  glass  should  be  occasionally 
lifted  on  fine  days,  to  admit  air,  and  dry  the 
soil ;  any  decayed  leaves  or  cuttings  should 
at  such  times  be  removed  ;  water  will  seldom 
be  required  till  the  spring.  About  April 
these  cuttings  will  have  rooted ;  they  should 
then  be  taken  up,  potted  singly,  and  removed 
to  a  frame,  or  a  close  shaded  room,  for  a  few 
days.  Such  as  are  intended  to  be  grown  in 
the  open  air  should  be  planted  out  in  May. 
Roses  grown  as  dwarfs,  or  bushes,  are  the 
kinds  most  generally  layered.  The  soil 
about  the  plant  should  first  be  loosened  ; 
the  ',  selecting  a  good  shoot,  strip  off  a  few 
leaves  at  a  distance  varying  from  six  inches 
to  two  feet  from  the  point  of  the  shoot  (see 
fig.  2  a  a)  ;  then,  taking  the  shoot  in  the 
left-hand,  insert  a  sharp  knife  just  behind 
an  eye,  at  b,  on  the  upper  side  of  the  shoot, 
and  pass  it  evenly  and  carefully  upwards, 
cutting  about  half  through  the  shoot,  and 
for  an  inch  and   a  half  or  two  inches  in 


A   MISCELLANY   OF  UST.FUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


201 


length.  Bend  down  the  sl^ot,  so  that  you 
may  see  the  proper  place  to  bury  it ;  then 
■en  ■  hole,  press  the  shoot  into  it,  peg  it 
down  two  or  three  inches  beneath  the  but- 
face,  ami  cover  with  the  soil.  It  is  well  to 
twist  the  shoot  a  little  after  the  cut  is  made, 
so  that  the  end  of  the  tongue,  b,  from  which 
the  roots  will  be  emitted,  may  have  a  down- 
ward direction  when  in  the*  ground.  It  is 
also  a  good  plan  to  split  the  tongue,  and 
keep  the  split  open  by  inserting  a  small 
stone  in  it.  Each  layer  should  be  tied  to  a 
small  stake,  c,  to  prevent  its  being  agitated 
by  the  wind.    June,  July,  and  August,  are 


Fig.  2. 

the  best  months  for  layering ;  if  the  weather 
be  dry,  the  layers  should  be  watered.  About 
November  they  will  be  ready  to  be  taken 
from  the  parent  plants,  by  cutting  them  off 
within  two  inches  from  the  tongue;  then 
transplant  them  to  wherever  they  are  in- 
tended to  flower.  In  spring  they  should  be 
pruned  down  to  three  or  four  eyes  •  some  of 
them  will  bloom  the  same  summer  or 
autumn.  Standard  roses  are  well-known 
ornaments  of  the  garden  ;  they  look  well  in 
any  position,  but  appear  to  the  greatest  ad- 
vantage when  planted  in  opposite  and  paral- 
lel lines  in  the  centre  of  two  beds,  one  on 
each  side  of  a  central  or  principal  walk.  In 
pruning,  the  young  shoots  should  be  annually 
shortened  to  about  two  or  three  inches  from 
the  point  they  started  from  ;  and  if  the  head 
should  become  too  large  and  straggling, 
6ome  of  the  old  wood  should  be  cut  out.  and 
its  place  supplied  by  young  shoots,  which 
spring  from  the  centre;  keeping  in  view, 
as  you  prune,  that  the  beauty  of  a  standard 
consists  principally  in  its  having  a  round 
compact  head,  so  as  to  present  a  favourable 
appearance  when  seen  from  any  side.  Weep- 
ing roses  form  beautiful  objects  when  planted 
singly  on  lawns  ;   they  are  tobcs  of  a  pen- 


dulous habit,  such  as  the  Ayrshire  and  Ever- 
greon,  budded  on  stocks  iour  feet  and  up- 
wards in  height.  The  main  shoots  (Might 
not  be  shortened,  after  the  second  year,  until 
they  reach  the  earth:  prune  the  laterals 
only,  and  flowers  will  bo  produced  all  uU  og 
the  branches  from  the  head  to  the  ground. 
When  they  attain  their  full  size,  a  hoop,  a* 


Fig.  3. 
in  fig.  3,  should  be  attached,  to  prevent  the 
branches  being  injured  by  the  wind.  Fig.  3 
represents  a  weeping  rose  of  full  growth, 
without  leaves,  to  show  how  it  should  be 
trained  and  pruned. 

TOAD.  A  harmless,  but  unsightly  amphi- 
bious animal ;  very  tenacious  of  life,  and 
believed,  when  enclosed  in  stones  and  trees, 
to  be  able  to  exist  for  many  centuries ;  being 


torpid  during  the  winter,  they  creep  into 
crevices,  and  sometimes  become  enclosed  by 
petrifactions  or  concretions.  They  live  on 
small  worms  and  insects,  and  are  great 
enemies  of  wasps.  The  Pipa,  or  Surinam 
toad,  is  larger  than  our  toad,  and  more 
ugly  ;  but  its  young  grow  in  cells  on  its 
back  from  eggs  to  tadpoles,  and  then  to 
perfect  toads  in  large  numbers. 

GALVANISM.  Galvanism  is  so  intimately 
connected  with  electricity,  that  it  may  be 


202 


FACTS  FOE  EVERYBODY: 


considered  as  a  branch  of  that  science.  It 
was  first  accidentally  discovered  in  the  che- 
mical laboratory  of  M.  Lewis  Galvani,  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  in  the  university  of  Bologna, 

upon  the  following  occasion  :    The  lady  of 

the  professor  being  of  a  delicate  habit,  was 
occasionally  supported  by  soup  made  from 
frogs  as  a  restorative.  Some  of  these  animals, 
skinned  for  that  purpose,  were  lying  upon  a 
table  in  the  laboratory  of  the  professor,  in 
which  stood  an  electrical  machine.  One  of 
the  assistants,  in  experiment,  by  accident 
brought  the  point  of  the  scalpel  near  the 
crural  nerves  of  a  frog  recently  killed,  lying 
not  far  from  the  conductor;  the  muscles  of 
the  limb  were  instantly  set  in  motion,  being 
agitated  with  strong  convulsions.  By  a 
long  series  of  new  experiments,  the  law  of 
nature,  as  far  as  respects  the  influence  of  this 
principle,  was  investigated,  of  which  mere 
accident  had  at  first  afforded  him  a  glimpse 
only.  Galvani  published  a  treatise  on  the 
subject,  addressed  to  the  Institute  of  Bologna, 
in  the  year  1791.  On  the  appearance  of  this 
work,  the  universal  attention  of  the  philoso- 
phers of  Europe  was  arrested.  This  discovery 
was  made  at  a  time  when  something  more 
than  hypothesis  was  necessary  to  satisfy  the 
mind  of  the  inqei*itivc  inquirer  after  sci- 
entific truth.  To  this  desire  may  be  referred 
the  almost  innumerable  experiments  which 
were  made  in  every  district  in  Europe,  in 
consequence  of  this  publication  ;  by  which 
means  the  science  became  considerably  en- 
riched by  the  addition  of  a  great  variety  of 
new  facts,  by  contemporaries  and  successors, 
insomuch  that  it  is  said  the  labours  of  Gal- 
vani, the  original  discoverer,  bear  but  a 
comparatively  small  proportion  to  what  have 
been  since  adduced  for  its  illustration. 

Galvani  found,  that,  by  the  mere  agency 
of  a  metallic  substance,  where  he  had  no 
reason  to  suspect  the  presence  of  electricity, 
the  limbs  of  a  recently-killed  frog  were  con- 
vulsed ;  and  having  ascertained  the  fact  by 
a  number  of  experiments,  he  in  the  course 
of  his  inquiries  found  that  the  convulsions  ] 
or  contractions  were  p'roduced  only  when 
disimilar  metals  were  employed.  It  was 
now  inferred  that  electricity  is  not  only  pro- 
duced by  the  friction  of  bodies,  but  even  by 
the  mere  contact  of  certain  substances.  At 
the  same  time  it  was  admitted,  that  these 
substances  must  have  some  chemical  agency 
or  action  upon  each  other,  and  that  the  effect 
produced  seems  to  be  proportionate  to  the 
degree  of  chemical  action.  The  following 
well-known  facts  were  now  supposed  to  be 
explained  by  this  science.  Porter  taken 
from  a  pewter  pot  has  always  been  held  by 
connoisseurs  in  that  liquor  to  be  better  than  j 


when  taken  from  china  or  glass:  this  was 
now  said  to  arise  from  a  certain  decomposition 
effected  by  means  of  the  liquor  in  the  vessel 
— the  porter  and  the  saliva  on  the  under  lip 
coming  in  contact  with  the  metal.  Pure 
mercury  retains  its  metallic  splendour  a  long 
time,  but  its  amalgam  with  tin,  &<•.,  is  almost 
immediately  oxy dated  or  tarnished.  In- 
scriptions of  very  ancient  date,  on  pure  lead, 
have  been  found  in  a  perfect  state,  while 
others  of  modern  times,  made  on  compound 
metals,  are  corroded  and  scarcely  legible. 
Works  of  metal,  whose  parts  are  soldered 
together  by  means  of  other  metallic  sub- 
stances, soon  tarnish,  or  are  oxydated  about 
the  places  in  which  the  different  metals  are 
joined.  So  likewise  is  the  copper  on  ships, 
which  is  fastened  on  by  means  of  iron  nails. 
Zinc  also  may  be  kept  a  long  time  under 
water,  with  scarcely  any  change;  but  if  ft 
piece  of  silver  touch  the  zinc  while  under 
water,  there  will  be  very  soon  a  sensible 
oxydatiofT.  Take  a  piece  of  zinc  and  place 
it  under  the  tongue,  and  lay  a  piece  of  silver 
as  big  as  half-a-crown  on  the  tongue,  and 
no  particular  taste  will  be  observed  ;  but, 
bring  the  outer  edges  of  the  metals  together 
and  a  very  disagreeable  taste  will  be  per^ 
ceived,  which  is  said  to  arise  from  the  de" 
composition  of  the  saliva,  a  watery  tluid. 
The  same  thing  may  be  noticed  with  a  guinea 
and  a  piece  of  charcoal.  These  fact's  have 
been  thus  explained,  and  the  theory  generally 
admitted: — The  conductors  of  electricity, 
however  they  may  differ  from  each  other  in 
their  conducting  powers,  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes.  'Lliejirst  class,  which  are 
denominated  the  dry  and  more  perfect  con- 
ductors, consist  of  metallic  substances  and 
charcoal  •  the  second  class,  called  also  im- 
perfect conductors,  are  waters,  acids,  &c. 
From  these,  or  some  of  them,  all  Galvanic 
Circles,  as  they  are  named,  are  formed. 

Hitherto  this  influence  or  agent  had  been 
chiefly  investigated  with  reference  to  its 
operation  on  animal  substances.  Hence  its 
popular  name  was  for  a  long  time,  Animal 
Electricity  :  but  it  being  soon  found  that  its 
agency  was  more  extensive,  that  it  possessed 
powers  not  indicated  by  this  denomination, 
and  that  of  course  the  retention  of  this  name 
wou'd  lead  to  error,  the  word  Galvanism  was 
adopted  in  its  stead.  This  extension  of  the 
Galvanic  principle  was  connected  with  new 
discoveries,  and  improvements  from  various 
quarters;  these,  however,  for  a  considerable 
time,  were  generally  small,  and  unimportant 
in  their  nature.  But  among  all  the  recent 
discoveries  in  Galvanism,  that  made  by 
Professor  Volta,  in  1800,  is  most  remarkable 
in  its  nature,  and  most  interesting  in  its  re- 


A    MISCELLANY  OF   USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


203 


Iations.  Yolta  set  out  with  the  idea,  contrary 
it  of  Galvani,  that  the  electricity  did 
not  belong  to  the  animal  but  to  the  different 
BMtale  employed.  Galvani  was  not  likely 
to  produce  any  greater  effect  than  what  could 
be  obtained  by  two  pines  of  metal,  because 

he  believed  the  electricity  to  be  in  the  animal. 

Volt!  v.  as  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  battery, 
by  combining  a  number  of  pieces  of  metal 
together,  because  he  was  persuaded  that  the 
electricity  was  in  the  metals  or  fluids  em- 
ployed. These  repeated  combinations  ob- 
tained the  name  of  Galvanic,  or  more  pro- 
perly, Voltaic  batteries :  and  the  science 
itself  is  usually  denominated,  from  the 
discoveries  resulting  from  these  batteries, 
Yo/taism. 

The  simplest  galvanic  apparatus  consists 
of  a  set  of  tumblers,  containing  water  slightly 
mixed  with  nitric  or  sulphuric  acid,  which 
are  connected  by  bent  wires  with  a  piece  of 
zinc  at  one  end,  and  a  piece  of  copper  at  the 
other ;  connect  the  tumblers  by  placing  these 
in  them  all  in  the  same  order— one  metal  in 
the  first  and  last,  and  both  metals  in  each 
intermediate  one  : — touching  the  first  copper 
and  the  last  zinc  with  the  fingers  will 
occasion  a  shock. 

The  pile  is  made  thus :  Take  twenty  or 
thirty  pieces  of  zinc,  eacn  as  large  as  a  penny. 
Get  as  many  pieces  of  cupper  about  the  same 
six  \  and  also  as  many  pieces  of  paper  or 
cloth,  which  are  to  be  dipped  in  a  solution 
of  salt  and  water.  In  building  up  the  pile, 
place  zinc,  paper,  copper,  &c,  constantly  in 
the  same  order  until  the  whole  be  finished. 
The  sides  of  the  pile  may  be  supported  with 
rods  of  glass,  or  varnished  wood,  fixed  in  the 
board  on  which  it  stands.  The  following 
experiments  may  then  be  performed  : — 

Having  wet  both  hands,  touch  the  lower 
part  of  the  pile  with  one  hand,  and  the  upper 
part  with  tlte -other;  a  slight  shock  of  elec- 
tricity will  be  felt  as  often  as  one  hand  is 
renio\ed.  If  the  hand  be  brought  back,  a 
similar  shock  will  be  felt  Put  a  basin  of 
water  near  the  pile,  and  put  the  left  hand 
into  it,  holding  a  wire,  the  one  end  of  which 
touches  the  top  of  the  battery  or  pile ;  then 
put  the  end  of  a  silver  spoon  between  the  lip 
and  the  gum,  and  with  the  other  end  of  the 
spoon  touch  the  lower  part  of  the  pile;  a 
strong  shock  is  felt  in  the  gum  and  in  the 
hand.  Take  the  left  hand  from  the 
"water,  but  still  keep  hold  of  the  wire,  and 
then  perform  the  last  experiment  in  the 
same  manner,  and  a  shock  will  be  felt  in  the 
gum  only.  Hold  a  silver  spoon  in  one  hand, 
and  touch  with  it  the  battery  at  the  lower 
part,  then  touch  the  upper  part  with  the 
tongue,  the  bitter  taste  is  extreme.    In  per- 


forming the  above  experiment,  if,  instead 
of  the  two  ends  of  the  pile,  the  one  end  uA 
the  middle  of  it  be  touched,  the  sensations 
will  not  be  nearly  so  strong. 

The  Galvanic  trough  in  a  very  powerful 
apparatus  ;  it  is  composed  of  zinc  and  copper 
plates  placed  in  pairs,  so  th.it  all  those ol  (.me 
metal  lie  toward  the  same  end.  The  end 
plates  have  connecting  wires;  and  when 
the  trough  is  filled  with  water,  impregnated 
with  nitric  or  muriatic  acid,  and  the  points 
of  the  wires  brought  together,  the  action  is 
remarkably  powerful ;  any  number  of  troughs 
may  be  united  and  made  to  act  at  once.  In 
this  way  substances  have  been  decomposed 
on  which  the  strongest  fires  had  no  effect. 

Modern  research  has  considerably  aug- 
mented our  knowledge  of  Galvanism.  It 
was,  after  some  time,  discovered  that  the 
efficiency  of  a  Galvanic  Circle  depends  on  its 
being  formed  of  three  bodies,  two  of  which 
have  a  powerful  effect  on  each  other,  but 
neither  of  them,  if  possible,  any  on  the  third. 
Hence  perfectly  pure  zinc,  or  (what,  answers 
extremely  well)  zinc  amalgamated  with  mer- 
cury, platina,  and  dilute  acid ;  or  charcoal, 
zinc,  and  acid ;  form  batteries  which  are  very 
effective,  and  which  from  their  long-con- 
tinued actions  are  called  constant  batteries; 
indeed,  the  zinc  in  them  is  not  at  all  acted 
upon  by  the  acid  in  which  it  is  immersed, 
unless  when  connected  with  the  platina,  &c., 
by  means  of  a  wire  or  some  other  conductor, 
and  then  only  to  an  extent  proportioned  to 
the  goodness  of  the  conductor  which  connects 
them. 

Galvanic  action  is  now  applied  to  a  very 
interesting  and  useful  purpose,  which  is 
called  the  Electrotype  process.  This  enables 
us  with  great  facility,  and  the  most  perfect 
exactness,  to  copy  medals,  engraved  copper" 
plates,  &c,  and  to  cover  almost  any  substance 
with  gold,  silver,  copper,  kc.  In  Its  simplest 
form  it  maybe  illustrated  by  a  small  Gal- 
vanic batterv,  consisting  of  a  vessel  of  un- 
glazed  porcelain,  within  which  is  a  piece  of 
zinc  immersed  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and 
outside  of  it  a  plate  of  copper  immersed  in  a 
solution  of  blue  vitriol  (sulphate  of  copper) ; 
when  the  zinc  and  copper  are  connected 
together  by  a  wire,  <S:c.,  the  former  will  be 
gradually  dissolved,  and  the  latter  covered 
with  fine  copper  deposited  from  the  blue 
vitriol. 

The  experiment  will  be  more  perfect  when 
a  generating  cell  (a  constant  battery)  and  a 
decomposiru)  cell  are  used.  Let  us  suppose 
l  he  generating  cell  to  consist  of  amalgamated 
rfnc,  platina,  and  dilute  sulphuric  acid  ;  and 
the  generating  cell  to  be  a  vessel  containing 
a  solution  of  blue  vitriol,  in  which  a  plate 


204 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY! 


of  copper  and  the  modal  intended  to  be  copied 
are  immersed,  without  being  in  contact. 
When  the  zinc  of  the  generating  cell  is  con- 
nected witli  the  medal,  and  its  platina  with 
tho  plate  of  copper,  the  medal  will  in  a  few 
hours  be  covered  with  a  plate  of  pure  copper, 
whose  thickness  will  depend  on  the  time  used 
in  forming  it,  &c,  and  which  being  removed 
from  the  medal,  and  placed  instead  of  it  in 
the  generating  cell,  will  constitute  a  matrix, 
and  be  covered  with  copper,  thus  affording 
a  copy  of  the  medal,  than  which  nothing 
can  be  moreexact.  The  samematrix  will,  it  is 
evident,  be  sufficient  for  the  production  of 
an  indefinite  number  of  copies. 

RETORT.  A  vessel  capable  of  bearing 
great  heat,  with  an  open  end.  Any  sub- 
stance intended  to  be  acted  upon  by  great 
heat  being  put  into  it,  is  exposed  in  "it  over 


a  lamp,  or  other  fire,  and  on  being  volatilized, 
passes  through  the  end  into  any  other  vessel 
adapted  to  receive  it,  as  in  the  engraving. 

ARTESIAN  WELLS.  These  are  deep 
wells,  sunk  down  to  some  stratum,  which  is 
pierced,  and  the  water  suddenly  rises  in  the 
well  as  high  as  the  source  of  the  spring, 
which  may  even  be  higher  than  the  ground 
where  the  well  is  sunk,  and  then  the  water 
will  pour  out  as  a  fountain,  or  flow  over. 
The  deep  wells  in  London  are  of  this  kind, 
and  the  water  in  them  is  remarkably  pure. 
The  name  "Artesian"  is  derived  from  the 
province  of  Artois,  in  France,  where,  it  is 
said,  they  were  first  excavated. 

MITE*.  An  insect  without  wings,  with 
eight  legs,  two  eyes,  and  two  large  joints 


tastefully  arranged,  and  blended  in  perfect 
harmony.  Who  can  look  without  admira- 
tion upon  this  member  of  a  beautious  tribe, 
the  Chrysis  fiihjio l>.  cr  golden  fly,  a  crea- 
ture partially  enwrapped  in  a  sinning  coat 


of  mail;  the  head,  thorax,  and  first  segment! 
of  the  abdomen  and  legs  bright  blue,  varie- 
gated with  green  and  purple;    the  second 
and  third  segments  of  a  bright  crimson,  re- 
flecting gold  and  green  ?    Thus  gaily  attired, 
the  insect  no  sooner  attains  perfection,  than 
he  finds  a  ready  supply  for  all  his  wants  in 
the     humble-looking   shepherd' s-purse,     a 
i  small   way-side  plant,    which    presents    a 
|  striking  contrast  to  his  own  brilliant  invest- 
|  ments.     About  sixteen  species  of  the  tribe 
i  pertain  to  Britain;  among  which  the  golden 
fly  may  be  seen  during  the  warm  days  of 
June  merrily  running  with  his  companions 
up  and  down  the  southern  side  of  walls  and 
pailins:s,  glittering  in  the  sun  beams,  and 
delighting    the    lover  of  nature  with   his 
resplendent  hues. 

OCTAHEDRON.      A  solid    figure  with 
eight  faces. 


It  is  very  prolific,    and    will    live    many 
months  without  food. 

CHRYSIDID^E.  These  are  the  humming- 
birds of  entomologists.  They  are  adorned 
with  the  most  splendid  and  effulgent  colours, 


FERNS.    Begin  to  unfold  in  March,  and 
the  botanist  who  seeks  for  them  in  woods 


A   MISCELLANY   OF   USEFUL    KNOWLEDGE. 


205 


and  bank-sides  may  often  discover  round  flowers,  the  violet  and  the  meek  soft-eye  I 
hairy-looking  hulls,  of  a  rich  brown  colour,  primrose.  The  mezereum,  that  tills  the  air 
emerging  from  anion;,'-  the  gram  and  :h  fragrance,  and  daffodils — 

contain   some  infant   fern,  care-       „,n 
full}    folded  up.  but   Boon    to  yield  to  the 
j«>int  ministry  of  showers  and  sunbeam-,  and 
to  stand  forth  in  its  singleness  and  beauty. 


"That  come  before  the  Sw:d)o\v  (lures,  and  tint 
The  winds  of  March  with  beauty," 


Oak  fern  prows  generally  in  wild  and  moun- 
tainous districts,  and  although  one  of  the 
most  elegant  and  attractive  of  our  native 
species,  seems  instinctively  to  avoid  the 
abodes  of  men,  and  fixes  itself  in  places  over- 
hung with  rocks,  or  thick  foliage.  The 
roots  are  black  and  fibrous,  and  the  young 
fronds  make  their  appearance  in  March  and 
April;  they  each  resemble  three  small  balls, 
upheld  on  wires,  which  gradually  unfold 
and  display  a  triple  di  ision;  the  fronds  ar- 
rive at  maturity  early  in  the  summer,  and 
entirely  disappear  before  the  storms  of  win- 
ter. Tlrs  species,  the  Polypodium  dryop- 
ten's  of  botanists,  derives  its  specific  name 
from  being  occasionally  found  among  the 
mossy  roots  of  u<;i>d  oaks.  Its  localities  are 
often  associated  with  local  scenerv  and 
time-haunted  ruins,  with  the  remembrance 
of  Diuidic  observances  and  rites,  and  places 
renowned  in  history.  Dry,  stony  heaths, 
in  Yorkshire,  Lancashire,"  Westmoreland, 
and  Scotland,  are  some  of  its  favourite  re- 
sorts, though  growing  in  great  luxuriance 
bes.de  the  fall  of  Lodore,  on  the  side  of  Der- 
wentwatcr,  in  Cumberland.  The  unfold- 
ing of  this  graceful  species  is  ever  welcome. 
Its  emerging  from  the  earth  uniformly  in- 
dicates the  passing,  by  01  winter  storms,  and 
is  accompanii  d  by  the  les-er  celandii 
its  glossy  yellow  cups— the  speedwell,  and 
hawthorn,  and  those  two  most  fragrant 
10 


often  affect  the   same  locality.     Fronds  of 
the  Broad  fern  (La*tr<sa  dilatata,  ot 
dium  dilatation  and  apinttlosum,  and  7  V//- 
porfiinn    crutatWHi    for    by    each     of 

names  hat  the  Broad  fern  been  desigi 

also  appear  in  March,  and,  although  thus 


early  developed,  are.  rarely  injured  by  the 
frost.  New  fronds  succeed  one  the  other  as 
months  pa*s  on;  they  apparently  attain 
their  maturity  in  September,  and  continue 
green  and  vigorous  throughout  the  winter; 
yet  only  in  sheltered  places,  for  the  Broad 
fern  seems  to  shrink  instinctively  from  cold. 
This  fern  occasionally  assumes  a  dissimilar 
appearance  from  sucn  as  it  generally  pre- 
sents, and  is  therefore  somewhat  puzzliug  to 
inexperienced  botanists. 

RAINBOW.  An  eflbct  on  drops  of  rain, 
from  the  different  refrangibiliry  of  the  rays 
of  light  which  produce  different  colours. 
The  inner  bow  is  produced  by  a  refraelion 
at  the  entrance  of  the  drop,  a  reflect  ion 
from  its  back,  and  a  refraction  at  its  exit,  or 
by  two  refractions  and  one  reflection.    The 


outer  bow  by  two  refractions  and  two  reflec- 
tions  within  the  drop  ;  and,  as  much  of  the 

dispersed  by  the  two  reflections,  so 
the  outer  bow  is  fainter  than  the  inner  bow. 
As  all  the  drops  in  a  shower  are  affected  at 
the  same  time,  so  all  the  colours  of  light  are 
visible  anywhere  to  a  spectator 
is  to  the  sun,  in  circles  which  are  from  56  to. 
52  d'grees,  and  from  42£  to  40  degrees  from 

;  but  in  the  two  bows  the  colours 
are  reversed.  The  two  bows  may  be  imi- 
tated by  small  glass  globes  of  water  placed 


200 


FACTS   FOIt  EVERYBODY 


•within  the  above  angles  from  the  eye,  or  by 
throwing  up  water  with  an  engine.    A  line 

passing  t'roin  the  sun  through  the  eye  of  the 
spectator  goes  to  ihe  centre  of  the  bow,  so 
that  the  height  of  the  bow  is  inversely  as  the 
height  of  the  sun  ;  and,  if  the  sun  is  more 
than  42  or  54  degrees  high,  there  ean  be  no 
how.  Of  course,  as  it  is  a  mere  opt  ical  effect, 
depending  on  the  position  of  the  eye,  no  two 
persons  can  see  the  same  bow.  The  moon, 
or  any  strong  light,  will  make  a  coloured 
how  as  well  as  the  sun. 

MAGNETISM,  kc.  The  production  of 
magnetism  by  electricity  is  another  of  the 
important  results  which  have  arisen  from 
on  increased  knowledge  of  Galvanism. 

Almost  everyone  knows  that  property  of 
the  magnet  which  causes  it  to  attract  iron 
and  a  few  other  substances.  This  attractive 
power  may  be  communicated  temporarily  to 
soft  iron,  and  permanently  to  steel,  either  bv 
the  natural  magnet  (the  loadstone)  or  the 
artificial  (a  magnetized  bar  of  steel).  If  a 
magnet  be  suspended  freely  it  will  arrange 
itself  north  and  south  ;  that  is.  one  pole  or 
extremity  will  point  almost  north,  and  the 
other  in  the  opposite  direction.  This  directive 
power,  as  it  is  called,  is  what  makes  the  ma- 
riner's compass  so  useful  to  the  navigator. 
By  its  aid  he  may  traverse  the  path'ess  ocean 
during  the  darkest  night  in  the  utmost 
security;  and  yet  it  consists  merely  of  a 
needle  (a  small  bar  of  steel  magnetized) 
balanced  on  a  tine  point,  so  that  it  can  move 
in  every  direction  over  a  circular  *card, 
marked  with  32  divisions  (called  points)  in 
its  circumference. 

If  a  bar  of  steel  is  carefully  balanced  on 
a  point,  and  then  magnetized  "by  rubbing  it 
to  a  magnet,  or  by  any  other  means — except 
in  a  part  of  the  earth  just  midway  between 
the  magnetic  poles — it  will  no  longer  remain 
in  equilibrio,  but  will  form  an  angle  with 
the  horizon,  which  is  called  the  angle  of  dip. 
Hence,  to  make  the  needle  of  the  mariner's 
compass  assume  and  preserve  a  horizontal 
position,  we  are  obliged  to  render  one  end 
of  it  heavier  than  the  other.  We  have 
already  said  that  the  needle  does  not,  when 
left  to  itself,  point  due  north  and  south  ;  the 
angle  it  makes  with  a  horizontal  line  lying 
in  the  meridian  of  the  place  is  called*  the 
angle  of  variotion^oi  that  place.  It  is  to  be 
remarked  that  this  angle  is  not  always  the 
same  even  at  the  same  plate.  Both  "  dip  " 
and  "variation"  arise  from  that,  cause  which 
makes  the  needle  point  to  the  magnetic  poles, 
namely,  the  earth  being  a  great  magnet  and 
acting  as  such  on  the  needle.  We  may  illus- 
trate both  dip  and  variation  by  placing  a 
magnetized  bar  of  steel  under  the  needle  in 


such  a  way  as  that  it  will  occupy  the  same 
position*  with  reference  to  it  as  the  mag- 
netic axis  (a  line  passing  through  the  mag- 
netic poles)  occupies. 

It  only  remains  to  show  why  the  earth  acts 
towards  the  needle  as  if  it  were  a  great 
magnet.  The  earth  is  what  is  called  an 
electro-magnet;  that  is,  one  formed  by  the 
circulation  of  electrical  currents  mound  it. 
ihe  connexion  between  electricity  ltnd 
magnetism  was  long  known;  but  that  elec- 
tricity circulating  around  the  needle  will 
cause  it  to  be  deflected  from  its  ordinary 
position,  and  that  the  same  current  passing 
round  a  bar  of  iron  would  magnetize  it,  are 
facts  which  constitute  a  recent  and  very  im- 
portant discovery. 

The  currents  which  produce  the  magnetism 
of  the  earth  are  due  to  the  enormous  eva- 
poration from  its  surface,  and  to  the  constant 
change  of  temperature  caused  by  revolution 
on  its  axis,  which  exposes  different  parts  of  it 
in  succession  to  the  sun's  rays. — Electricity 
developed  during  change  of  temperature 
has  been  designated  thermo-electricity. 

We  are  not  to  suppose  that  only  ferru- 
ginous substances  (although  the  best  for  the 
purpose)  or  even  metals  alone  are  capable 
of  being  magnetized  by  means  of  electricity. 
We  may  illustrate  the  most  interesting 
facts  in  electro-magnetism  by  covering  cop- 
per wire  with  worsted,  cotton,  or  some  other 
bad  conductor  of  electricity,  and  then  coiling 
it  round  a  bar  of  iron.  On  connecting  the 
extremities  of  the  wire-coil  or  helix,  as  it  is 
termed,  respectively,  with  the  plates  of  a 
Galvanic  Circle,  the  iron  bar  will  be  found 
to  be  highly  magnetic.  It  is  necessary  to 
cover  the  wire  with  some  non-conducting 
substance,  or  the  electricity,  instead  of  tra- 
versing the  length  of  it,  and  so  passing 
round  the  iron,  would  pass  directly  from 
one  part  of  the  wire  to  another,  selecting,  as 
electricity  always  does,  the  shortest  path. 

The  hdix  is  capable  not  only  of  producing 
magnetism  in  iron,  but  also  electricity  in 
another  helix  placed  around  or  intertw  mod 
with  it;  and  it  is  found,  whether  used  by 
itself,  or  in  combination  with  another,  to 
give  to  the  electricity  derived  from  a  sinqle 
Galvanic  Circle  an  intensity  which  could 
scarcely  be  obtained  from  the  eoinLin  Ui;n 
of  a  very  great  number  of  circles — the  u*M 
of  one  being  connected  with  the  copper  $1 
platina  of  the  next ;  which  is  the  mode  of 
arrangement  required  when  we  desire  to 
give  to  Galvanic  electricity  a  greater  or  less 
degree  of  intensity;  that  "is,  a  capability  of 
producing  mechanical orphysiologital  effects, 
and  the  power  of  traversing  bad  or  imperfect 
conductors. 


A    MISCELLANY    01  KNOWLKDUE. 


207 


MNEMONICS.  The  art  of  memory ;  and 
M  memory  itself  arises  from  association  of 
Ideas,  so  mnemonics  consists  in  assoei  tiny: 
tilings  to  be  remembered  with  tows 
familiar  objects,  as  the  rooms  in  a  house, 
the  streets  in  a  city,  or  the  buildings  on  a 
well  known  road.  "  This  was  the  system 
published  by  Sir  U.  Phillips  in  1800  ;  but  in 
1810,  M.  Feinagle  applied  the  same  system 
to  pictures  and  objects  in  a  room.  About 
1"4(>.  Mr.  Lowe  published  the  art  of  remem- 
dates  and  figur<  s  by  converting  them 
into  syllables,  and  joining  them  to  their 
proper  words,  or  parts  of  them.  lie  used 
r  consonants  as  they  best  suited  the 
formation  of  a  syllable: — 
a  e  i  o  u  au  oi  ei  ou  y 

12  3  4  5  6    7  8  9  0    100    1000    1,000,000 
bdtflspknz     g       th  m 

Therefore   we   remember   the   dates  of  the 
following  events,  and  any  others,  thus  :— 
Deluge....   2,348  we  call  Del.  difk. 

Troy 1,184        „        Tro.  balco. 

ates  ..       306        „        Socra.  tons. 

Alexander..       323         „        Alexan.  tet. 

making  as  many  as  we  please:  and  in  this 

10  or  300  dates    and  numbers  may 

easily  be   remembered    through    life.      The 

gative  system  of  education  is  partly 

founded  on   the    same    principle  of   asso- 

I 

RHUBARB.  Good  rhubarb  may  be  thus 
distinguished  from  the  inferior  descriptions. 
neral  characters  of  good  rhubarb  are, 
its  having  a  whitish  or  clear  yellow  colour, 
dry,  solid,  and  compact;  moderately 
heavy  and  brittle;  when  recently  broken", 
appearing  marked  with  yellow  o"r  reddish 
:aixed  with  white;"  being  easily  pul- 
Vcrizable  ;  forming  a  powder  of  a  tine  bright 
yellow,  having  the  peculiar,  nauseous, 
aromatic  smell  of  rhubarb,  and  a  sub-acrid, 
bitterish,  somewhat  astringent  taste,  and 
when  chewed,  feeling  gritty  under  the 
uring  the  saliva,  and  not 
appearing  very  mucilaginous.  The  size  and 
form  of  the  pieces  are  of  little  consequence; 
only  you  must  break  the  large  ones  to  see 
that  they  are  not  decaved  or  rotten  within, 
ami  also  observe  that  they  are  not  musty  or 
worm-eaten.  This  is  the  more  nee 
as  damaged  pieces  are  frequently  so  artfully 
dressed  up,  and  coloured  with  powdered 
'hubai  b,  as  to  impose  on  the  buyer  by  their 
appearance. 

DOGS  (DISTEMPER  IX).  1.  To  six 
grams  of  calomel  add  ten  grains  of  jalap 
made  up  into  a  pill  with  a  little  fat.  if  no 
favourable  change  takes  place,  repeat  the 
dose  in  three  or  four  days.  The  greatest  care 


must  be  taken  to  keep  the  dog  warm  and  dry 
(with  Buffl  ifii t  ventilation  I ;  and,  even  when 

perfectly,  recovered,  do  not  BUfftT  hi" 
into  w<  t  grass  for  a  short  time,  as  it 
tain  to  be  attended  with  fatal  results.  In 
ordinary  case>  of  illness  from  cold  or  over- 
work, the  best  medicine  is  good  syrup  of 
buckthorn,  about  two  tabiespoonfuhj.  — 
2.  Sixty  grains  of  gamboge,  sixty  -ruins  of 
calomel,  sixty  grains  of  jalap,  a'nd  twelve 
grains  of  tartar  emetic;  make  into  twelve 
pills.  One  to  betaken  every  day  for  three 
days;  then  rest  a  day,  and  begin  again. 
Keep  the  dog  warm,  and  give  him  warm 
broth.  Nothing  to  be  taken  for  two  hours 
alter  the  dose.  Regularly  used  in  York-hire, 
and  found  most  beneficial. —  i.  As  soon  as 
the  disease  is  discovered,  give,  for  a  small 
dosr,  one  teaspbonful  of  common  salt,  and 
then  one  drachm  of  JEthiop's  Mineral  in 
three  doses,  one  each  morning.  Mix  the 
mineral  with  a  piece  of  dripping  on  the 
bottom  of  a  (date.  If  a  large  dog,"  the  dose 
must  be  increased  accordingly. — 4.  As  the 
death  of  four-fifths  of  young  puppies  from 
distemper  is  the  result  of  over-feeding,  espe* 
cial  care  should  be  taken  to  have  them  in  as 
poor  a  condition  as  possible.  Previous  to 
their  being  attacked  by  this  disease  they 
should  not  taste  butcher's  meat  ;  and,  when 
seized,  allow  them  to  bleed  very  freely,  by 
making  an  incision  with  a  pair  of  sharp 
scissors  on  the  ear.  Give  them  a  little  sul- 
phur with  their  food,  and  keep  them  dry  and 
warm. 

EXCELSIOR.  The  word  is  derived 
from  the  Latin,  and  is  the  comparative  of 
theadiective  excelsus,  high,  lofty.  Itsi 
ing,  therefore,  is— "still  higher;"  and  in 
the  beautiful  poem  by  Professor  Longfellow, 
it  is  adopted  as  the  motto  of  a  genius  whose 
world  experience  is  thus  illustrated. 

BARLEY.  In  its  prepared  state  ot 
pearl-barley,  it  is  a  most  useful  adjunct 
to  the  medical  practitioner;  its  decoction, 
commonly  called  barley-water,  is  an 
agreeable  and  efficacious  demulcent  in 
affections  of  the  mucous  membrane,  and  a 
grateful  and  nutritious  beverage  in  fevers; 
for  the  former  purpose  it  is  required  much 
thicker  than  for  the  latter.  Ttie  following 
is  a  good  recipe  for  making  plain  barley- 
water:  Take  2\  ounces  of  pearl-barley, 
wash  it,  and  boil  for  a  short  time  in  half  a 
pint  of  water,  which  pour  off  and  thiow 
away  ;  then  pour  in  fair  pints  of  hot  water, 
boil  down  to  two  pints,  and  strain.  This  is 
an  excellent  diluent  drink  in  fevers;  it  is 
very  soothing  tor  inflamed  mucous  surfaces, 
especially  those  of  the  urinary  organs;  it 
may  be  rendered  more  pleasant  and  useful 


208 


FACTS   FOR   EVEKTIJODY-; 


as  a  fever  drink  by  the  addition  of  a  few 
glides  of  lemon.  If  a  laxative  is  required, 
the  compound  decoction,  prepared  as  fol- 
lows, may  be  given  :  Slued  figa  and  stoned 
raisins  of  each  2|  ounces  ;  bruised  liquorice- 
root  4  drachms;  water  1  pint;  barley- 
water,  as  above,  2  pints;  boil  down  to  a 
quart  and  strain.     The  demulcent  properties 


of  either  of  the  above  formulas  may  be  in- 
creased by  the  addition  of  an  ounce  of  gum- 
arabic  to  each  pint  of  the  liqur\  As  a  food 
for  infants  brought  up  by  hand,  simple 
barley-water  and  milk,  equal  proportions, 
sweetened  with  a  little  refined  sugar,  has 
been  recommended  ;  care  should  be  taken  to 
stop  it,  if  the  bowels  should  become  relaxed 
-with  this  diet.  Gruel,  for  children,  may  be 
made  of  the  pearl -barley,  or  Robinson's 
prepared  groat-i ;  for  most,  however,  this 
diet,  as  a  continuance,  will  be  found  too 
heating. 

A  Barley  Pudding,  good  for  invalids,  may 
be  made  as  follows  :  Add  to  4  table  spoon- 
fuls of  prepared  barley  sufficient  cold  milk 
to  form  a  thin  paste;  pour  on  it  a  quart  of 
boiling  milk,  then  add  a  small  slice  of  but- 
ter, a  tablespoon ful  of  powdered  lump  sugar, 
sufficient  lemon-peel  to  flavour  it,  and  two 
eggs,  previously  well  beaten  up  ;  mix  well, 
and  let  the  whole  bake  for  an  hour  and  a 
half  in  a  slow  oven.    This  is  very  nutri- 


tious and  easy  of  digestion  ;  it  may  be  ren- 
dered more  palateable  to  some  by  ike  addi- 
tion of  a  slice  or  two  of  lemon. 
JUPITER.    Thelarge«t  planet  of  the  sola* 

system,  being  91,522  miles  in  diameter,  or 
1,400  times  larger  than  the  earth.  It  re- 
volves round  the  sun  in  4,332  davs  and  14 


hoxirs  of  our  time,  and  on  its  own  axis  in 
9  hours,  56  minutes,  inclined  to  the  eliptic 
8b°  54A'.  It  is  attended  by  four  sa- 
tellites. 

JUPITER.  The  chief  of  the  gods,  wor- 
shipped under  that  and  other  names  by  all 
the  nations  of  antiquity.  The  temple  and 
statue  of  Jupiter  at  Athens  was. one  of  the 
wonders  of  Greece,  aud  he  was  worshipped 


under  the  names  of  Jupiter  Olympus,  and 
Jupiter  Tonans,  or  the  Thunderer.  lie  was 
the  Osiris  of  the  Egyptians,  the  Bramah  of 
the  Hindoos,  the  Amnion  of  Ethiopia,  the 
Woden  of  the  Scandinavians;  and  some 
ascribe  the  Greek  model  to  the  Jehovah  of 
the  Jews. 

FEET  (TO  REMOVE  THE  OFFEN- 
SIVE SMELL  OF).  The  object  of  perspi- 
ration is  to  remove  carbonic  acid,  and  other 
noxious  matters  from  the  blood ;  these,  in 
ordinary  cases,  escape  through  our  clothing. 
But  as  shoes  and  boots  are  but  very  sligbtly 
porous,  the  free  discharge  of  the  offensive 
perspiratory  matter  is  prevented,  and  con- 
sequently it  has  an  unpleasant  smell.   There 


A   MISCKTJ.ANY   OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


209 


Is  no  remedy  for  this  but  cleanliness.  Wash 
the  feet  night  and  morning  with  Lukewarm 
wat<  rand  soup  ;  put  on  dean  stockings  every 

possible;  keep  two  or  three  pairs  of 
■ho  s  in  wear  instead  of  one  only,  and  change 
every  other  day, — attend  to  these  inatruc- 

nd  the  annoyance  complained  of-will 
lie  much  lessened,  it'  not  removed.  The 
evil  of  bad-smelling  feet  will  be  found,  in 
nearly  all  cases,  to  arise  from  au  uncleanly 

habit. 

MOTH  (Phahena).  An  elegant  species 
of  insect,  whose  changes  correspond  with 
those  of  the  buttertly. 


#  LAVENDER  WATER.  Take  of  English 
oil  of  lavender,  and  essence  of  bergamot,  of 
each  one  ounce,  four  cloves,  and  rectified 
spirits  of  wine  one  pint.  Shake  them  well 
together,  and  let  them  stand  a  month,  then 
add  two  ounces  of  distilled  water,  and  distil. 
WHEY.  Ninety-two  parts  of  rue  hundred 
of  cream,  the  remaining -eight  being  equal 
proportions  of  butter  and  cheese,  or  suet 
and  curd. 

PRISM.  A  triangular  form  of  glass,  or 
any  refracting  medium,  by  the  oblique 
action  of  which  the  atoms  whose  propul- 
sions, called  light,  are  decomposed,  and  ex 
hi  bit  a  coloured  spectrum, 
which  is  divided  into  360 
p  irts.  The  upper  side  ishot, 
r  d,  and  oxygenous,  and 
45  parts;  ».mx  the  lower 
violet,  cold,  and  hydro- 
genous, and  80  parts  ; '  with 
the  intermediate  colours 
and  qualities,  as  orange  27. 
yellow  48,  green  60,  blue 
60,  and  indigo  40.  The  whole  being  a 
mechanical  and  perfect  decomposition  of 
the  elementary  atoms  of  the  atmosphere, 
the  excitement  of  which  constitutes,  light. 


TBIANDBIA.  The  third  class  of  the 
Linnaean  system  of  plants,  containing  three 
orders:  moaogynia,  digynia,  and  trigynia, 
with  three  stamina. 


ZEBRA.  An  animal  the  size  of  an  ass, 
distinguished  by  its  striped  skin,  and  wild 
and  common  in  Southern  Africa. 


STEMS.  Every  plant  has  a  stem  through 
which  the  sap  circulates,  and  from  which 
the  haves  and  flowers  spring.  This  stem  is 
not  always  apparent:  it  is  sometimes  con- 
cealed under  ground,  sometimes  disguised 
under  an  extraordinary  form:  the  stem  of 
the  tulip,  for  instance,  is  contained  within 
the  bulb,  which  is  commonly,  but  improperly, 
called  its  root:  that  of  the  fern  is  subterra- 
neous. The  functions  of  the  root  and  stem 
are  totally  different :  the  former  merely  sucks 
up  nourishment  from  the  soil,  and  transmits 
it  to  the  leaves;  the  latter  is  supplied  with 
organs  to  distribute  it  to  the  several  parts 
of  the  plant,  the'  leaves,  the  Sowers,  &C 

The  stems  of  plants  are  divided  into  two 
classes;  tho-e  winch  grow  internally,  hence 
calied  endogenous — they  are  also  called  mo- 
nocotyledons, from  their  seed  having  only 
one  cotyledon,  or  lobe:  and  those  whicn 
grow  externally,  called  exogenous,  or  dico- 
tyledons, from  their  seed  having  two  lobes. 

There  is  a  third  class,  denominated  tutjty- 
Icdous,  which  have  no  cotyledons,  and  no 
vascular  system,  such  as  fungi,  lichens,  &c. 


Bi  J 


facts  For.  everybody; 


The  date,  the  palm,  and  the  cocoa-nut 
tree,  the  Sugar-cane,  and  most  of  the  trees 
oi'  tropical  climates,  belong  to  the  monocoty- 
ledons, or  endogenous  plants.  Their  stems 
are  cylindrical,  being  or  the  same  thickness 
from  the  top  to  the  bottom.  Their  mode  of 
growth  is  this:  a  hollow  stem  shoots  up  to  a 
certain  height,  and  there  stops;  layer  after 
layer  grows  in  the  iiterior  of  this  hollow 
stein,  till  at  length  a  period  arrives  when 
the  outer  coats  are  so  hardened  and  distended, 
as  to  yield  no  longer;  the  stem  has  then  at- 
tained its  full  growth  in  horizontal  dimen- 
sions, and  oilers  a  broad,  fiat,  circular  surface 
to  view,  which  has  scarcely  risen  in  height 
above  the  level  of  the  ground.  In  this  .-tage 
it  resembles  the  stump  of  the  trunk  of  a 
tree  which  has  been  cut  down.  The  follow- 
ing spring,  there  being  no  room  for  a  new 
layer  of  wood  to  extend  itself  horizontally, 
it  shoots  up  from  the  centre  of  the  stem  ver- 
tically ;  fresh  layers  every  year  successively 
perforate  this  central  shoot,  till  it  becomes 
hard,  compact,  and  of  the  same  horizontal 
dimensions  as  the  base;  the  second  period 
oi  growth  is  then  complete. 

The  leaves  and  fruit  of  this  class  of  plants 
grow  from  the  centre  of  the  last  shoot,  and 
form  a  sort  of  cabbage  at  the  top  of  the  tree, 
on  cutting  off  which,  the  tree  perishes. 

Endogenous  plants  have  no  real  bark,  the 
external  coats  of  wood  are  so  much  hardened 
as  to  render  such  a  preservation  unnecessary. 

These  plants  have  usually  no  branches. 
Corn,  and  all  gramineous  plants,  the  lila- 
ceous  tribe  of  (lowers,  and  bulbous  roots,  are 
all  endogenous.  Some  of  these  send  forth  n 
shoots,  but  they  are  not  fiom  the  stem,  but  th 
from  a  knot  or  ring  upon  the  stem.  The 
sugar-c;:ue,  which  grows  in  this  manner,  is 
the  largest  of  the  gramineous  plants. 

'1  he  structure  of  the  exogenous  plants,  or 
dicotyledons,  to  which  the  trees  of  our  tem- 
perate climes  belong,  is  much  more  com- 
plicated. 

The  stem  is  composed  of  two  separate 

fiarts:  the  one  ligneous,  the  other  cortical ; 
n  other  words,  it  is  formed  of  wood  and  bark. 
The  wood  consists,  in  the  first  place,  of 
the  pith,  a  soft  medullary  substance,  which 
Occupies  the  centre  of  the  stem,  and  is  almost 
always  of  a  cylindrical  form.  This  soft, 
pulpy  body,  does  not  grow  or  increase  in 
size  with  the  tree,  but  retains  the  dimensions 
it  originally  had  in  the  youu-g  stem. 

The  first  layer,  surrounding  the  central 
pith,  grows  freely  during  a  twelvemonth, 
hut  the  following  year  it  is  enclosed  by  a 
new  layer;  being,  by  the  pressure  of  this 
layer,  prevented  from  extending  laterally, 
it  makes  its  way  where  there  is  no  pressure ; 


thai  is  to  say,  vertically.  When,  during  the 
third  year,  a  third  layer  surrounds  and  com- 
presses the  second,  this,  in  its  turn,  escapes 
from  the  bon  'age  by  rising  vertically.  This 
process  goes  on  year  after  year,  so  that  the 
stem  grows  in  height  at  the  same  time  that 
it  increases  in  thickness.  This  mode  of 
growing  renders  the  form  of  the  stem  conical, 
the  layers  diminishing  as  the  stem  rises. 

These  layers  of  wood  attain  a  state  of 
maturity,  when  they  become  so  hard  by 
continued  pressure  as  to  be  no  longer  sus- 
ceptible of  yielding  to  it.  Previous"  to  this 
period,  the  layers  bear  the  name  oi  alburnum, 
signifying  white  wood,  for  wood  is  always 
white,  until  it  reaches  this  degree  of  con- 
sistency. The  length  of  time  requisite  to 
convert  the  alburnum  into  perfect  wood, 
varies  from  five  to  fifty  years,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  tree. 

The  vegetation  of  the  bark  is  precisely  the 
inverse  of  that  of  the  wood;  that  is  to  say, 
it  is  endnr/t'itom,  its  layers  growing  inter- 
nally :  the  new  soft  coat  of  bark,  therefore, 
lies  immediately  in  contact  with  the  new 
soft  layer  of  wood.  The  outer  coats  of  bark, 
when  they  become  too  hard  to  be  further 
distended  by  the  pressure  of  the  internal 
layers,  crack,  and  becoming  thus  exposed  to 
the  injury  of  the  weather,  fall  off  in  pieces: 
it  is  this  which  produces  the  ruggedness  of 
the  bark  in  some  trees.  The  other  Layers,  as 
they  become  external,  and  exposed  tothesame 
sources  of  injury,  experience  the  same  fate. 
It  has  long  been  a  disputed  point  what 
part  of  the  stem  the  sap  rises  through  ;  some 
nave  maintained  the  opinion  that  it  ascended 
rough  the  pith;  others,  that  it  rose  through 
the  bark;  but  they  have  both  been  proved  to 
be  wrong.  By  colouring  the  water  with 
which  the  plant  was  watered,  it  has  been 
traced  within  the  stem,  and  found  to  ascend 
almost  wholly  in  the  alburnum,  or  young 
wood,  and  particularly  in  the  latest  layers. 
(See  Roots,  p.  187). 

LEAVES  (FUNCTIONS  OF).  If  the 
leaves  of  a  tree  be  stripped  off,  the  fruit 
comes  to  nothing,  which  is  exemplified  every 
year  in  gooseberry  bushes,  the  leaves  of 
which  have  been  devoured  by  caterpillars ; 
and  though  the  fruit  trees  of  warm  climates, 
partly  naturalized  with  us,  grapes  and 
peaches,  for  instance,  ripen  their  fruit 
sooner,  perhaps,  if  partially  deprived  of 
their  leaves  ;  yet  if  that  practice  be  carried 
too  far,  the  fruit  perishes.  The  white  mul- 
berry, indeed,  cultivated  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  for  the  food  of  silk-worms  only, 
bears  wonderfully  the  loss  of  its  foliage  three 
or  four  times  a  year. 
These  facts  have  led  some  to  think,  tliat 


A   MISCELLANY   OF   USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


211 


leaves  were  merely  a  clothing,  nm  protection 
against  cold  and  beat.  Though  this  is  un- 
doubtedly true,  >ti!l  it  is  a  very  small  part 
of  the  use  of  leaves. 

That  leaves  give  out  moisture,  or  are 
•rgana  of  insensible  perspiration,  is  proved 
by  the  simple  experiment  of  gathering  tin; 
leafy  branch  of  a  tree,  anil  hum. 
stopping  the  wound  at  its  base,  with  wax, 
or  any  other  tit  substance,  to  prevent  the 
effusion  of  moisture  in  that  direction.  In  a 
very  short  time,  the  leaves  droop,  wither, 
and  are  dried  up.  1  f  the  same  branch,  partly 
faded,  though  not  dead,  he  placed  in  a  very 
damp  cellar,  or  immersed  in  water,  the  learee 
revive,  by  which  their  power  of  absorption 
is  also  proved. 

The  great  annual  sun-flower  is  said  to 
have  lost  by  perspiration  1  lb.  14  oz.  weight, 
in  the  course  of  twelve  hours,  in  a  hot  dry 
day.  In  a  dry  night,  it  lost  about  three 
ounces;  in  a  "moist  night,  scarcely  any 
alteration  was  observable;  but  in  a  rainy 
night  it  gained  two  or  three  ounces.  The 
cornelian  cherry  is  most  remarkable  in  this 
respect :  the  quantity  of  fluid  which  evapo- 
rates from  its  leaves,  in  the  course  of  twenty- 
four  hours,  w  said  to  be  nearly  equal  to 
twice  the  weight  of  the  whole  shrub. 

The  perspiration  of  aquatic  plants  seems 
to  be  remarkably  copious.  Of  these  some 
grow  constantly,  immersed  in  water.  Their 
leaves  are  peculiarly  vascular,  and  dry  rery 
quickly  in  the  air,  withering  in  a  few  minutes 
after  exposure  to  it.  Other  aquatics  float 
with  only  the  upper  surface  of  their  leaves 
exposed  to  the  air,  which  surface  is  so  con- 
trived that  wa'er  will  scarcely  remain  upon 
it.  These  leaves,  though  extremely  juicy, 
dry  with  great  rapidity,  as  does  every  part 
of  "the  plant,  when  gathered.  It  is  probable 
that  they  imbibe  copiously  by  their  under 
6ides.  and  perspire  by  their  upper. 

Light  has  a  very  powerful  effect  upon 
plan's.  The  green  colour  of  the  leaves  is 
owing  to  it,  so  that  plants  raised  in  the 
dark,  are  of  a  sickly  white;  and  it  is  well 
known  that  the  blanching  of  celery  is  effected 
by  cove  nng  the  plant  and  excluding  the  light. 
'  acts  beneficially  upon  the  upper 
nf  leaves,  and  h artfully  upon  the 
under  side  ;  hence  the  former  is  always 
turned  towards  the  light,  in  whatever  situa- 
tion the  plant  may  happen  to  he  placed. 
Plants,  in  a  hot-house,  present  the  fronts  of 
their  leaves  to  the  side  where  there  is  most 
:iot  to  the  quarter  where  most  air  is 
admitted,  or  to  the  flue,  in  search  of  heat. 
It  has  been  found,  that  vine  leavds  turn  to 
the  light,  even  when  separated  from  the 
stem,  if  suspended  by  a  thread. 


Nor  is  this  effect  of  light  peculiar  to  leaves 
•lone.     Many  Sowers  are  equally  sensible  to 

impound    radiate;;   ones, 

as  the  daisy,  sun -flower,  marigold,  &c.     !:i 

their  funis.  Nature  seems  to  have  delighted 
to  imitate  the  radiant  luminary,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  whose  beams  many  of  them  do  not 
expand  their  blossoms  at  all.  The  stately 
annual  sun-flower  displays  this  phenomenon 
more  conspicuously,  on  account  of  its  size: 
the  flower  follows  the  sun  all  day,  and  re- 
turns, after  sunset,  to  the  east,  to  meet  the 
sunbeams  in  the  morning.  A  great  number 
of  leaves  also  folio .v  the  sun  in  his  course. 
A  clover  field  is  a  familiar  instance  of  this. 

The  chemical  actions  of  light,  heat,  and 
the  component  parts  of  the  atmospheric  air, 
upon  leaves,  are  now  tolerably  well  under- 
stood. It  is  agreed  that  in  the  day-time 
plants  imbibe,  from  the  atmosphere,  carbonic 
acid  gas  (which  is  a  compound  of  oxygen 
and  carbon),  that  they  decompose  it,  absorb 
the  carbon  as  matter  of  nourishment,  which 
is  added  to  the  sap,  and  emit  the  oxygen. 
The  burning  of  a  candle,  or  the  breathing 
of  animals,  in  a  confined  space,  produces  so 
much  of  this  gas,  that  neither  of  these 
operations  can  go  on  beyond  a  certain  time; 
but  the  air  so  contaminated  serves  as  food 
for  vegetables,  the  leaves  of  which,  assisted 
by  light,  soon  restore  the  oxygen,  or,  in 
other  words,  purify  the  air  again.  This 
beautiful  discovery  shows  a  mutual  depen- 
dence of  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms, 
and  adds  another  to  the  many  proofs  we  have 
of  the  wisdom  and  wonder-working  power 
of  the  Creator  of  all  things. 

In  the  dark,  plants  give  out  carbonic  acid, 
and  absorb  oxygen  ;  but  the  proportion  of 
the  latter  is  small,  compared  to  what  they 
exhale  by  day,  as  must  likewise  be  the  pro- 
portion of  carbonic  acid  given  out;  else  the 
quantity  of  carbon  added  to  their  substance 
would  be  but  trilling,  especially  in  those 
climates  in  which  the  proportion  of  day  to 
night  is  nearly  equal,  and  which,  notwith- 
standing, we  know  to  be  excessively  luxu- 
riant in  vegetation. 

There  can  be  no  question  of  the  general 
purpose  answered  to  the  vegetable  consti- 
tution by  these  functions  of  leaves.  But 
when  we  attempt  to  consider  how  the 
peculiar  secretions  of  different  species  and 
tribes  of  plants  are  formed;  how  the  samrj 
soil,  the  same  atmosphere,  should,  in  a  leaf 
of  the  vine,  or  sorrel,  produce  a  wholesome 
acid,  and  in  that  of  a  spurge,  or  manchineeL 
a  most  i  Undent  poison — how  sweet,  and 
nutritious,  herbage  should  grow  among  tne 
acrid  crow-foot,  and  aconite — we  rind  our- 
selves totally   unable   to  comprehend    the 


212 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


existence  of  such  wonderful  powers  in  so 
small,  and,  seemingly,  simple  an  organ,  as 
the  leaf  of  a  plant.  Ihe  agency  of  the  vital 
principle  alone  can  account  for  these  wonders, 
though  it  cannot,  to  our  understanding,  ex- 
plain them.  The  thickest  veil  coveis  the 
whole  of  these  processes;  and  so  far  have 
philosophers  hitherto  been  from  removing 
this  veil,  that  they  have  not  even  been  able 
to  approach  it.  All  ihese  operations,  indeed, 
are  evidently  chemical  decompositions  and 
combinations:  but  we  neither  know  what 
these  decompositions  and  combinations  are, 
nor  the  instruments  in  which  they  take 
place,  nor  the  agents  by  which  they  are 
regulated. 

WRITING.     A  most  important  art,  the 
successful  practice  of   which    arises    from 


holding  the  pen  properly,  when  beginning 
to  learn,  as  represented  in  the  engraving. 

HOTTE.  A  basket  of  wicker-work,  much 
used  in  France,  for  carrying  burdens  on 
the  back.    It  is  slung  over  the  arms  by 


means  of  straps,  and  great  weights  are  thus 
carried  with  much  facility. 

HYDROGEN  GAS.  A  variety  of  atoms, 
in  motion,  which  fill  a  space,  and  which 
Bpa«:e,  when  filled  with  them,  is  from  fifteen 
to  sixteen  times  lighter  than  if  the  space 


were  filled  with  common  atmospheric  air. 
The  engraving  represents  its  manufactory 
in  large  quantities  for  the  purpose  of  filling 


a  balloon.  The  casks  placed  round  are 
partly  rilled  with  water,  from  which  hy- 
drogen is  extracted,  by  putting  pieces  of 
zinc  into  it,  and  two-fifths  of  sulphuric  acid, 
or  vitriol.  This  producing  an  enerrescence, 
the  light  gas  passes  out  of  the  casks  through 
the  bent  tubes  which  puss  through  a  vessel 
of  cold  water  under  the  cask  placed  ih  the 
centre,  from  which  it  parses  through  the 
bent  tube  into  the  balloon,  and  being  so 
much  lighter  than  atmospheric  air,  it  rises 
with  great  force,  and  carries  the  balloon  with 
it  into  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere. 
UNDERSHOT  WHEELS.  Those  winch 
are  acted  upon  by  a  stream  at  the  bottom*, 
overshot  ones  acting  by  a  stream  at  the  top. 
Undershot  wheals  require  a  much  greater 
body  of  water  than  overshot ;    the  former 


are  con-equently  constructed  in  rivers,  and 
the  latter  in  streams  of  water.     The  appli- 
cation of  water  to  mechanical  purposes  in 
the  grinding  of  corn,  fulling  of  cloth,  dress* 
j  ingof  leather,  spinning  of  cotton,  wool,  &c, 
'  &c,  deserves  to  be  ranked  among  the  most 
|  important  inventions  of  man. 


A.   MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


213 


JULY.  In  the  ndent  calendar  of  the 
Romans  this  m<  nth  was  called  Quintilii,  to 
denote  Ha  numerical  position— being,  in 
fact,  t lie  tilth  month  <>f  the  old  Latin  year; 
whereas  now  it  is  our  seventh.  It  was 
to  Jupiter,  and  consisted  Of  thii!\-si\ 
hich  Romulus  reduced  to  thirtj  -one, 
and  Niuiia  Pompilius  to  thirty;  hut  Julius 
d  the  day  which  Numa  had 
taken  away  from  it.  In  const-quince  of  the 
alterations  made  in  the  calendar  by  Numa, 
July  became  the  seventh  month  in  the  year, 
hut'  retained  the  name  of  Quintilis,  until 
Marc  Antony  changed  its  name  to  Julius;  as 
a  compliment  to  Julius  Caesar,  who  had  done 
60  much  to  improve  the  calendar. 

The  Synonyme*  of  the  month  are  as  fol- 
low*— 1»  Latin,  Julius;  French.  Juillet; 
Italian,  J.uylio ;  Portuguese,  Julho;  and 
Saxon,  Id  u  Monuth,  Hey  MouatA,  or  Hay 
month,  because  the  hay-harvest  of  our 
Saxon  ancestors  was  held  in  this  month.  It 
was  aiso  called  Maed  Moutch,  because  at 
this  season  the  meadows  are  covered  with 
bloom. 


The  allegorical  representation  of  the  month 
(as  exhibited  in  our  illustrative  engraving) 
consisted  of  a  young  man  in  a  light  jacket 
eating  cherries ;  his  face  and  rhest  sunburnt, 
and  his  head  surmounted  by  a  wreath  of 
wild  thyme.  He  bore  a  'scythe  on  his 
shoulders,  symbolical  of  the  hay-harvest, 
while  an  ample  bottle  hung  at  his  girdle, 
and  at  his  side  was  the  sign  of  Leo,  the  lion, 
alluding  to  the  sun  entering  that  sign  on 
the  23rd  of  the  month. 

The  month  of  July  is  usually  very  hot, 
especially  during  the  first  fortnight  of  the 
I).  g-days;  but  this  excessive  temperature 
often  g'ves  way  to  the  ajstival  rains,  which 
begin  about  St.  Swithiu's-day.  If  showery 
weather  set  in  about  the  middle  of  the 
month,  the  chances  are  that  the  great  part 
of  th^'  period  will  be  wet;  and  hence  the 
10* 


popular  proverb  which  ascribes  forty  days' 
rain  to  St.  Swithin.  It  is  at  I  hi 
that  the  most  beautiful  and  picturesque  skies 
are  seen,  and  that  small  meteors  uios*i 
abound.  The  solstitial  Benson  this  month 
may  perhaps  be  considered  as  the  most  de- 
lightful;  for  though  the  vegetable  world  in 
the  month  of  June  is  perhaps  more  adorned 
with  blossoms,  yet  the  days  are  now  at  their 
full  length:  a  beautiful  twilight  takes  the 
place  of  night,  and  we  seldom  or  never  feel 
cold,  except  in  particularly  unseasonable 

years,     lh  sides  this,  the  air  is  general  l\  calm 
and  wholesome;  and  though  sometinu 
heat,  prevails,  yet  it  is  relieved  by  thunder- 
showers,  and  the  evenings  are  refreshing 

and  delightful.  Full-grown  grass  in  the 
meadows,  the  flowering  of  the  purple  clover, 
of  the  midsummer  daisy,  of  the  red  poppy  ill 
the  corn-fields,  of  the  lilies,  and  of  the  w  hole 
of  that  beautiful  tribe,  the  roses, 
numerous  others  of  the  floral  family,  dis- 
tinguish this  delightful  season  of  the  year. 
At  this  period,  also,  sheep-shearing  forms 
an  important  branch  of  rural  industry. 

II  ay- makingisanothergreat  feature  of  rural 
industry  for  which  the  month  of  July  is  dis- 
tinguished. It  is  always  a  source  of  pleasure 
to  the  young,  and  even  to  the  aged,  who 
delight  to  tell  their  oft-told  tales  of  love, 
whispered  at  eve  after  the  well-tilled  wag- 
gons have  been  carried  to  the  yard  to  in- 
crease the  snu>;  stacks  of  sweet  new-mown 
hay.  Haymaking  is  most  assuredly  one 
of  the  most  pleasing  occupations  of  an  Eng- 
lish summer. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  notice  a  few  of 
those  days  which  are  the  most  remarkable  in 
the  calendar  for  this  month. 

The  3rd  day  commences  with  what  are 
termed  the  Dog-day**  which  continue  until 
the  1 1th  of  August.  The  name  was  first  given 
in  reference  to  the  heliacal  rising  of  the  con- 
stellation of  Ganis  major,  called  Sirius,  or  the 
Dog-star,  which  was  formerly  thought  to 
make  the  sea  boil,  dogs  to  go  mad,  wine  to 
turn  sour,  animals  generally  to  languish, 
and  to  originate  fevers  and  cholera.  The 
name  applied  to  this  period  probably 
took  its  origin  from  a  festival  having  been 
formerly  held  at  Argos.  expressly  instituted 
for  the  killing  of  dogs  during  this  season. 

July  4,  1770,  the  declaration  of  American 
ia  I  pendeuce  was  proclaimed,  and  was  hailsd 
with  great  enthusiasm  and  rejoicing  by  the 
American  people. 

July  4,  1826,  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the 
declaration  of  independence.  Ittiuark  i  s 
coincidence,  in  the  death  of  John  Ad  mis 
and  Thomas  Jellcisun,  who  died  on  lli.it 
day. 


*14 


FACTS   FOR  EVERYBODY: 


lath.  Dedicated  to  St.  Swithin,  who  lived 
in  tlif  ninth  century.  He,  was  the  deviser 
and  originator  of  tithes  in  England,  and  (he 
priest  of  Xi  g  Egbert.  Being  very  pious 
and  learned,  he  was  created  Bishop  of  Win- 
chester, and,  dying  in  the  year  860,  wai 
canonized  by  the  Pope.  He  requested  that 
he  might  be  buried  in  the  open  churchyard, 
which  was  a  singular  request,  inasmuch  as 
the  bishops  were  generally  buried  in  the 
chancel  of  the  minster.  The  story  runs, 
that  the  monks,  wishing  to  translate  the 
remains  of  the  saint,  on  his  being  canonized, 
resolved  to  do  so  on  the  loth  of  July,  with 
a  solemn  procession  and  great  pomp  ;  but  as 
it  rained  violently  on  that  day,  and  the  forty 
days  succeeding,  they  looked  upon  it  as  a 
mark  of  disapprobation  of  the  saint,  and 
erected  a  chapel  over  his  grave  instead,  at 
which  many  miracles  are  said  to  have  been 

Eerformed.  Ever  since  then  a  popular  notion 
as  prevailed,  that  if  it  rains  on  St.  Swithin's 
day  there  will  be  rain  for  the  forty  ensuing 
days. 

20th.  Dedicated  to  St.  Margaret,  an 
Italian  virgin,  who  was  martyred  in  278. 
Although  the  name  is  retained  in  our  calen- 
dar, the  day  i>  not  kept. 

25th,  Dedicated  tn  St.  James  the  Apostle. 
T  »rmerly  the  Catholic  priests  blessed  apples 
on  this  day;  and  a  popular  belief  prevailed, 
that,  whoever  ate  oysters  on  this  day  would 
not  want  money  for  the  remainder  of  the 
year. 

26th.  Dedicated  to  St.  Anne,  the  mother 
of  the  Virgin  Mary.— In  1830  the  disturb- 
ances in  Maris  commenced,  and  lasted  for 
several  days,  ending  in  the  abdication  of 
Chaj  les  X.,  and  the  acceptance  of  the  crown 
of  France  by  Louis  Philippe. 

The  celebrated  anatomist  and  surgeon, 
John  Hunter,  was  born  July  14,  1728,  at 
Long  Calderwood,  in  Kilbrid.  near  Glasgow  ; 
and  in  1755,  the  distinguished  tragic  actress, 
Mrs.  SlDDONS,  was  born  at  Brecknock. 
She  died  in  1831. 

Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  was  born  July  16, 
1723,  at  Plympton  St.  Mary,  Devonshire. 
As  a  painter  he  stood  unrivalled  in  his  day, 
and  did  much  to  improve  the  art.  It  has 
been  said  of  him,  that  he  "exalted  portrait 
to  the  dignity  of  history;"  and  North  cote 
remarks,  that  "to  the  grandeur,  the  truth, 
and  simplicity  of  Titian,  and  to  the  daring 
strength  of  Rembrant,  he  has  united  the 
chasteness  and  delicacy  of  Vandvck."  He 
died  in  1792. 

AUGUST  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name 
from  the  Roman  Emperor,  Augustus  Caesar, 
to  whom  it  was  dedicated  in  honour  of  his 
being  created  Consul  in  this  month,   and 


having  triumphed  three  times  in  Rome, 
subjected  Egypt  to  the  Roman  power,  and 
put  an  end  to  civil  wars.  It  was  called 
Scxtilis,  or  the  sixth  month,  in  the  Album 

5? 


calendar,  in  which  it  had  only  twenty-eight 
days  assigned  to  it.  Romulus  added  two 
days,  and  Augustus  Caesar  a  third,  which 
number  it,  has  since  retained  ;  and  from  the 
time  that  Numa  Pompilius  revised  the  calen- 
dar, it  has  continued  as  the  eighth  month  of 
the  year. 

The  Anglo-Saxons  called  it  Arn-mc,iat, 
or  Barn-m&nat.  alluding  to  this  being  the 
period  when  their  barns  were  commonly 
iiiled,  the  Saxon  word  Am  signifying  har- 
vest. It  wa,s  also  called  liTeo'd-monath, 
clothing  month,  alluding  to  their  fields  being 
then  clothed  with  corn,  just  as  the  Romans 
dedicated  this  month  to  Ceres,  the  goddess 
of  harvest. 

The  Synonym**  of  the  month  are  as  fol- 
low : — In  Latin,  Augustus  ;  French,  Aout; 
Italian  and  Portuguese,  Agosto. 

The  allegorical  representation  of  the 
month  is  a  young  man  of  rustic  and  cheer- 
ful countenance,  with  a  flame-coloured 
habit;  upon  his  head  is  a  garland  of  rye 
and  wheat  ;  upon  his  arm  a  basket  of  ripe 
fruits;  at  his  belt  a  sickle;  and  at  his  side 
the  sign  Virgo,  the  Virgin,  because  the  sun 
enters  that  constellation  on  the  23rd  of  the 
month. 

The  month  of  August  is  the  most  glorious 
and  resplendent  of  the  year,  for  it  is  then 
that  Ceres,  with  her  golden-eared  corn, 
gladdens  the  hearts  of  men.  Sheaves  of 
wheat  are  now  piled  upon  the  carts,  and  the 
whole  field  is  astir. 

August  15,  J 824.  Gen.  Lafayette  arrived 
in  New  York,  from  France,  and  spent  the 
year  in  traveling  through  the  country,  being 
received  at  every  place  with  unbounded  en- 
thusiasm. 


A   MISCELLAJTY   OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


215 


Angus 


•t  1-;.  1777.    Battle  of  Bennington,  oi   *•  K",ms '  {,hu,vch  nmmto  l!mm 

in  whiu  i  the  Americana,  led  by  Colonel Siark,   preaching  in  the  Indies,  and  concluding  his 

d  an   important  victory  over  Colonel   ni''  ">  1,('in-  ,,a.v,'d  i,llV1'  by  order  ol   As- 

Baum,  who  had  been  sent  by  General  Bur-   tyage*,   brother  to   Palemon,   the    ting  „f 

lo  capture  some  stores  .it  that  place.       Armenia.—  Ihis  day  has  a  horrible  celebrity 

i.i    Auguat,    LSI 4,   Washington   City  anr-   to  connexion  with  the  massacre  of  the  Pro- 

•<l  to  a  British  army,  who  destroyed   teetantsat  Paris,  in  1572,  when  10,000 were 

the  Capitol,  President's  Mansion,  and  many:  butchered  in  a  fortnight,  besidef  90,000  in 

other  valuable  build  j  the  province*. 

August  20, 17U4.    General  Wayne  obtained i      Sir  William  Herscukl  was  one  of  the 


so  decisive  a  victory  over  the  hostile  Indians, 
us  to  produce  a  salutary  effect  upon  ail  the 
tribes  north- west  of  the  Ohio. 

August  27,  1770.  Battle  of  Long  Island, 
In  which  the  Americans  were  defeated,  but 
Washington  made  an  admirable  retreat  to 
New  York  on  the  39th,  and  theuce  across 
Jersey  to  Philadelphia. 

The  1st  of  the  month  is  Lammas-da  i/, 
which  is«a  i'xed  festival,  but  not  observed 


most  distinguished  astronomers  of  modern 
times,  to  whom  the  scientific  world  is  deeply 
indebted  for  the  discovery,  in  1781,  of  a 
new  primary  planet]  which  was  named,  in 
honour  of  George  III.,  Georgium  Sidus. 
He  was  born  at  llanover  in  1738,  and  died 
in  1822. 

The  name  of  the  French  Emperor,  Na- 
poleon BOHAPABTB,  is  too  well  known  to 
require  any  lengthened  observations.     For 


by  the  Church   of   England.      Some  derive    nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century  he   was  tho 


great  leading  star,  military  and  political,  of 
the  western  world.  But  though  he  rose  in 
glory,  he  set  in  humility.  He  was  born  at 
Ajaccio,  in  Corsica,  on  the  15th  of  August, 
1769,  and  was  educated  at  the  military  school 
of  Brienne,  from  1779  to  1784. 

CANADIAN  CENT.    The  Canadian  cent 
pieces  which  have  been  lately  issued   from 
one  of  the  great -festival  days  of  our  heathen   the  British  mint  possess  a  remarkable  pecu- 
anccsl  liarity.     They  are  not  only  tokens  of  value, 

6th.  The  next  festival  if  the  Transfi//ura-   but  also  standards  of  weight  and  measure; 


tiie  term  from  Lamb  Mass,  because;  on  that 
day  the  tenants  who  held  lands  under  the 
cathedral  church  in  York,  which  is  dedi- 
cated to  Si.  Petered  Vincula,  were  bound 
by  their  tenure  to  bring  a  live  lamb  into  the 
church  at  high  mass.  Lammas  seems  to 
have  been  held  as  a  day  of  thanksgiving  for 
the  new  fruits  of  the  earth.    It  was  probably 


(ion  of  our  Lord,  which  is  not  observed  bv 
the  Church  of  England,  although  inserted 
in  the  calendar  attached  to  the  Prayer  Book. 
It  was  instituted  by  Pope  Calixtus,  in  com 


100  cents  weigh  exactly  1  lb.,  and  oue  cent 
measures  1  inch. 

CURIOSITIES  OF  LITERATURE.    D'ls- 
raeli,    in    his    "  Curiosities    of    Literature," 


memoraiion  of  Christ's  transfiguration  on  states  that  the  lour  ages  of  typography  have 


the  Holy  Mount. 

10th.  St.  Lawrence. — This  is  a  festival 
held  in  honour  of  this  saint,  who  suffered 
martyrdom  at  Rome  by  order  of  the  Em- 


produced  the  enormous  number  of  3,G41,%0 
works. 

APARTMENTS  (TO  PERFUME.)      Put 
into  a  spirit  lamp,  or  narrow-necked  bottle, 


pcror  Valerian.  He  is  the  tutelary  saint  of  any  essence  or  scent  not  containing  water; 
the  Spaniards ;  and  the  church  of  the  Es-  ;  provide  the  .lamp,  or  bottle,  with  a  thick 
curial,  in  Spain,  founded  bv  Philip  II.,  and  lamp-cotton,  and  place  slightly  above  the 
dedicated  to  St.  Lorenzo,  in  honour  of  Philip  i  cotton  a  small  ball  of  spongy  platinum  ;  then 
having  won  a  battle  upon  the  10th  of  put  a  light  to  the  wick,  and  after  the  plati- 
August,  U  built  in  the  form  of  a  gridiron,  num  is  red-hot  (which  it  will  be  in  a  few 
which  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  instru-  j  seconds),  blow  it  out.  The  platinum  ball 
ment  of  torture  employed  by  the  Emperor  1  will  continue  in  a  state  of  ignition  as  long 
Valerian.  as  any  spirit  remains  in  the  bottle,   eva- 

16th.  The  Assumption  of  the  Virgin.—  \  porating  the  perfume  as  it  rises  by  means  of 
Tli is  is  a  grand  festival  of  the  Romish  \  the  wick.  We  have  tried  this,  and  seen  it 
Church.       It    was    instituted    in    813,    to  :  it  tried  often,  and  can  answer  for  its  being 


celebrate  the  ascension  of  the  Virgin  into 
heaven.  In  Catholic  countries  this  day  is 
marked  by  splendid  ceremonies  and  proces- 
sions. 

24th.  67.  Bartholomew' s-day  is  a  festival 
of  the  Church  of  England.  St.  Bartholomew 
was  an  apostle,  but  there  is  no  scriptural 
account  of  his  labours  or  death.     The  kgend 


g  od. 

CRICKET  (THE  LAWS  OF).  1.  Tna 
Ball.  At  the  beginning  of  each  innings, 
either  party  may  call  for  a  new  ball. 

2.  The  Bat.  May  be  generally  four 
inches  and  a  quarter  "in  the  widest  part, 
and  about  thirty -eight  inches  in  length. 

3.  The  Stumps.    Must  be  twenty-seven 


216 


FACTS  FOB.  EVERYBODY 


inches  out  of  the  ground;  the  bails  eight 
inches  in  length;  the  stumps  of  sufficient 
thickness  to  prevent  the  bail  from  passing 
through. 

4.  The  Bowling  Crease.  Must  be  in  a 
lino  with  the  stumps,  six  feet  eight  inches 
in  length;  the  stumps  in  the  centre;  with 
a  return  crease  at  eacli  end,  towards  the 
bowler,  at  right  angles. 

5.  Thb  PorpiNG  Crease.  Must  be  four 
feet  from  the  wicket,  and  parallel  to  it; 
unlimited  in  length;  but  not  shorter  .than 
the  bowling  crease. 

6.  ThbWickbtb.  Must  be  pitched  oppo- 
site to  each  other,  by  the  umpires,  at  the 
distance  of  twenty- two  yards. 

7.  It  shall  not  be  lawful  for  either  party, 
during  a  match,  to  alter  the  ground,  with- 
out the  con  cut   of  the   other,    lry  rolling, 

'watering,  covering,  mowing,  or  beating. 

This  rule  is  not  meant  to  prevent  the 
striker  from  beating  the  ground  with  his 
bat  near  to  the  spot  where  he  stands  dur- 
ing the  innings,  nor  to  prevent  the  bowler 
from  filling  up  holes  with  sawdust,  &c, 
when  the  ground  shall  be  wet. 

8.  After  rain  the  wickets  may  be 
change  1,  with  the  consent  of  both  parties. 

9.  The  bowler  shall  deliver  the  ball 
with  one  foot  on  the  ground  behind  the 
bowling  crease,  and  within  the  return 
crease;  and  shall  bowl  four  balls  before 
he  change  wickets;  which  he  shall  be  per- 
mitted to  do  only  once  in  the  same  innings 

10.  The  ball  must  be  bowled.  If  it  be 
thrown  or  jerked,  or  if  the  hand  be  above 
the  shoulder  in  the  delivery,  the  umpire 
must  call  "no  ball." 

11.  He  may  require  the  striker  at  the 
wicket  from  which  he  is  bowling  to  stand 
on  that  side  of  it  which  he  may  direct. 

12.  If  the  bowler  toss  the'ball  over  the 
striker's  head,  or  bowl  it  so  wide  that  it 
shall  be  out  of  the  distance  to  be  played  at, 
the  umpire  (even  although  he  attempt  to 
hit  it)  shall  adjudge  one  run  to  the  patties 
receiving  the  innings,  either  with  or  with- 
out an  appeal  from  them ;  which  shall  be 
put  down  to  the  score  of  wide  balls;  and 
such  balls  shall  not  be  reckoned  as  any  of 
the  four  balls.  When  the  umpire  shall 
have  called  "wide  ball,"  one  run  only  shall 
be  reckoned,  and  the  ball  be  considered 
dead. 

13.  If  the  bowler  deliver  a  "no  ball," 
the  striker  may  play  at  it,  and  be  allowed 
as  many  runs  as  he  can  get,  and  he  shall 
not  be  put  out  except  by  running  out. 

14.  In  the  event  of  no  run  being  ob- 
tained by  any  other  means,  one  run  shall 
then  be  scored.    In  the  event  of  a  change 


of  bowling,  one  uall  shall  be  allowed  for 
the  sake  of  practice 

15.  At  the  beginning  of  each  innings 
the  umpire  shall  call  '•  play  ;"  from  that 
time,  to  the  end  of  each  innings,  no  trial- 
hall  shall  be  allowed  to  any  bowler. 

16.  The  striker  is  out,  if  either  of  the 
bails  be  bow  led  oil',  or  if  a  stump  be  bowled 
out  of  the  ground: 

17.  Or  if  tne  ball  from  a  stroke  of  the 
bat,  or  hand,  but  not  wrist,  bo  held  before 
it  touch  the  ground,  although  it  be  hugged 
to  the  body  of  the  catcher  : 

18.  Or  if,  in  striking,  or  at  any  other 
time  while  the  ball  shall  be  in  play,  both 
his  feet  be  over  the  popping  crease,  and  his 
wicket  put  down,  except  his  bat  be  grounded 
within  it  : 

19.  Or  if,  in  striking  at  the  ball,  he  hit 
down  his  wicket ;  • 

20.  Or  if,  under  pretence  of  running,  or 
otherwise,  either  of  the  strikers  prevent  a 
ball  from  being  caught : 

21.  Or  if  the  ball  be  struck  and  he 
wilfully  strike  it  again  : 

22.  Or  if  in  running,  the  wicket  be 
struck  down  by  a  throw,  or  by  the  hand  or 
arm  (with  ball  in  hand),  before  his  loot, 
hand,  or  bat  be  grounded  over  the  popping 
crease  (but,  if  the  bails  be  off,  a  stump  must 
be  struck  out  of  the  ground)  : 

23.  Or  if  any  part  of  the  striker's  dress 
knock  down  the  wicket: 

24.  Or  if  the  sinker  touch  or  take  up 
the  ball  while  in  play,  unless  at  the  request 
of  the  opposite  part)  : 

25  Or  if  with  any  part  of  his  person 
he  stop  the  ball,  which  in  the  opinion  of  the 
umpire  at  the  bowler's  wicket  shall  have 
been  delivered  in  a  straight  line  to  the 
striker's  wicket,  and  would  have  hit  it. 

26.  If  the  players  have  crossed  each 
other,  he  that  runs  for  the  wicket  which  is 
put  down,  is  out. 

27.  A  ball  being  caught,  no  run  shall  be 
reckoned. 

28.  A  striker  being  run  out,  that  run 
which  he  and  his  partner  were  attempting 
shall  not  be  reckoned. 

29.  If  a  lost  ball  shall  be  called,  the 
striker  shall  be  allowed  six  runs;  but  if 
more  than  six  shall  have  been  run  before 
"lost  bail"  shall  have  been  called,  then 
the  striker  shall  have  all  that  have  been 
run. 

30.  After  the  ball  shall  have  been  settled 
in  the  wicket-keeper's  or  bowler's  hand,  it 
shall  be  considered  dead.  If,  when  the 
bowler  is  about  to  deliver  the  ball,  tie 
striker  at  his  wicket  shall  go  outside  the 
popping  crease  before  such  actual  delivery, 


A   MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDOB. 


217 


id  bowler  may  put  him  out,  unless 
(with  reference  to  law  22),  hi*  bat  in  hand, 
or  torn* pari  of  hit  p*r**n,  be  within  the 
taut  e 

31.  If  the  striker  be  hurt  he  may  retire 
from  his  wicket,  ami  return  to  it  any  time 
during  that  innings. 

It'  a  striker  be  hurt,  some  other  per- 
son may  stand  out  for  him,  but  not  go  in. 

33.  No  substitute  in  the  field  shall  be 
allowed  to  howl,  keep  wicket,  stand  at  the 
point,  cover  the  point,  or  stop  behind,  in 
any  case. 

34.  U  any  fieldsman  step  the  ball  with 
his  hat,  the  hail  shall  be  considered  dead, 
and  the  opposite  party  shall  add  five  runs 
to  their  score,  if  any  be  run,  they  shall 
have  five  in  all. 

3o.  The  ball  having  been  hit,  the  striker 
may  guard  his  wicket  with  his  hat,  or  with 
any  part  of  his  body  except  his  hand;  that 
the  24th  law  may  not  be  infringed. 

36.  The  wicket-keeper*  shall  stand  at  a 
reasonable  distance  behind  the  wicket,  and 
shall  not  take  the  ball  for  the  purpose  of 
Stumping  until  it  has  passed  the  wicket; 
he  .shall  not  move  till  the  ball  be  out  of  the 
bowler's  hand;  he  shall  not  by  any  noise 
incommode  the  striker;  and  if  any  part  of 
his  person  be  over  or  before  the  wicket, 
although  the  ball  hit  it,  'the  striker  shall 
not  be  out. 

87.  The  umpires  are  sole  judges  of  fair 
and  unfair  play,  and  all  disputes  shall  he 
determined  by  them,  each  at  his  own 
wicket;  hut,"  in  case  of  a  catch,  which 
the  umpire  at  the  wicket  bowled  from 
cannot  see  sufficiently  to  decide  upon,  he 
may  apply  to  the  other  umpire,  whose 
opi'iiou  shall  be  conclusive. 

38.  The  umpires,  in  all  matches,  shall 
pitch  fair  wickets,  and  the  parties  shall 
toss  up  for  the  choice  of  innings. 

39.  They  (the  umpires)  shall  allow  two 
minutes  for  each  striker  to  come  in,  and 
fifteen  minutes  between  each  innings. 
"When  they  shall  call  "play,"  the  party 
refusing  to  play  shall  lose  the  match. 

40.  The  umpires  are  not  to  order  a 
striker  out  unless  appealed  to  by  the 
adversaries. 

41.  But  if  one  of  the  bowler's  feet  be 
not  on  the  ground  behind  the  bowling 
crease,  and  within  the  return  crease,  when 
be  shall  deliver  the  ball,  the  umpire  at  his 
wicket,  unasked,  must  call  "  no  ball." 

42.  If  either  of  the  strikers  run  a  short 
run,  the  umpire  must  call  "one  short." 

43.  No  umpire  shall  be  allowed  to  bet. 

44.  No  umpire  is  to  be  changed  during 
e  match,  unless  with  the  consent  of  both 


parties,  except  in   violation  of   the   43rd 
[aw;    then,    either   party    may   dismis    tho 

Alter  the  delivery  of  four  halls  the 
umpire  must  call  "over,"  bul  not  until  the 
h:ril  shall  he  finally  settled  in  the  wicket- 
band,  or  that  of  the  bo*  ler ;  tho 
ball  should  then  be  considered  dead;  never- 
theless, if  an  idea  be  entei  Lained  thai  eitl  er 
of  the  striken  La  out,  a  question  may  be  put 
previously  to,  but  not  alter,  the  delivery  of 
the  next  ball. 

46.  The,  umpire  must  take  especial  care 
to  call  "no  hall,"  uutantty  upon  delivery, 
"wide  ball,"  as  soon  as  ever  it  shall  pass 
the  striker. 

47-  The  players  who  go  in  second  shall 
follow  their  innings,  if  they  shall  ba\e 
obtained  one  hundred  runs  less  than  their 
antagonists. 

48.  When  one  of  the  strikers  shall  have 
been  put  out,  the  use  of  the  bat  shall  not  ho 
allowed  to  any  person  till  the  next  striker 
shall  come  in.  m 

MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS.  Oroan. 
This  is  the  largest  and  most  harmonious  of 
all  wind  instruments.  It  may  be  more 
properly  termed  a  collection  of  instruments. 
The  invention  of  the  organ  is  very  ancient, 
though  it  is  agreed  it  was  little  used  till 
the  eighth  century.  It  seems  to  have 
been  borrowed  from  the  Greeks.  Vitru- 
vius  describes  one  in  his  tenth  book. 
The  Emperor  Julian  has  an  epigram 
in  its  praise.  St.  Jerome  mentions  one 
with  twelve  pairs  of  bellows,  which  might 
be  heard  a  thousand  paces,  or  a  mile; 
and  another  at  Jerusalem,  which  might  be 
heard  at  the  mount  of  Olives.  The  struc- 
ture of  the  modern  Organ  may  he  conceived 
as  follows:  The  organ  is  an  assemblage  of 
several  rows  of  pipes.  Its  size  is  usually 
expressed  by  the  length  of  its  largest  pipes  ; 
thus  we  say  an  organ  of  32  feet,  of  10  feet, 
of  8  feet,  and  of  2  feet.  The  organ  has 
at  least  one  set  of  keys,  when  it  has  only 
one  body;  and  two  or" three,  when  other- 
wise. The  large  organs  have  four,  some- 
times five  sets.  Besides,  the  pedals  or 
largest  pipes  have  their  key,  the  stops  or 
touches  whereof  are  played  by  the  feet. 
The  keys  of  an  organ  are  usually  divided 
into  four  octaves.  Ctesibius  of  Alexandria, 
who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Ever- 
getes,  is  said  to  have  first  "invented  organs 
that  played  by  compressing  the  air  with 
water,  which  may  still  be  practised.  Archi- 
medes and  Vitruvius  have  left  as  descrip- 
tions of  the  hydraulic  organ.  Among  cele- 
brated organs  may  be  mentioned  those  of 
Haarlem  and  of  Rotterdam,  in  Holland;  tho 


218 


FACTS  FOR   EVERYBODY: 


organ  at  dm,  in  Germany;  and  in  England, 
those  of  York  M  inater,  the  Birmingham 
Town  Hail,  and  the 'Temple  Church  of 
London.  The  great  Haarlem  organ,  huilt 
»y  Christian  Muller  early  in  the  last 
century,  contains  nearly  5,000  pipes.  That 
at  Uim  is  90  feet  in  height.  York  Minster 
organ  has  4,089  pipes,  and  is  famous  for  the 
beautiful  softness  of  its  tone.  Willis's  organ 
at  the  Great,  Exhibition  of  1851  attracted 
much  attention ;  it  contained  more  than 
4,400  pipes,  and  was  built  on  the  continental 
plan. 

Harp  A  musical  instrument  of  the 
•bring  kind;  being  of  a  triangular  figure, 
and  placed  on  end  between  the  legs  to  be 
played  on.  Menage  de- 
rives the  word  from  the 
Latin  harpa,  and  from  the 
German  Marpe,  Others 
bring  it  from  the  Latin 
carpo,  because  touched  or 
thrummed  with  the  fin- 
gers. This  instrument  is 
struck  with  the  finger  and 
thumb  of  both  hands.  Its 
music  is  much  like  that 
of  the  spinnet,  all  its 
strings  going  from  semi- 
tone to  semitone:  whence 
some  call  it  an  inverted 
'  js  Mm  spinnet.     It  is  capable  of 

a  much  greater  degree  of 
perfection  than  the  spinnet.  All  authors 
agree  that  it  is  very  different  from  the  Lyra, 
cithara,  or  barbiton  used  among  the  Romans. 
Notwithstanding  all  the  improvements  of 
sounding-board,  pedals,  &c,  the  harp  is  at 
best  but  an  imperfect  instrument. 

Spinnet,  from  spinm,  thorns,  a  stringed 
instrument,  apparently  derived  from  the 
harp,  and  superseded  by  the  harpsichord, 
which  is  an  improvement  of  it.  The  spinnet 
may  be  considered  as  the  original  ancestor 
of  our  modern  pianoforte.  It  con-i  ts  of  a 
number  ofharp-stringsstretched  horizon  tally 
on  a  frame,  and  played  by  means  of  keys, 
■which  set  in  motion  little  teeth,  or  hocks, 
like  those  on  a  child's  "musical  cart."  These 
little  hooks  produce  a  musical  twang.  They 
were  in  due  time  superseded  by  quills,  when 
the  spinnet  in  its  improved  shape  obtained 
the  name  of 

Harpsichord.  A  musical  instrument 
of  the  string  kind,  played  upon  after 
the  manner  of  an  organ.  It  is  furnished 
with  a  set,  and  sometimes  with  two  sets,  ol 
keys:  the  touching  or  striking  of  these 
keys  moves  some  little  jacks,  which  strike 
the  chords  or  strings.  The  strings  are 
composed  of  brass  or  iron,  and  are  stretched 


over  four  bridges,  as  they  are  called,  placed 
within  the  instrument.  Harpsichords  aro 
now  only  to  be  found  among  collections  of 
old  curiosities ;  they  have  quite  gone  out  of 
use. 

Pianoforte.  This  instrument  derives 
its  name  from  two  Italian  words,  piano, 
soft,  and  forte,  loud.  It  difi'ers  from  the 
harpsichord  mainly  in  the  use  of  hammers, 
which  strike  the  strings,  instead  of  quills, 
and  thus  enable  the  performer  to  produce  a 
loud  or  a  soft  sound,  according  to  the  force 
wi'h  which  he  strikes  the  keys.  The  soft 
and  loud  pedal  form  the  second  distinctive 
feature  of  the  pianoforte;  the  first  of  these 
pedals,  on  being  pressed,  keeps  the  leathern 
or  woollen  dampers  used  to  soften  the  sound 
of  the  instrument,  permanently  on  the 
keys.  Ths  loud  pedal,  on  the  other  hand, 
raises  these  dampers,  and  thus  again  softness 
and  loudness  of  sound  may  be  produced.  The 
pianoforte  first  began  to  be  popular  in  Eng- 
land and  France*  at  the  close  of  the  last 
century,  though  it  was  invented  in  Germany 
at  a  much  earlier  date.  The  great  firm  of 
Erard,  in  London  and  Paris,  began  its  career 
in  the  latter  city  about  the  year  1786,  the 
first  member  of  "the  firm  having  obtained  a 
patent  for  various  improvements  from  King 
Louis  XVI.  dementi's  pianos  used  to  be 
famous  in  London.  The  chief  firms  at  pre- 
sent are  those  of  the  Broadwoods  and 
Collards.  The  pianoforte  is  one  of  the  most 
perfect  musical  instruments  we  possess,  in 
its  power  of  giving  variety  and  completeness 
of  effect. 

Harmonium.  This  is  an  improved  form 
of  an  instrument  for  some  time  popular  in 
England  under  thcoame  of  seraphim  ;  it  is 
in  fact  the  principle  of  the  organ  simplified 
and  reduced  so  as  to  be  suitable  to  the  limits 
of  a  chamber  or  a  small  chapel.  The  har- 
monium is  made  like  the  organ,  with  a 
certain  number,  of  registers,  or  stops,  each 
producing  a  different  effect.  It  is  played 
by  means  of  a  finger-board,  like  a  piano, 
and  the  wind  is  supplied  by  bellows  worked 
by  the  feet.  This  instrument  is  particularly 
adapted  for  the  performance  of  church  music, 
as  it  possesses  the  power  of  sustaining  the 
notes. 

Trumpet.  A  musical  instrument,  the 
most  noble  of  all  portable  ones  of  the  wind 
kind,  used  chiefly  among  the  cavalry  to 
direct  them  in  the  service.  The  word  is 
formed  from  the  French  trompette.  The 
ancients  had  various  instruments  of  the 
trumpet  kind;  as  the  tubae,  eornua,  litui. 
When  the  sound  of  the  trumpet  is  well 
managed,  it  is  of  a  great  compass.  Indeed, 
its  extent  is  not  strictly  determinable,  since 


A   MISCELLANY  OF   USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


219 


It  reaches  ns  high  ns  the  strength  of  the 
breath  can  force  it.  A  good  breath  will 
tarry  i:  beyond  four  octaves,  which  is  the 
limit  of  the  usual  keys  of  spinuets  ami 
organs.    There  are  two  notable  defects  in 

the  trumpet,  observed  by  Mr.  Roberts  in 
the  ritilo.  Trans.  The  hist  is,  that  it  will 
not  perform  certain  notes  rithin  its  com- 

in  men  ly  called  trumpet  notes:  the 
Beconcl.  thai  four  of  the  notes  it  does  per- 
form are  not  in  exact  tune.  The  same 
are  found  in  the  trumpet-marine. 
FRENCH  HoRif.  This  is  no  other  than 
a  contorted  or  wreathed  trumpet.  It  labours 
under  the  same  detects  as  the  trumpet 
itself;  but  these  have  of  late  been  so  pal- 
liated us  to  require  no  particular  selection 


of  k°ys  for  this  instrument.  The  Hebrews 
made  use  of  horns,  formed  of  ranis'  horns, 
to  proclaim  the  jubilee.  Tins  instrument 
is  of  great  sweetness,  and  possessed  of  a  range 
of  three  octaves. 

CornET-A-Pt8TON8.  An  instrument  of 
the  horn  kind,  furnished  with  several 
pistons  for  the  modulation  of  the  notes. 
The  cornet- a-pistons  has  of  late  been  much 
improved,  and  is  decidedly  the  softest  and 
most  agreeable  brass  wind  instrument  in 
existence. 

Clarion  A  kind  of  trumpet  whose  tube 
is  narrower,  and  its  tone  acuterand  shriller, 
than  that  of  the  common  trumpet.  It  is 
said  that  the  clarion,  now  used  among  the 
.  and  Portuguese,  who  borrowed  it 
from  the  Moors,  served  anciently  for  a 
treble  to  several  trumpets,  which  sounded 
hass  tenor. 

Fife,  or  Fiffaro.  A  shrill  instrument  of 
martial  mu-ic,  consisting  of  a  short  narrow 
tube  with  hobs  disposed  along  the  side,  and 
blown  at  the  side  like  a  German  flute. 

CXA.BIONCT.  A  wind  instrument  of  the 
reed  kind,  with  a  mouth-piece,  the  scale  of 
which,  though  it  incluih  s  every  semitone 
Within  its  extremes,  is  virtually"  defective. 
Borne  additional  keys  have  lately  been 
added  to  this  instrument  to  improve  it. 


Bassoon.  A  wind  instrument,  oonsisting 
of  a  perforated  tube  and  a  reed  through 
which  it  is  blown.  '1  he  compass  of  the 
ba-soon  only  comprehends  three  octaves. 

Serpent.  A  base  wind  instrument,  taking 

its  name  from  its  curvilinear  form,  and 
consisting  of  several  twists,  which  are 
usually  i  overcd  with  leather.  It  has  three 
distinct  parts — a  mouth-piece  ;  neck  and 
tail  ;  ami  six  circular  apertures  for  the 
modulation  of  its  notes. 

JEoLIAN  Harp.  A  truly  natural  wind 
instrument,  which  derives  its  name  from 
JEolus,  the  god  of  winds.  Its  construction 
is  extremely  simple,  and  generally  con- 
sisting of  a  light  hollow  box  about  two 
inches  deep,  four  broad,  and  from  two  to 
three  feet  long,  along  which  are  extended 
five  or  six  catgut  strings,  made  tight  by 
bridges  near  each  end  of  the  box,  and  fixed 
in  its  end  on  pins.  The  instrument  thus 
constructed  and  placed  in  a  proper  situation 
in  the  bottom  of  a  window  to  receive  a  cur- 
rent of  air  across  its  strings,  produces,  in 
the  tremulous  motion  given  to  the  strings 
by  the  wind,  a  most  delicate,  soft,  mur- 
muring and  pleasing  combination  of  sounds, 
neither  directly  resembling  those  of  a 
Bt ringed  nor  of  a  wind  instrument,  but 
partaking  of  the  nature  of  both. 

Violin.  A  well-known  stringed  instru- 
ment, used  on  almost  every  occasion  where 
music  is  introduced.  During  the  puritanical 
reign  of  Cromwell  the  use  of  violins  was 
superseded  by  that  of  the  viol,  a  rude  instru-  ■ 


ment,  with  six  strings ;  but  after  the  'Re- 
storation violins  again  became  fashionable, 
and  the  viol  was  doomed  to  lasting  oblivion. 
Cremona,  in  Italy,  was  once  famous  for  the 
manufacture  of  violins.  Strad  nanus  was 
the  most  celebrated  maker.  The  antiquity 
of  the  violin  has  long  been  a  subject  0f 
dispute  with  the  learned,  as  it  is  generally 
supposed,  and  with  much  reason,  that  no 
instrument  played  with  a  bow  was  known 
to  the  ancients. 


220 


FACTS  FOR   EVERYBODY: 


^  Tambourine.  A  kind  of  semi-drum  in  the 
shape  of  a  sieve,  mounted  at  the  sides  with 


small  hells  and  loose  pieces  of  tin.  It  was 
formerly  considered  as  a  tinkling  cymbal. 

VIOLONCELLO.  An  instrument  like  the 
violin,  but  much  larger  in  size,  and  deeper 
in  tone.  In  quartetts  of  stringed  instru- 
ments, two  violins  generally  take  the  first 
and  second  parts ;  a  larger  kind  of  violin, 
called  a  viola  or  tenor,  the  third;  and  the 
violoncello  the  fourth.  The  double-bass  is 
the  largest  instrument  of  the  violin  kind  ; 
it  is  usually  furnished  with  only  three 
strings  of  great  thickness.  Its  notes  are 
deep  and  powerful. 

Drum.  A  well-known  martial  musical 
instrument  in  use  principally  among  the 
infantry,  serving  to  call  the  soldiers  to- 
gether, to  direct  "their  march,  attack, 
retreat,  &c.  Hie  drum  is  said  to  be  an 
oriental  invention,  and  is  thought  to  have 
been  first  brought  into  Europe  by  the 
Arabians. 

Kettle  Brums  are  used  by  cavalry,  and 
consist  of  two  large  basons  with  spherical 
bottoms,  or,  rather,  two  hemispheres,  which 
are  covered  over  the  fiat  side  with  vellum, 
and  made  tight  with  screws  and  an  iron 
ring.  Kettle-drums  are  always  tuned— the 
one  to  the  key-note,  the  other  to  the  fifth, 
of  the  piece  that  is  to  be  played. 

Dulcimer.  A  triangular  instrument, 
strung  with  about  fifty  wires  cast  over  a 
bridge  at  each  end,  the  shortest  being  gene- 
rally eighteen  inches  and  the  longest  thirty- 
six.  It  is  performed  upon  by  striking  the 
•wires  with  little  wooden  rods  turned  up  a 
little   at   the   ends.     This  name  is  also  ap- 

fdied  to  a  Hebrew  instrument  by  the  trans- 
atom  of  the  Bible,  the  figure  of  which  is 
not  now  known. 

UuiTAR.  Derived  from  the  Spanish 
guitarra,  which  is  from  the  Latin  biUnrra. 
a  kind  of  lute  ;  it  is  a  six-stringed  instru- 
ment, with  an  oval  body,  and  a  neck  like  a 
violin,  or  fiddle,  the  strings  passing  from  the 
head  to  the  lower  end  over  a  soundiug-hole 


and  bridge.  Such  is  the  general  and  pas- 
sionate attachment  to  this  instrument  in 
the  south  of  Spain,  particularly  Valencia, 
that  the  labourers,  carters,  and  even  tra- 
vellers, will  solace  themselves  in  the  even- 
ing, till  a  lute  hour,  strumming  the  guitar 
and  singing.  Formerly  it  was  used  even 
by  gentlemen  to  senerade  their  mistresses. 
The  American  "banjo"  is  merely  a  pri- 
mitive kind  of  guitar. 

Flute.  A  general  name  for  several 
kinds  of  cylindrical  wind  instruments  of 
different  lengths  and  diameters.  The  com- 
mon or  English  flute  is  about  eighteen, 
inches  in  length  and  one  in  diameter,  with 
eight  holes  and  a  beaked  mouth -piece, 
which  is  blown  at  the  end.  The  flageolet 
is  a  small  kind  of  this  flute.  The  German 
flute  is  much  larger,  consists  of  several 
moveable  joints,  and  is  furnished  with 
keys. 

Cymbal,  orCymbalum.  An  ancient  kind 
of  round  brass  instrument,  the  nature  and 
powers  of  which  are  not  now  known. 

Cruth,  or  Growth.  An  old  Welsh  in- 
strument resembling  a  fiddle. 

Triangle.  A  steel  instrument,  so  called 
from  its  consisting  of  three  bars  of  polished 
steel  united  so  as  to  form  a  triangle,  which 
is  performed  upon  by  a  steel  rod. 

Bagpipe.  A  well-known  wind  instrument 
of  great  antiquity  among  the  northern 
nations,  and  long  a  favourite  in  Scotland, 


where  it  was  probably  introduced  by  the 
Norwegians  or  Danes.  The  bagpipe  con- 
sists "of  two  principal  parts — the  bellows  or 
leathern  bag  to  collect  and  retain  the  wind, 
and  the  instrument  composed  of  three  pipes, 
the  longest  of  which  is  called  the  drone. 

Hautboy,  or  Oboe.  A  portable  wind 
instrument  of  the  reed  kind,  consisting  of 
a  tube  gradually  widening  from  the  top 
towards  the  lower  end,  and  furnished  with 
keys  and  circular  holes  for  modulating  its 
sounds.  The  tone  of  the  hautboy  is  grate- 
ful and  soothing,  and  particularly  adapted 
to  the  expression  of  soft  and  plaintive 
passages. 


A   MISCELLANY   OP   USEFUL    KNOWLEDGE. 


Sackbttt.    A  musical  instrument  of  the 
wind  kind  ;   being  a  spot  its  of   trumpet, 
though  different  from  the  common  trum- 
th  in  form  and  size.    The  Baekbut  is 
usually  eight    feet    long,    without    being 
drawn  our,  or  without  reckoning  the  circles. 
When  extended  to  its    lull   length,   it  is 
usually  fifteen  feet     The  wreath   is  two 
feet    nine    inches   in    circumference.      It 
a*  kiss  in  all  conceits  of  wind  music. 
ATMOSPHERE  (THE).  The  atmosphere 
is  one  of  the  most  essential  appendages  to 
the  globe  we  inhabit,  and  exhibits  a  most 
striking  proof  of  Divine  skill  and  omnipo- 
tence.    It  is  now  ascertained  to  be  a  coin- 
pound  substance,  formed  chiefly  of  two  very 
different  ingredients,   termed   oxygen  and 
Of  100  measures  of  atmp- 
•  air,  21  are  oxygen,  and  79  nitrogen, 
ae,  namely,  oxygen,  is  the  pi 
of  combustion.  *  It  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  the  support  of  animal  life,  and  is  one  of 
the  most    important  substances  in  nature. 
ther  (nitrogen)  is  altogether  incapable 
of  supporting  either  flame  or  animal  life. 
But  the  term  atmosphere  is  also  applied  to 
the  whole  mass  of  fluids,   consisting  of  air, 
vapours,   electric    fluid,    and    other  matters 
which  Burround  the  earth  to  a  certain  height. 
This  mass  of  fluid  matter  gravitates  to  the 
earth,  revolves  with  it  in  its  diurnal  rotation, 
and  is  carried  along  with  it  in  its  course 
round  the  sun  every  year.    It  has  been  com- 
puted to  extend  about  45  miles  above  the 
earth's  surface,  and  it  presses  on  the  earth 
.w  t'l  a  force  proportioned  to  its  heigl  t  and 
density.     From  experiments  made  with  the 
barometer  it  has;  been  ascertained,  that  it 
with  a  weight  of  about  15  pounds  on 
every  square  inch  of  the    earth's   surface; 
and,  therefore,  its  pressure  on  the  body  of  a 
-sized  man  is  equal  to  about  82,000 
pounds,  or  14  tens  avoirdupois,  a  pressure 
which   would  be  insupportable,   and  even 
fatal,  were  it  not  equal  on  every  part,   and 
counterbalanced  by  the  spring  of  the  air 
within  us.    The  pressure  of  the  whole  atmo- 
sphere  upon  the   earth  is  computed   to  be 
equivalent  to   that    of  a  globe  of  lead  06 
miles  in  diameter;  in  other  words,  the  whole 
mass  of  the  air,  which  surrounds  the  globe, 
compresses  the  earth  with  a  force  or  power 
equal   to  that  of  five  thousand  mill 
millions  of  tons.     This  amazing  pressure  is, 
however,  essentially  ne«  the  pre- 

servation of  the  present  constitution  of- our 
globe,  and  of  the  animated  beings  which 
dwell  on  its  surface.  It  prevents  the  heat 
of  the  sun  from  converting  water  and  all 
other  fluids  into  vapour  ;  and  preserves  the 
Vessels  oi  all  organized  beings  in  due  tone 


and  vigour.  TVere  the  atmospherical  preaaura 
entirelv  removed,  the  elastic  fluids  contained 
in  the  finer  vessels  of  men  and  other  animals 

would  inevitably  burst  them,  and  life  would 
become  extinct ;  and  most  of  the  substances 
on  the  face  of  the  earth,  particularly  liquids, 

would  be  dissipated  into  vapour. 

es  these,  the  atmosphere  post 
great  variety  of  other  admirable  pro] 
of  which  the  following  may  lie  mentioned. 

It  is  the  vehicle  of  smells,    by  which   we 
become  acquainted  with  the  qualities  of  the 
food  which  is  set  before  us,  and  learn  to  avoid 
those  places  which  are  damp,  unwholesome, 
and  dangerous.     It  is  tin;  medium  of  sounds, 
by  means  of  which  knowledge  is  conveyed 
to  our  minds.     Its  undulations,  like  so  many 
couriers,  run  for  ever  backwards  and   for- 
wards,   to   convey  our  thoughts  to   others, 
and  theirs  to  us,  and  to  bring  news  of  trans- 
actions which  frequently  occur  at  a  consi  i  r- 
able  distance.     A  few  strokes  on  a  large  bell, 
through  the   ministration  of  the   air,   will 
convey  signals  of  distress,  or  of  joy,  in  a 
quarter  of  a  minute,  to  the  population  of  a 
city  containing  a  hundred  thousand  inhabit- 
ants.    It  transmits  to  our  cars  all  the  har- 
monies of  music,  and  expresses  every  passion 
of  the  soul :  it  swells  the  m>t<  s  of  (he  night- 
Ulgale,  ami  distributes  alike  to  every  ear  the 
pleasures   which  arise  from  the  harmonious 
sounds  of  a  concert.     It  produces  the   blue 
colour  of  the  sky.  and  is  the  cause  of  the 
morning  and   evening  twilight,  by  its  pro- 
perly of  bending  the  rays  of  light,  and  re- 
flecting them  in  all  directions.     It  forms  an 
essential  requisite  for  carrying  on  all  tho 
processes  of   the  vegetable  kingdom,   and 
serves   for  the    production  of  clouds,   rain, 
and  dew,   which  nourish  and  fertilize  the 
earth.     In  short,  it  would   be  impossible  to 
enumerate  all  the  advantages  we  dei  i\  e  from 
this  noble  appendage  to  our  world.     Were 
tli-  earth  divested  of  its  atmosphere,  or  were 
only  two  or  three  of  its  properties  changed 
or  destroyed,  ii  would  be  left  altogeth*  I 
for  (lie  habitation  of  sentient  beings.     Were 
it  divested  of  its  undulating  quality,  we 
should  be  deprived  of  all  the  advantages  of 
speech  and  conversation,  of  all  the  i 
of  the  feathered   songsters,  and  of  all  the 
pleasures  of  music;   and,   like  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  we  could  have  no  power  of  communi- 
cating our  thoughts   but  by  visible  signs. 
its  reflective  powers,  the 
sun  world. appear  in  one  part  of  the  sky  of  a 
dazzling  brightness,  while  all  around  would 
appear  as  dark  as  midnight,  and  the  stars 
would  be  visible  at  noon-day.     Were  it  de- 
prived of  its  refractive  powers,  instead  of  the 
gradual  approach  of  the  duv  and  the  night, 


222 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


■which  we  now  experience,  at  sun-rise  we 
should  be  transported,  all  at  once,  from  mid- 
night darkness  to  the  splendour  of  noon-day; 
an  1,  at  sun-set,  should  make  a  sudden  tran- 
sition from  the  splendours  of  day  to  all  the 
honors  of  midnight,  which  would  bewilder 
the  traveller  in  his  journey,  and  strike  the 
creation  with  amazement.  In  line,  were  the 
oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  completely  ex- 
tracted, destruction  would  seize  on  all  tribes 
of  the  living  world,  throughout  every  region 
of  earth,  air,  and  sea. 

PAEfS  OF  SPEECH  (GENERAL  AC- 
COILN  r  OF).  In  every  thing  we  study,  as 
well  as  in  every  tiling  we  do,  where  we  have 
to  deal  with  a  multitude  of  objects,  Classi- 
ficaiion — that  is,  arranging  the  objects 
into  division*  and  subdivisions,  each  having 
some  peculiar  point  about  it  that  distin- 
guishes it  from  the  others — is  of  the  utmost 
importance,  and  should  be  set  about  first. 
The  General  has  his  army  in  battalions — 
these  are  divided  into  regiments — these  into 
companies,  and  so  on :  while  some  are 
cavalry,  some  infantry,  eome  sappers  and 
miners,  some  artillery-men,  some  sharp- 
shooters The  Botanist  divides  his  thou- 
sands of  different  plants  first  into  dowering 
and  tiowerless  tribes,  and  he  then  sub- 
divides these  into  many  classes,  orders,  and 
oilier  divisions  and  subdivisions. 

So  it  is  with  the  Grammarian.  There  are 
nearly  sixty  thousand  words  in  the  English 
language;  and  the  first  thing  we  must  do  is 
to  marshal  them  in  order:  in  divisions  and 
subdivisions. 

In  speaking  or  writing  we  must  have  a 
KAME  for  that  about  which  we  speak  or  write. 

Fust,  then,  we  observe  a  very  great  num- 
ber of  words  which  are  NAMES  of  things, 
as  the  words  by  which  we  would  name  or 
designate  the  objects  shown  in  the  adjoining 
cut,  if  we  wished  to  speak  of  them. 


The  man  shown  here  may  be  spoken  of 
as  a  man,  a  gentleman,  an  American,  a 
father,  a  husband,  a  friend,  a  merchant,  a 
master,  a  householder,   Sidney,   or  George 


l  Sidney.  All  these  are  name-words,  or 
Nouns.  In  like  manner,  the  words  woman, 
!  Mrs.  Sidney,  Jane  Sidney,  lady,  wife,  mo- 
ther, boy,  Henry,  girl,  child,  cat.  book, 
John,  tongs,  fire,  rug,  fireside,  are  NOUNS, 
or  aames  of  tilings. 

As  all  i  hose  obn  cts  are  represented  in  the 
engraving,  it  might  be  supposed  that  we 
might  define  a  noun  to  be  "the  name  of 
whatever  we  can  see;"  or  use  the  old  de- 
scription, that  ''a  noun  is  the  name  of  a 
person,  place,  or  thing."  It  is  true  that 
the  name  of  anv thing  we  can  see  isu  noun; 
but  there  are  many  things  which  we  cannot 
see,  the  names  of  which  are  nouns.  In  the 
scene  represented  in  the  above  cut,  them 
would  be  sound  fvom  the  girl  who  is  reading, 
which  eannot  be  seen;  yet  the  word  sound 
is  a  Noun.  Also,  the  names  of  actions  and 
states  of  being  are  Nouns — as  reading,  or 
sleeping. 

The  name  of  whatever  we  can  think  of  or 
speak  about  is  a  Noun  ;  or,  a  Noun  is  the 
name  of  whatever  can  be  perceived  by  the 
outward  senses,  or  by  the  inward  mind. 

The  Noun,  then,  is  the  first  division  of 
words,  or,  as  each  division  is  often  called,  a 
part  of  speech.  The  term  "noun"  is  de- 
rived from  the  Latin  word  nomen,  signify- 
ing "  a  name." 

The  next  part  of  speeeh  is  the  Adjective, 
a  word  used  along  with  a  noun,  to  express 
some  quality  or  property  of  it — that  is,  to 
qualify  it. 


In  the  above  cut,  we  see  several  objects, 
the  names  of  which  are  nouns ;  as  the  man, 
the  woman,  the  boy,  the  balls,  the  chair, 
the  clock.  But  we  observe  that  the  man  is 
old,  the  woman  is  young,  the  boy  is  little / 
one  ball  is  black,  and  the  otlu  r  ball  is  white. 
Those  words  in  italics  are  adjt  ctives,  for  they 
Qualify  the  nouns,  that  is,  tell  us  some  qua- 
lities or  properties  of  the  nouns.  They  may 
be  used  along  with  the  noun*,  either  in  tho 
way  given  above,  or  as  follows  :  an  old  man, 
a  young  woman,  a  little  boy,  a  white  bail,  a 
hack  ball. 


k   MISCELLANY    OF   USEFUL    KNOWLEDGE. 


22J 


An  Adjective  is  often  described  aa  a  word 
used  slonjc  with  a  noun,  to  limit  it*  siyniji- 

cation.  Thus  the  worda  "  a  man."  may 
mean  any  man  whatever  in  the  wide  world. 
But  if  we  say  "  an  old  man,"  we  now  limit 
thr  meaning  of  the  word  "man"  to  one 
that  U  old,  shult  ng  out  from  our  considera- 
tion any  man  that  is  not  old. 

The  word   adjective  is  derived  from   the 

Latin  words  jactam,  thrown, — and  ad,  to; 

signifying  that  it  is  added  to,  or  placed 

.   the  noun.      It  is    also  called   the 

ad  a  nun. 

The  next  part  of  speech  is  the  Pronoun, 
the  name  of  which  tells  its  meaning  dis- 
tinctly. It  is  from  the  Latin  wordjo>o,  for, 
— and*  the  word  noun,  and  means  for  a  noun. 
It  is  a  word  used  for,  or  instead  of  a  noun. 


•1  Iter  por.y,  while  her  papa  walks  at 
her  side,  holding  Tommy  by  the  hand  :< — 
The  words  in  italics  make  assertions;  they 
are  vbbbs 


In  the  engraving  we  see  a  little  boy  who 
has  taken  his  brother's  ball,  and  the  latter 
is  complaining  to  his  mamma.  He  would 
very  likely  say  to  her — •*  Please,  mamma, 
would  you  speak  to  Tommy;  Al  has  taken 
the  pretty  white  ball  that  grandpapa  gave 
me,  and  he  won't  let  me  have  it;  and  he 
won't  let  me  play  with  him."  And  mamma 
probably  replies'—"  Well,  John,  we  will  go 
to  him.  and  hear  what  he  will  say  to  us 
about  it." 

The  words  in  italics  are  pronouns.  They 
are  used  instead  of  nouns: — you  instead  of 
mamma  :  he  and  him  instead  of  Tommy ; 
me  instead  of  John  himself,  who  is  speaking; 
it  instt  ad  of  the  ball ;  ice  and  us  instead  of 
mamma  and  John  taken  together. 

Verbs.  Whenever  we  speak  or  write,  we 
assert  or  affirm  something,  or  we  command, 
or  we  ask  a  question.  The  word  in  the  m-h- 
tence  that  does  any  of  tho-e  is  called  a 
Verb.  Thus,  in  the  sentences — Victoria 
reign*  in  England — Louis  Napoleon  is 
Emperor  of  France — II:s  uncle  Napoleon 
died  at  St.  Helena,  in  1821;  the  words, 
reign*,  is,  died,  are  verbs;  these  make  the 
assertion. 

The  words  in  italics,  in  the  description  of 
the  adjoiuing  cut,  illustrate  the  verb.    Jane 


The  word  verb  is  derived  from  the  Latin, 
verbum,  a  word ;  this  part  of  speech  being 
called  the  verb,  or  the  word,  as  being  the 
principal  word  in  a  sentence. 

The  verb  was  formerly  defined  as  "that 
part  of  speech  which  signifies  to  be,  to  do, 
or  to  sutler;"  and  a  respectable  modem 
grammarian  defines  it  as  follows: — "A 
verb  implies  action,  or  the  doing  of  some- 
thing." But  these  definitions  are,  in  some 
respects,  applicable  to  certain  nouns;  and 
the  true  idea  of  the  verb  is,  that  it  is  the 
word  by  which  we  assert,  or  can  assert. 

The  next  part  of  speech  is  the  Adverb,  a 
word  usedaumg  with  a  verb,  to  express  some 
circumstance  relating  to  it — i.  e.,  to  Qualify 
it ;  as,  She  rides  well,  she  writes  badly,  they 
came  soon,  he  fought,  bravely  he  ran  auratf. 
The  Adverb  is  also  used  to  qualify  an  adjec- 
tive; as,  She  is  very  good,  lie  is  not  tall. 
And  it  is  also  used  to  qualify  another  ad- 
verb ;  as,  She  rides  uncommonly  well,  she 
writes  very  badly,  they  came  too  soon. 

Adverbs  may  be  known  in  this  way  :  they 
answer  to  the  questions,  How?  When"? 
Where? — as,  How  does  he  write?  Will, 
very  well,  or  very  badly. 

The  Preposition  is  a  word  placed  before 
a  noun  or  pronoun,  to  show  its  relation  to 
tomething  mentioned  previously.  Thus.— 
John  went  to  France;  he  came  with  me; 
this  Utter  is  for  Jane.  The  words  in  italics, 
to,  with,  and  for,  are  prepositions,  showing 
the  relation  between  the  words  "France," 
"  me."  and  "  Jane,"  in  these  sentences,  and 
something  thai  is  pieviously  mentioned,  aa 
that  "John  went."  — that  '-he  came," — 
and  "  this  letter."  The  following  sentences 
also  illustrate  Prepositions : — lie  is  in  the 
house.  She  18  sitting  on  the  sola.  The  letter 
was  written  by  him.  He  threw  a  stone  at 
me. 

The  Preposition  is  easily  distinguished  in 


224 


FACTS  FOIt   FVETITBOPT : 


this  way:  it  makes  sense  with  any  of  the 
words  me,  us,  him,  them,  placed  alter  it;  as 
with  me,  to  us,  from  him,  after  them. 

The  derivation  of  the  word  preposition 
partly  explains  its  nature.  It  comes  from 
the  Latin  words,  positum,  placed— pne,  be- 
fore. 

A  Gov  junction  is  a  word  used  to  connect 
words  and  parts  of  sentences;  as — He  and 
I  went  out,  bat  she  stayed  at  home,  that  her 
mother  might,  not  be  Left  alone.  'Ihe  vords 
in  italics  are  conjunctions. 

The  word  conjunction  is  fror^  the  Latin 
words  cum,  with,  or  together— and  jungo,  I 
join. 

An  Interjection  is  any  abrapt  exclama- 
tion, as  ah!  oh!  a/as!  oh  d'ir  .'  oc  any 
such  expression  used  to  indicate  p.iin,  grief, 
joy,  or  surprise.  It  has  been  observed  that 
it  is  not  properly  a  part  of  speech,  but  re- 
sembles the  wild,  inarticulate  cries  of  ani- 
mals. Its  name  is  from  the  Latin  words, 
inter,  between— factum,  thrown  ;  indicating 
some  expression  thrown^  a*  it  were,  abruptly 
between  words. 

Adverh,  Preposition,  Conjunction, 
and  Interjection. — What  do  we  see  in 
the  figure  ?  The  pony  has  thrown  Jane,  and 


scampered  away ;  but  she  is  not  hurt,  for 
she  fell  ON  the  soft  grass,  and  is  only 
frightened.  She  merely  cried,  "Oh!" 
Tommy  is  more  frightened  than  she  is, 
and  is  crying  bitterly.  She  will  soon  recover 
FROM  her  fright,  for  her  papa  is  speaking 
kindly  TO  her,  and  holding  her  hand  IN 
his,  and  her  mamma  is  running  TO  her, 
and  I  dare  say  they,  will  soon  laugh  AT  it, 
and  AT  the  dog,  who  is  barking  loudly.  The 
adverbs  are  in  italics;  the  conjunctions  in 
email  capitals ;  the  prepositions  in  large 
capitals, 

Many  grammarians  consider  the  little 
words,  a,  an,  the,  as  forming  another  part 
of  speech,  which  they  call  the  Article. 
But  they  are  now  more  usually  considered 
as  a  kind  of  adjective. 

These  eight,   then,  are  all  the  parts  of 


speech.  Each  of  the  GO, 000  words  belongs 
to  one  or  other  of  theabOVe  kinds  of  words. 
Let  us  shortly  describe  them  :— The  noun  is 
the  name  of  anything.  The  adjective  qiotli- 
fies  the  noun.  The  pronoun  is  used  in  place 
of  the  now"..  'Ihe  verb  asserts,  commands, 
or  asks  a  fmestion.  The  adverb  qualifies  a 
verb,  adjective  or  other  adverb.  The  prepo- 
sition snows  the  ,  elation  of  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun  following  it.  to  eomethmg  which  lots 
gone  efore  ,  no  conjunct  ion  connects  words 
or  parte  of  sentences.  The  interjection  is 
an \  abrupt  exclamation. 

DAHLIA  (CULTIVATION  OF  THE). 
1  Dahlias  do  not  require  too  rich  a  eoii — except 
'  those  intended  forexhibition,  or  show  flowers, 
I  the  management  of  which  we  shall  treat  of 
presently— in  very  nutritious  ground  they 
exhaust'  their  vigour  in  producing  strong 
stems  and  leaves,  thereby  causing  the  flowers 
to  be  poor,  ill-formed,  and  few  in  number. 
A  very  barren,  light  soil,  is  equally  unsuit- 
able, and  should  be  strengthened  by  a  judi- 
cious addition  of  leaf-mould,  before  the  plants 
are  placed  in  it  Where  the  soil  is  wet, 
heavy,  clay  land — the  most,  unsuitable  of  all 
— it  must  be  rendered  friable  by  an  admix- 
ture of  drift  or  river  sand,  or,  what  is  still 
better,  road-scrapings.  About  November, 
the  sand  or  scrapings  should  be  laid  over  the 
soil  to  the  depth  of  two  inches,  and  well  dug 
in,  the  ground  being  left  rough  through  the 
winter;  in  spring  two  more  inches  should  be 
laid  over,  and  dug  in  as  before.  A  moderately 
rich,  light  loam,  is  indisputably  the  best 
soil ;  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  this 
plant  exhausts  the  ground  to  a  remarkable 
degree,  and  consequently  will  not  succeed, 
if  grown  too  frequently  on  the  same  spot. 
A  clear,  open  situation,  freely  exposed  to 
the  sun,  without  either  shade  or  shelter,  is 
indispensable  for  the  production  of  fine 
blossoms.  Those  who  have  but  limited  space 
and  few  plants  should  place  them  singly,  or 
otherwise,  in  the  situations  most  advantage- 
ous for  cultivation  and  display  which  their 
ground  affords.  No  general  directions  can 
apply  to  particular  localities.  But  where 
there  is  plcuty  of  room,  and  a  large  collection 
of  plants,  no  mode  of  growingthe  dahlia  has 
such  an  imposing  effect  as  when  planted  in 
a  mass  by  themselves,  unmixed  with  any 
ofher  flower.  When  planting  in  a  mass, 
two  important  objects  must  he  kept  in  view, 
or  else  the  effect  will  be  spoiled.  The  first 
is  to  place  the  plants  according  to  their  re- 
spective heights  ;  the  second  is,  to  associate 
them  so  that  their  colours  may  harmonise 
agreeably.  If  the  clump  is  to  be  on  a  border 
backed  by  a  wall  or  hedge,  so  that  it  can  be 
seen  only  from  one  side,  the  tallest-growing 


A    MISCELLANY    OF    USEFUL   KKOWI.EDOK. 


pirate  must  be  placed  in  the  rear;  the  next  Paiton  for  Baying,  thai  plants  raised  ac- 


tallesl  in  front  of  those;  and  so  down  to  the 

shortest,  which  must  hold  the  front  rank  of 
all.  But  If  the  clamp  is  to  be  form  (don  a 
be  1  w  lich  run  be  viewed  from  all  sides,  the 
tallesl  musl  be  placed  in  the  centre,  ana  the 
next  m  height  successively  downwards,  till 
the  shortest  are  placed  in  the  front  To  har- 
monise the  colours— purples  and  crinison;, 
ana  crimsons  and  scarlets,  should  b 
rated  by  yellow,  white,  or  butt*;  the  salmon- 
coloured  and  bull'  separated  by  white.  The 
plants  should  be  placed  three  feet  from  each 
other  every  way;  this  space  will  keep  each 
plant  sufficiently  distinct  when  close  to  them, 
and  yet  so  muted  that  at  a  short  distance 
the  whole  clump  will  appear  as  a  solid  mass; 
it  will  also  afford  room  to  get  amongst  and 
attend  to  tbe  plauts.  Another  mode  of  j 
planting  dahlias,  which  exhibits  a  grand 
effect,  is  to  place  a  row  on  each  side  of  a  walk 
as  an  avenue;  in  such  position  the  plants 
need  not  be  more  than  two  and  a  half  feet 
apart. 

Dahlias  are  propagated  by  dividing  the 
tubers  when  they  have  formed  incipient 
■hoots,  by  seed,  and  by  cuttings.  As  tbe 
last  method  is  comparatively  useless  to  the 
amateur,  we  shall  not  take  up  space  to 
describe  it,  but,  proceed  to  the  first  two. 
The  roots — or  more  properly  speaking,  the 
tubers— should  be  kept  cool,  inactive,  and 
eir  ire,  until  the  beginning  of  May,  when 
they  should  be  planted  out  in  the  open  bor- 
der, barely  buried  in  the  soil,  and  covered 
with  a  hand-glass.  The  eyes  of  the  tubers 
will  soon  push  forth  young  shoots,  and  when 
these  have  attained"  the  length  of  two  or 
three  inches,  the  tuber  should  be  cut  with  a 
sharp  knife,  so  as  to  retain  a  portion  of  the 
tuber  attached  to  each  shoot.  These  young 
plants  may  be  placed  in  pots  with  light  soil, 
and  kept  in  the  bouse  for  a  short  time;  or 
they  may  at  once  be  planted  in  the  borders 
where  they  are  to  flower,  sheltering  them 
from  the  sun  by  day,  and  from  cold  at  night, 
until  they  are  established.  Another  method, 
slightly  different  indeed,  is  to  place  the  roots 
in  a  warm  situation— in  a  south  border  for 
instance— covering  them  all  but  their  eyes 
with  rotten  bark,  leaf-mould,  or  other  light 
material;  when  the  buds  break,  divide  as 
before  described.  It  is  a  safe  plan  when 
dividing  the  roots,  to  cut  so  as  to  secure,  if 
possible,  more  than  one  promisiug  bud  on 
each  ]>■■  itisfaoiory  to  know,  thai 

except  in  florists' gardenaand large establiiui* 
mems,  wherequantities  of  plants  are  required 
early  in  the  season,  artificial  heat  is  not  re- 
quired for  propagating  the  dahlia  from  the 
tuber.     We  have  the  high  authority  of  Mr. 


cording  to  these  methods,  frequently 
grow  stronger  and  flower  better  than  those, 
which  have  been  raised  earlier  in  I 

son  by  the  application  of  beat 

When  the  young  plants,  by  wh 
mode  obtained,are  finally  planted  dul  where 
they  are  intended  to  flower,  the  upper  part 

of  the  root  should  not  be  less  than  three  in- 
ches beneath  t  lie  surface,and  the  soil  should 
be  carefully  settled  down  about  the  roots  by 

gently  pouring  in  water  as  the  hole  is  being 
tilled  up.  A  large  sized  flower-pot  invert  d 
over  the  young  plant  makes  an  excellent 
protection  at.  night;  and  shade  may  be 
afforded  in  the  day-time  by  branches  of  fir 
or  laurel  stuck  in  the  ground.  A  stake 
suitable  to  the  full  height  of  the  flower 
must  be  inserted  and  fixed  firmly  into  the 
ground  close  to  the  stem,  at  the  time  of 
planting.  This  is  imperatively  necessary; 
for  the  insertion  of  the  stake  after  planting 
is  sure  to  injure  the  roots,  cheek  the  growth 
of  the  plant,  and  destroy  its  beauty.  The 
leading  shoot,  as  it  advances,  must  be  tied 
to  the  stake  with  strips  of  bass.  These  bands 
must  not  in  the  first  instance  be  tied  too 
tight,  and  frequent  attention  must  be  given 
to  sec  that  they  do  not  hinder  the  stem  from 
swelling  to  its  full  size.  During  the  whole 
period  of  growth,  the  6oil  about  the  roots 
should  be  kept  moderately  moist,  but  not 
over-drenched,  with  water,  which  to  this 
plant  is  equally  as  injurious  as  drought ..  If 
the  soil  be  light,  and  the  summer  excessively 
dry  and  hot,  a  layer  of  fresh  cow  manure  for 
about  two  feet  round  the  base  of  the  stem  of 
the  plant,  is  highly  recommended  as  a  pre- 
ventative to  too  rapid  evaporation. 

Having  described  the  culture  of  the  dahlia, 
from  the  tuber  to  the  flower,  we  shall  now 
turn  to  its  most  interesting  mode  of  propa- 
gation. It  is  from  the  seed  alone  that  all 
new  varieties  are  obtained,  and  it  is  only 
from  the  seed  that  the  plfnit  has  been,  and, 
no  doubt  will  be,  so  greatly  improved.  .About 
the  middle  or  end  of  January,  the  seeds 
should  be  sown  in  shallow  pans  placed  in  a 
hotbed  frame,  near  the  glass,  and.  exposed 
to  the  light ;  as  soon  as  the  seed-leaves  are 
properly  developed,  the  young  plants  should 
be  pricked  out  into  other  pans,  at  the  diatance 
of  an  inch  from  each  oilier;  they  should  then 
lie  watered,  and  shaded  for  a  few  days  un  il 
they  recover  the  shuck  of  this,  the. 
removal,  and  are  briskly  thriving  again* 
When  they  have  attained  the  height  ol  two 
inches,  they  should  be  potted,  singly,  into 
smalt  pots,  and  gradually  inured  to  a 
temperature.  As  they  increase  in  size,  they 
require  to  be  shifted  'into  larger  pots ;  and 


226 


FACTS  FOR   EVERYBODY! 


advantage  taken  of  all  opportunities  of  hard- 
ening them  for  the  open  sir.     The  seedlings 

nviy  be  planted  out,  in  the  open  air.  ;ibout 
the  end  ot  May,  ami  the  course  of  culture 
already  detailed  must  be  followed.  Until 
the  seedlings  show  their  flowers,  there  u:e 
no  means  of  ascertaining,  with  certainty, 
their  quality  or  colour;  though  it  has  been 
observed  that  plants  with  wholly  green 
Bteraa  produce  white  flowers,  those  with 
brownish  stems  the  darker  coloured  flowers, 
and  those  with  light-coloured  stems  pale  or 
blush-coloured  flowers.  When  the  blooming 
Beason  arrives,  the  seedlings  should  be  ex- 
amined early  each  morning  before  the  sun 
has  shone  upon  the  flowers,  as  their  true 
colours  are  better  ascertained  at  that  time  of 
day.  '  Such   plants  as  are  considered  un- 


worthy of  preservation  should  be  at  once 
pulled  up  and  thrown  away,  for  they  will 
only  exhaust  the  soil  to  no  purpose;  and 
thotie  which  having  proved  good  are  worthy 
to  be  retained,  should  not  be  suffered  to 
bloom  profusely,  in  order  that  the  tubers 
may  retain  more  nutritive  matter,  and 
thereby  be  better  able  to  produce  strong  and 
healthy  plants  in  the  following  season.  The 
tubers  must  never  be  subjected  to  the  de- 
structive influence  of  frost.    About  the  end 


of  September,  some  ashes,  saw -dust,  pens- 
hauhn,  or  other  protective  materials,  should 
be  laid  over  the  roots;  and  win  n  the  stems 
and  leaves  turn  black,  the  plant  should  he 
cut  devil  to  within  six  inches  of  the  ground. 
A  few  days  afterwards,  taking  advantage  of 
a  tine  morning,  the  tubers  must  be  lined, 
and  laid  exposed  to  the  sun  during  the  re- 
mainder of  the  day.  When  the  soil  about 
the  roots  is  dry,  all  that  can  be  removed 
without  injury  should  be  taken  off.  The 
tubers  may  then  be  buried  in  dry  sand,  or 
laid  on  a  shelf  or  boarded  floor  where  they 
will  be  perfectly  free  from  frost  and  damp, 
and  in  a  moderately  cool  temperature,  being 
at  no  time,  through  the  winter,  higher  than 
forty-five,  nor  lower  than  thirty-six  degrees. 
MAMALUKES.  The  name  of  an  ancient 
dynasty,  who  ruled  in  Egypt  for  many  cen- 
turies, and  still  applied  to  the  soldiers  re- 
presented in  the  engraving. 


SILK  (TO  KEEP).  Silk  articles  should 
not  be  kept  folded  in  white  paper,  as  the 
chloride  of  lime  used  in  bleaching  the  paper 
will  probably  impair  the  colour  of  the  silk. 
Brown  or  blue  paper  is  better — the  yellowish 
smooth  India  paper  is  best  of  all.  Silk  in- 
tended for  a  dress  should  not  be  kept  in  the 
house  long  before  it  is  made  up,  as  lying  in 
the  folds  will  have  a  tendency  to  impair  its 
durability  by  causing  it  to  cut  or  split,  par- 
ticularly if  the  silk  has  been  thickened  by 
gum.  A  wliife  satin  dress  should  be  pinnei 
up  in  blue  paper,  with  coarse  brown  paper 
outside,  sewed  together  at  the  edges. 

GLASS  CRACKING  BY  HEAT  (MEANS 
OE  PREVENTING).  If  the  chimney-glass 
of  a  lamp  be  cut  with  a  diamond  on  the  eon- 
vex  side,  it  will  never  crack,  as  the  incision 
affords  room  for  expansion  produced  by  the 
heat,  and  the  glass,  after  it  is  cool,  returns 
to  its  original  shape,  with  only  a  scratch 
visible  where  the  cut  is  made. 


A    MISCELLANY   OF  TSHFTL   KNOWLEDGE. 


227 


ft.  ^faffifKdfiS&Z£> 


body  slightly  raised.  It  remains  in  this 
torpid  condition  a  sufficient  time  lor  the  new 
«kin,  which  is  now  forming,  to  become 
sufficiently  mature  and  strong  to  enable  the 
caterpillar  to  burst  through  the  old  one. 
n  as  the  moulting  is  over,  and  the 
caterpillar  h,s  recovered  from  the  exhaus- 
tion  which  its  efforts  have  produced,  it  com- 
mences eating  voraciously  and  increases  in 
size  very  rapidly. 


THE   SILKWORM  AND    ITS   PRODUCTS. 
The  Silkworm  is  the  caterpillar  of  one  of  the  family 
Bombycida,  systematically  known  by  the  name  of 
Bombyx  Mori".     The  eggs  are  globular,  and  about 
the  size  of  mignionette-secd  ;    The  good  ones  are 
of  a  pale  slate  or  ash  colour  ;  whilst,  the  imperfect 
ones  are  of  a  light  yellow  tint.     The  moth  is  of  a 
light  cream   colour,  with    transverse   bands   of  a 
darker  tint  on  the  anterior  wings,  and  a  erese.  nt- 
shaped  central  mark  ;  the  body,  which  is  encircled 
by  rings  of  a  darker  tinge,  is  covered,  as  are  also 
the  wings,   with  long  velvety   feathers,  giving  a 
particularly  soft,   thick,    and   warm    look   to   the 
m*eet;    the   antenna;  are   also   thickly   feathered. 
The  eg^  are  hatched  in  the  spring,  simultaneously 
with  the  bursting  into  leaf  of  the  mulberry-trees, 
upon  which  they  live,  and  the  little  worm  imme- 
diately commences  eating  the  young  leaves  which 
are  placed  for  its  nourishment.     It  is  about  eight 
weeks  in  arriving   at   maturity,  and  during  that 
period  changes  its  skin  at   four  or  rive  different 
moulting*.     When   about  to  cast,  its  skin  it  ceases 
to  eat  for  some  length  of  time,  and  exists  in  a  state 
of  perfect  repose  or  stupor,  with  the  forepart  of  the 
The   silkworm  when  full  grown  measures 
about  three  inches  in  length,  and  is  at  first 
of  a  slate  colour;  but  as  it  increases  in  size 
it  becomes  paler,  until  at  maturity  it  arrives 
at  nearly  the  same  tint  as  the  moth   itself. 
When  it  has  arrived  at  this  state,  about  ten 
days  after  the  last  moulting,  the  cate  pillar 
seeks  some  convenient. spot  for  the  spinning  of 
its  we"b  or  cocoon.     The  silk  is  elaborated  in 
two  long  tubular  vessels  lying  on  either  side 


228 


FACTS  FOR   EVERYBODY: 


of  the  utomaeh  and  intestines,  and  termi- 
nating in  a  single  tube  opening  in  the  lower 
lip  of  the  caterpillar.  The  silk  bags,  as  the 
vessels  containing  the  liquid  gum  of  which 
the  delicate  thread  of  .-ilk  is  composed  an 
called,  arc  closed  at  their  lower  extremity 
from  whence  they  taper  gradually  to  a 
greater  width  in  the  middle,  and  contract 
towards  the  head,  where  they  unite  with 
the  spinnare',  or  spinning  tube. 

Having  now  described  the  insects  them- 
selves, we  will  proceed  to  watch  their  pro- 
gress from  the  eggs  to  1he  spinning  and 
winding  of  the  cocoon!  During  the  winter 
months  the  silkworm-grower  preserves  the 
eggs  in  linen  bags  with  great  care,  and  as 
soon  as  i hey  begin  to  burst  into  life  in  Lhe 
spring,  they  are  gently  laid  in  flat  wicker 
baskets  lined  with  sun-baked  clay,  where 
they  are  supplied  with  the  young  and  deli- 
cate leaves  of  the  mulberry.  At  this  time 
the  tiny  worms  are  scarcely  larger  titan 
cheese  mites,  and  therefore,  for  the  first 
few  days,  a  small  quantity  of  food  is  con- 
sumed. As  it  is  essential  that  the  whole 
of  the  eggs  should  be  hatched  at  about  the 
same  time,  so  as  to  ensure  the  tender  bud- 
ding leaves  for  the  young  brood,  if  any  of 
the  bags,  from  cold  or  otherwise,  are  later 
than  tiie  others  in  bursting  into  life,  the 
peasants  carefully  wrap  small  quantities  of 
the  eggs  in  woollen  materials  and  carry 
them  about  their  persons,  until  the  artificial 
warmth  thus  applied  produces  the  desired 
result.  For  the  first  week  the  worms  arc 
kept  in  these  wicker-baskets,  fresh  leaves 
being  given  to  them  three  or  four  times  daily. 
At  the  end  of  the  first  week  they  have  gene- 
rally grown  to  the  size  of  about  half  an 
inch  in  length,  when  the  period  of  the  first 
moulting  has  arrived,  and  the  worms  lie  in 
a  t  >rpid  state  for  a  period  of  two  days.  The 
caterpillars  which  have  survived  this  opera- 
tion are  then  carefully  removed  from  the 
wicker  badcets  and  placed  in  the  kokh, 
•which  has  been  arranged  for  their  reception. 
The  kokh,  or  silkworm  home,  is  a  low 
thatched  building  formed  of  sun-dried 
bricks,  with  treilised  windows  covered  with 
myrtles  and  other  trees,  so  as  to  exclude 
bir.ls  and  serpents ;  but  at  the  same  time  so 
as  to  admit  of  a  free  circulation  of  air.  In 
these  kokhs  are  long  ranges  of  mat  shelves, 
attached  to  poles,  and  ranged  one  above 
another,  with  about  one  foot  space  between 
each  range. 

On  these  shelves  the  sUkworms  are  placed 
by  the  attendant  peasants,  and  plentifully 
supplied  with  mulberry  leaves,  which  are 
now  devoured  in  such  quantities  as  to  ren- 
der it  necessary  to  lop  oil',  and  supply  them 


with,  the  small  twigs  from  the  trees.  During 
the  two  weeks  succeeding  the  first  moulting, 
huge  branches  are  lopped  from  the  trees 
every  morning  and  brought  to  the  kokhs, 
and  by  this  means  the  leaves  are  preserved 
in  greater  freshness,  and  are  profusely 
sprinkled  along  the  shelves  by  the  peasants. 
About  this  period  the  second  change  of  skin 
Lakes  place,  and  after  this  torpid  condition 
the  worm  wakes  up  with  renewed  strength 
and  vigour,  and  with  considerably  increased 
voracity  of  appetite.  From  this  period  the 
caterpillars  grow  prodigiously;  they  never 
cease  eating,  day  or  night,  and  the  noiso  oi 
their  eating,  on"  first  entering  the  kokh,  is 
said  to  he  quite  as  loud  as  a  heavy  shower  of 
rain  falling  on  a  thatched  roof,  and  to  re- 
semble the  incessant  clipping  of  thousands 
of  little  scissors. 

By  the  time  the  worms  have  attained 
their  full  maturity  and  growth,  they  have 
generally  denuded  of  their  foliage  the  whole 
plantation  of  mulberry-trees,  and  the  at- 
tendants therefore  look  anxiously  for  the 
time  when  they  shall  cease  eating;  this 
they  do  suddenly,  and  again  fall  into  a  state 
of  stupor,  which  lasts  about  two  days.  On 
again  awaking  to  activity,  the  silkworm, 
for  the  first  time  since  it  came  into  life, 
shows  signs  of  restlessness,  and  crawls  has- 
tily about  in  search  of  a  retreat.  As  soon 
as  this  restlessness  is  perceived,  the  attend- 
ants carry  in  a  quantity  of  dried  twigs  and 
branches,  and  carefully  scatter  them  over 
the  worms,  who  take  to  them  with  such 
avidity,  that,  in  the  course  of  an  hour  or 
two,  not  one  will  be  found  who  has  not  se- 
lected for  himself  a  spot  whereon  to  weave 
a  silken  bed. 

As  soon  as  the  caterpillar  has  fixed  upon 
a  place  for  the  formation  of  its  cocoon,  it 
attaches  long  threads  of  glutinous  matter  or 
silk  from  side  to  side,  to  form  a  support  for 
itself,  and  thus  continues  to  work  until  it 
has  woven  around  itself  a  hollow  envelope 
of  light  tissu,e-like  texture.  As  it  does  not 
move  or  change  the  position  of  the  hinder 
part  of  its  body,  but  continues  moving  its 
head  from  side" to  side,  attaching  and  draw- 
ing the  thread  from  point  to  point,  it  fol- 
lows naturally  that,  after  a  time,  its  body 
becomes  enclosed  by  the  network  th  is  pro- 
duced. The  work  is  then  continued  from 
one  thread  to  another,  the  caterpillar  moving 
its  head  and  spinning  in  a  zigzag  manner, 
bending  the  forepart  of  its  body  back  so  as 
to  spin  in  all  directions  within  reach;  and 
the  position  of  the  body  is  only  changed  for 
the  purpose  of  covering  the  part  which  was 
beneath  it  with  silk.  As  the  web  is  thus 
spun  by  bending  the  forepart  of  the  body 


A  MISCELLANY  OF   USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


229 


back,  it  follows  that  the  silkworm  vcrv  soon 
encloses  itself  in  a  cocoon  very  much  shorter 
than  its  own  body,  and  the  work  is  thus 
continued  with  the  worm  in  a  bent  position. 
Thus  the  worm,  by  pure  instinct,  forms  a 
cocoon  which  is  of  just  suflicient  size  for  its 
purposes  in  the  chrysalis  stage,  and  not 
guided  by  its  present  proportions.  During 
the  time  of  spinning,  the  silkworm  decreases 
considerably  in  length,  and,  by  the  time 
it  has  completed  its  cocoon,  has  diminished 
its  size  by  one-half. 

The  cocoon  consists  of  three  distinct  layers 
of  silk  ;  the  first  loose  and  flossy,  the  second 
of  a  closer  texture,  and  the  inner  coating 
finer,  and  glued  or  gummed  closely  together 
and  forming  a  compact  surface.  After 
building  the  cocoon,  the  silkworm  divests 
itself  of  its  caterpillar  garment,  and  is  at 
once  transformed  into  a  chrysalis.  In  the 
chrysalis  state  the  animal  remains  for  about 
a  fortnight,  during  which  period  the  deli- 
cate and  beautiful  limbs  of  the  moth  are 
being  formed. 

At  the  end  of  this  period  a  slight  swelling 
of  the  chrysalis  indicates  that  a  new  life  is 
about  bursting  forth  ;  a  rupture  down  the 
back  succeeds,  and,  by  degrees,  the  snowy 
moth  emerges  from  her  homy  shell  into  the 
hollow  silken  chamber  of  the  cocoon. 
There,  after  fluttering  for  a  few  minutes,  it 
emits  a  fluid  which  has  the  power  of  soften- 
ing the  silk  at  the  pointed  end  of  the  cocoon, 
through  which  the  moth  soon  afterwards 
bursts  into  life  and  activity.  The  cocoon 
takes  about  five  days'  incessant  and  un- 
ceasing labour  in  its  formation,  and,  when 
finished,  is  egg-shaped,  and  about  an  inch 
and  a-half  in  length. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  silk 
composing  the  cocoon  is  spun  out  by  the 
animal  in  one  continuous  thread,  from  the 
first  commencement  to  the  completion  of 
the  fine  lining ;  the  length  of  this  thread 
of  course  varies  in  some  small  degree,  but 
generally  the  continuous  unbroken  thread 
produced  and  spun  by  each  worm  is  about 
one  thousand  feet.  Of  course,  as  the  value 
and  use  of  the  silk  depends  upon  its  perfect 
length  being  preserved,  it  would  be  very 
prejudicial  to  allow  the  moth  to  be  formed 
m  those  cocoons  which  are  intended  for  use. 
A  sufficient  quantity  having  been  set  aside 
for  producing  eggs  for  the  next  season,  the 
rest  are  either  exposed  to  the  broiling  sun, 
or  placed  in  a  furnace  until  the  poor  little 
animal  is  stifled  in  the  very  beautiful  edifice 
which  his  ingenuity  has  formed,  and  which 
is  so  soon  converted  into  a  tomb.  This 
done,  the  grower  opens  the  soft  external 
covering  of  Jioss-silk,  and  removes  the 
11 


harder  cocoon.  This  floss-silk  is  afterwards 
brought  to  a  manufactured  state  by  spin- 
ning. 

The  cocoons  are  now  formed  into  hanks 
ready  for  use  by  the  manufacturer.  For  this 
purpose  small  furnaces  are  raised,  adapted  to 
the  purpose,  on  the  top  of  which  is  placed  a 
vessel  of  water.  Into  this  water  a  number 
of  the  cocoons  are  thrown,  and  the  heat  of 
the  water  soon  softens  the  gum  or  glue,  and 
renders  the  separation  and  proper  winding 
the  delicate  threads  a  matter  of  easy  accom- 
plishment. The  reeler  is  provided  with  a 
whisk  of  fine  twigs  bound  together  and  cut 
ofi  evenly  at  the  ends,  and  with  this  she 
gently  stirs  and  presses  the  cocoons  in  the 
water  till  the  loose  threads  become  entangled 
on  its  points.  She  then  raises  the  whisk 
with  the  threads  attached,  removes  them 
from  it,  and  draws  their  ends  through  her 
fingers.  The  operator  collects  ten,  fifteen, 
or  twenty  threads  together,  and  passes  them 
through  small  loops  or  eyes  in  a  reeling 
machine.  This  apparatus  is  very  simple, 
consisting  only  of  a  hollow  wheel,  upon 
which  she  attaches  the  ends  of  the  threads, 
while  another  female  turns  the  handle.  By 
this  means  fifteen  or  twenty  cocoons  are 
unwound  at  one  time,  and  as  each  is  drawn 
off  another  is  substituted,  and  thus  a  con- 
tinuous thread,  composed  of  many  cocoons, 
is  produced. 

To  give  a  more  clear  insight  into  the 
wonderful  capacity  of  the  silkworm  for  the 


230 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


operations  it  has  to  perform,  Ave  place  before 
the  reader  engravings  of  the  animal  and 
its  transformations,  re- 
ferring to  our  previous 
remarks  for  the  expla- 
nations how  these 
changes  are  effected. 
In  the  annexed  illus- 
trations we  have — A, 
the  female  silkworm 
moth;  B,  the  male 
moth  ;  C,  the  eggs ;  D, 
the  pupa  removed  from 
the  cocoon  ;  E,  the* 
caterpillar;  F,  position 
of  the  silk  bags  and 
spinnaret  in  the  worm ; 
and  G,  the  cocoon. 


See  Silkworm?  Eggs,  p.  117. 

MAGIC  LANTERN  AND  DISSOLVING 
VIEWS.  The  principle  of  construction 
is  very  simple.  It  consists  of  a  tin  box, 
with  a  bent  funnel  at  the  top,  which  serves 
for  the  double  purpose  of  allowing  the 
smoke  and  heat  to  escape,  and  preventing 
the  light  dispersing  in  the  room,  and  thus 
interfering  with  the  reflected  image.  It  has 
a  door  at  the  side,  a  polished  tin  concave 
reflector  at  the  back  of  the  inside,  and  a 
powerful  light  placed  in  the  focus  of  the 
reflector;  the  light  being  supplied  by  an 
argand,  oil,  or  gas  lamp,  or  by  the  com- 
bustion of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  gases 
thrown  upon  lime.  For  private  exhibi- 
tions, the  oil  argand  lamp  is  generally 
and  more  easily  employed.  Opposite  to 
the  light  and  focus  of  the  reflector  is  a 
moveable  or  telescopic  tube,  containing  a 
hemispherical  illuminating  lens  near  to 
the  reflector,  and  a  convex  lens  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  tube ;  and  between  the  two 
lenses  is  a  slit  for  the  introduction  of  the 
painted  glass  slides.  The  general  form  of 
the  magic-lantern  is  shown  in  figure  7, 
which  represents  two  lanterns  (B  and  L) 
arranged  for  exhibiting  the  dissolving 
views. 

To  use  the  Magic-lantern.  Light  the 
lamp,  polish  the  reflector  with  a  dry  cloth, 
and  also  carefully  wipe  the  lenses  to  re- 
move any  moisture ;   then  place  the  lamp 


in  the  focus  of  the  reflector,  close  the 
door  of  the  lantern,  and  place  it  upon  a 
table  ready  for  use.  Suspend  a  wet  sheet 
from  a  line  stretched  across  the  room,  or 
have  a  screen  made  of  calico  stretched 
tightly  upon  a  frame;  in  the  event  of  not 
using  either  of  them,  you  must  reflect  the 
images  upon  a  smooth  white-washed  wall. 
Slip  in  a  slide  with  the  figures,  and  other 
subjects,  inverted,  or  upside  down, — then 
advance  or  recede  with  the  lantern,  and 
by  moving  the  tube  in  front  of  the  slide 
you  will  be  enabled  to  adjust  the  focus, 
and  obtain  a  magnified  image  of  the  paint- 
ing upon  the  slide  reflected  upon  the 
screen,  sheet,  or  wall.  When  the  room  is 
large  enough,  it  is  better  to  place  the 
screen  between  the  spectators  and  the  lan- 
tern, as  it  renders  the  deception  more 
complete. 

The  Magic-lantern  Slides  may  be  formed 
of  long  strips  of  glass,  cut  of  sufficient 
width  to  pass  freely  in  and  out  of  the  slit 
in  the  tube  of  the  lantern,  and  if  the  de- 
signs are  not  valuable,  the  edges  of  the 
slides  may  be  simply ^  bordered  with 
paper  to  prevent  them  injuring  the  tube. 


Fig   1. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  the  paintings  are  good 
and  worth  preserving,  the  glass  should  be 
placed  in  a  wooden  frame,  similar  to  that 
shown  in  the  above  figure,  each  slide  being 
numbered  or  labelled ;  and  the  painted 
surface  protected  by  another  slip  of  glass 
placed  over  it,  and  fixed  in  the  frame. 

The  most  amusing  objects  for  the  slides 
are  grotesque  figures  ;  sudden  transforma- 
tions, such  as  a  cabbage  turning  into  a 
tailor,  or  a  basket  of  eggs  into  a  nest  of 
birds ;  and  moving  figures  and  objects,  such 
as  a  cobbler  at  work,  a  tight-rope  dancer,  a 
storm  coming  on  at  sea,  in  which  the  ship 
appears  to  be  struck  by  lightning  and  con- 
sumed ;  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  ;  or  a 
railroad  with  the  train  passing  along.  The 
movements  of  the  figures  and  objects  are 
obtained  by  painting  the  subject  upon  two 
glasses,  which  are  fixed  in  the  same  frame, 
and  so  arranged,  that,  when  one  is  drawn 
aside  or  moved  upwards  or  downwards,  the 


A  MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


231 


first  design  is  concealed,  or  else  another  one 
is  added  to  it. 

Sometimes  several  figures  are  contained 
in  the  same  slide  ;  and  when  the  subjects 

are  distinct,  such  as  objects  of  natural  his- 
tory, or  small  interior  views,  &c,  the  slide 
is  made  of  mahogany  or  deal,  with  circular 


0  0  0  0 


Fig.  2. 
pieces  cut  out  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave 
a  rabbet  on  one  side.  The  paintings,  pro- 
tected by  a  plain  piece  of  glass,  are  then 
dropped  into  the  holes,  and  confined  by 
email  brads,  or  a  thin  piece  of  wood  turned 
to  tit  in  the  hole,  and  each  painting  num- 
bered or  labelled,  so  as  to  prevent  mistakes, 
and  for  the  convenience  of  reference. 

Dissolving  Views.  We  have  already 
seen,  that,  when  a  magic-lantern  is  used, 
a  view  painted  upon  the  slide  employed  may 
be  produced  in  a  magnified  form  upon  a 
screen,  sheet,  or  wall.  Now,  if  we  employ 
two  lanterns  instead  of  one,  it  necessarily 
follows  that  we  shall  have  two  views  dis- 
tinctly thrown  upon  the  screen.  Practice 
will  soon  enable  you  to  observe,  that,  by 
altering  the  focus  of  the  lens  after  the  clear 
image  has  been  reflected  upon  the  screen, 
the  view  becomes  dim,  and  gradually  dis- 
solves if  the  focus  is  still  further  altered. 
If  the  lens  of  the  second  lantern,  which  is 
supplied  with  another  view,  is  gradually 
brought  up  to  the  proper  focus,  the  first 
view  may  then  be  said  to  have  dissolved, 
and  assumed  the  form  of  the  second.  The 
second  view  then  dissolves,  and  a  third 
takes  its  place,  and  so  on — the  chief  object 
being  to  show  a  view  which  is  made  to 
fade  graduallv,  and  blend  with  a  second 
view,  which  then  becomes  clear  and  bright, 
and  fades,  in  its  turn,  to  blend  with  a 
third. 

The  dissolving  process  may  be  effected  in 
several  ways  :  1st.  By  altering  the  focus — a 
plan  that  succeeds  for  exhibitions  on  a  small 
scale.  2nd.  By  placing  the  hand  gradually 
over  the  nozzle  of  the  lantern,  and  thus 
obscuring  the  view  by  degrees  while  a 
second  slide  is  introduced,  and,  by  gradu- 
ally withdrawing  the  hand  from  before  the 
nozzle,  the  second  view  is  seen  developing 
itself  slowly  and  perfectly.  These  two  plans 
are  applicable  for  either  single  or  double 
small  lanterns.  The  best  method  of  dis- 
solving is  undoubtedly  that  employed  in  all 
large  apparatus,  viz.,  by  means  of  dissolvers 


or  fans,  which  may  be  shaped  like  the  one 
F  in  fig.  1.  1)  in  tig.  7,  or  else  like  the  one 
(fig.  3)  in  the  margin. 
The  first  kind  will  be 
explained  when  describ- 
_  ing    the    apparatus   re- 

S~  quired  for  theoxyhydro- 
/  gen  lanterns;  the  last  are 

simply  twopieces  of  card- 
board  or   tin,   mounted 
Fig.  8.  upon    metal   stems    (£), 

which  are  fixed  in  a  piece  of  wood  at  such  a 
distance  from  each  other,  and  with  the  part 
(A)  turned  to  the  outside,  so  that  the  one  fan 
obscures  the  light  of  one  lantern,  while  the 
light  of  the  other  is  displayed.  By  pulling 
or  pushing  the  wood  in  which  the  fans  are 
fixed,  before  the  nozzles  of  the  lanterns,  the 
views  will  be  dissolved  easily  and  gradually, 
in  such  a  manner  that  one  view  will  merge 
into  another  so  slowly  that  the  change  will 
appear  almost  supernatural,  producing  an 
effect  peculiarly  beautiful  and  attractive. 

We  have  had  three  diagrams  engraved 
of  the  apparatus  necessary  foi*  producing 
dissolving  views  on  a  large  scale  suitable 
for  a  lecture-room,  or  exhibition  of  any 
kind.  . 

Our  first  figure  (fig.  4)  represents  the 
form  of  lantern  used  at  the  Eoyal  Poly- 


Fig.  4. 
technic  Institution,  London.  It  consists  of 
a  box  (A)  with  a  projecting  part(B),  having 
an  opening  (o)  between  the  back  part  and 
the  condensers  of  the  two  lanterns  contained 
in  the  box.  The  painted  slides  are  inserted 
at  (o),  and  thus  pass  between  the  light  and 
the  condensers  or  lenses.  In  this  apparatus 
the  lenses  are  made  of  the  best  glass,  so 
as  to  avoid  achromatic  refraction.  The 
top  of  the  box  is  fitted  with  two  chimneys 
(Gr  G)  made  of  japanned  iron  to  allow 
the  smoke  and  heat  to  escape.  In  front 
of  the  box  wc  observe  the  barrels  of  the 
lanterns  (EE),  with  the  rack- work  which 


232 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


regulates  the  focus  by  means  of  a  screw 
(c)  placed  above  them.  The  box  con- 
taining the  two  lanterns  is  placed  upon 
ft  firm  stand  (D  D),  having  a  slide  passing 
underneath,  which  is  fitted  at  one  end  with 
an  upright  piece  having  the  dissolving 
fans  placed  on  either  side  of  a  central  point 
(F).  By  this  arrangement  the  fans  can  be 
raised  or  depressed  at  the  will  of  the  exhi- 
bitor, and  retained  in  their  position  by 
means  of  the  screw  (If),  and  they  may  also 
be  made  to  advance  or  recede  from  the 
nozzles  of  the  lanterns  by  means  of  the 
slide  which  passes  under  the  table. 

In  shutting  off  the  light,  it  is  necessary  to 
pay  attention  to  the  following  observations  : 
When  the  light  is  thrown  from  one  lan- 
tern we  obtain  a  large  circle  or  disc  of  light 
thrown  upon  the  screen ;  and  our  object  in 
exhibiting  is  always  to  have  a  disc  of  this 
size,  or  nearly  so,  reflected  upon  the  screen ; 
therefore,  in  shutting  off  the  light,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  adjust  the  fans,  so  that  the 
under  part  of  one  lens  is  only  obscured  as 
much  as  the  upper  part  of  the  other  is  dis- 
played. By  this  means  we  are  enabled  to 
preserve  the  brilliancy  of  the  views  and  pre- 
vent the  disc  being  irregular  and  dusky  at 
the  upper  and  lower  parts.  As  it  is  some- 
times necessary  to  use  both  lanterns  at 
the  same  time,  the  fans  or  dissolvers  are 
movable. 

The  light  used  in  these  lanterns  is  sup- 

{)lied  by  the  combustion  of  oxygen  and 
lydrogen  gases  in  a  combined  state,  the 
flame  being  thrown  upon  a  cylinder  of 
lime,  so  as  to  produce  the  Drummond 
Light ;  and  in  order  that  the  manner  in 
which  this  is  done  may  be  perfectly  under- 
stood, wc  have  had  a  diagram  engraved. 


Fig.  5. 
It  represents  the  interior  of  the  box  and 
the  back  part  of  the  condensers  (B  B). 
About  8  inches  from  the  condensers  are 
cylindci-s  of  lime  placed  upon  a  pivot 
which  has  a  small  cog-wheel  at  the  lower 
part  of  it,  and  which  is  connected  with 
another  wheel  at  the   lower  part  of    the 


key  (K),  used  to  wind  up  the  machinery. 
The  object  of  employing  this  machinery 
is  to  cause  the  lime  cylinders  to  revolve 
slowly  upon  their  axes,  so  as  to  expose  a 
fresh  surface  to  the  action  of  the  flame, 
which  is  so  intense  that  it  will  even  melt 
a  diamond.  Close  to  the  lime  cylinders 
you  will  see  the  blow-pipes  by  which  the 
gases  are  thrown  upon  the  lime ;  these 
issue  from  the  receivers  (1)  D),  where  the 
gases  are  mixed  after  being  supplied  bj 
the  pipes  (E  E)  connected  with  large 
caoutchouc  bags  (fig.  7,  F,)  placed  be- 
tween press-boards,  which  are  loaded  with 
weights  to  force  the  gas  out  of  the  bags. 
After  the  gases  have  been  mixed,  they  may 
be  safely  ignited  at  the  end  of  the  blow- 
pipe, and  the  flame  allowed  to  play  upon 
the  cylinder;  but  you  should  be  careful 
not  to'  allow  a  flame  "to  approach  these  gases 
in  a  mixed  state,  without  they  are  connected 
with  a  receiver  or  a  Hemming' s  safety-tube, 
for  if  this  precaution  is  neglected,  a  very 
dangerous  explosion  will  ensue.  It  is  the 
method  now  generally  employed  to  prevent 
accidents  of  this  kind,  and  one  that  is 
extremely  simple  and  valuable.  A  square 
receiver  of  brass  (K)  is  filled  with  fine 
brass  wire,  which  is  pressed  tightly  together, 
so  that  when  the  gases  enter  the  receiver  by 
the  tubes  (0  and  H),  which  are  connected 
with  the  caoutchouc 
bags  containing  the 
oxygen  and  hydrogen 
gases,  they  then  pass 
through  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  brass  wires, 
which  are  now,  in  fact, 
narrow  tubes.  After 
the  gases  have  been 
mixed,  they  pass  out  of 
thercceiverand  through 
the  blow-pipe  (B),  to 
be  thrown  upon  the 
lime  cylinder,  and  thus  produce  a  most 
intense,  pure,  and  beautiful  light,  well- 
known  as  the  Drammond  Light. 

The  lime  cylinders  should  be  wrapped  in 
paper  singly,  and  the  whole  kept  in  bottles 
with  well-greased  stoppers. 

To  make  the  lime  cylinders,  procure  a 
piece  of  chalk  or  limestone,  and  cut  it  into 
pieces  about  \\  inches  long,  and  f  inch  in 
diameter,  and  as  round  as  you  can ;  then 
drill  a  hole  through  the  centre  of  each,  in 
the  long  axis  ;  and,  having  placed  them  in  a 
crucible  in  the  centre  of  a  good  fire,  keep 
them  red-hot  for  about  four  hours.  Cool 
them  gradually,  and  wrap  in  paper  as  soon 
as  possible. 
A  convenient  form  of  dissolving  apparatus 


B 

B 

I 

l| 
II 

|| 

!• 

) 

H 

Fig.  6. 


A  MISCELLANY  OF  TJ8EFUL   KNOWLEDGE 


233 


for  a  private  exhibition,  and  also  for  lec- 
turers who  have  to  travel  from  town  to 
town,  is  that  shown  in  fig.  7.    It  consists 


Fig.  7. 

of  a  stand  (A)  with  folding  tripod  legs 
(E  E  E  E),  and  having  a  slide  underneath, 
and,  as  in  the  former  one,  supplied  with 
dissolvers  or  fans  (D).  The  lanterns  (BL) 
are  made  of  mahogany,  with  japanned  iron 
tops,  having  a  place  (S)  for  the  reception  of 
the  slide?,  before  which  are  the  moveable 
tubes  (C)  with  the  necessary  lenses.  A 
caoutchouc  bag  (F)  fitted  with  a  stop- 
cock, and  flexible  or  vulcanized  india- 
rubber-tube  (0)  unions,  and  press-boards, 
is  filled  with  oxygen  gas;  the  boards  are 
loaded  with  weights  (W)  to  maintain  an 
equal  pressure  of  the  gas,  and  another 
similar  bag  (G)  filled  with  hydrogen  gas 
is  also  loaded  with  weights,  and  connected 
with  the  apparatus  by  a  flexible  tube  (H). 
This  apparatus  is  so  constructed  that  it  may 
be  packed  away  with  the  tubes,  pressure- 
boards,  lanterns,  slides,  &e.,  into  a  com- 
paratively small  space;  and  as  it  may  be 
exhibited  with  as  much  ease  as  an  ordinary 
lantern,  it  is  extremclyuseful  for  the  general 
purposes  of  schools,  lecturers,  and  families. 

Hie  small  magic-lanterns  may  be  pro- 
cured of  almost  any  optician,  and  vary  in 
price.  Magic  lanterns  of  every  description, 
with  a  large  a ud  well-selected  assortment  of 
Sliders,  beautifully  painted, Slides  illustrating 
the  ni'-.st  prominent  events  in  Scripture,  and 
particularly  appropriate  for  S.mday -school  ex- 
hibitions. Also,  Astronomical,  Temperance, 
and  Humorous  designs.  They  can  be  found 
at  the  store  of  McAllister  and  Bro.,728  Chest- 
nut-street, Philadelphia. 

CLOTHES  (TO  BRUSH).  Have  a  wooden 
horse  to  put  the  clothes  on,  and  a  small  cane 
to  beat  the  dust  out  of  them  ;  also  a  board 
or  table  long  enough  for  them  to  be  put 
their  whole  length  when  brushing  them. 
Have  two  brushes,  one  a  hard  bristle,  the 
other  soft;  ust   the  hardest  for  the   great 


coats,  and  for  the  others  when  spotted  with 
dirt.  Fine  cloth  coats  should  never  be 
brushed  with  too  hard  a  brush;  this  will 
take  off  the  nap,  and  make  them  look  baro 
in  a  little  time.  Be  careful  in  the  choice  of 
the  cane  ;  do  not  have  it  too  large,  and  be 
particular  not  to  hit  too  hard  ;  be  careful 
also  not  to  bit  the  buttons,  for  it  will  scratch, 
if  not  break  them;  therefore  a  small  hand- 
whip  is  the  best  to  beat  with.  If  a  coat  bo 
wet,  and  spotted  with  dirt,  let  it  be  quite 
dry  before  brushing  it :  then  rub  out  the 
spots  with  the  hands,  taking  care  not  to 
rumple  it  in  so  doing.  If  it  want  beating, 
do  it  as  before  directed  ;  then  put  the  coat 
at  its  full  length  on  a  board;  let  the  collar 
be  towards  the  left  hand,  and  the  brush  in 
the  right .  brush  the  back  of  the  collar  first, 
between  the  two  shoulders  next,  and  then 
the  sleeves,  &c,  observing  to  brush  the 
cloth  the  same  way  that  the  nap  goes,  which 
is  towards  the  skirt  of  the  coat.  When  both 
sides  are  properly  done,  fold  them  together ; 
then  brush  the  inside,  and  last  of  all  tho 
collar. 

LACE  (TO  WASH).  Cover  a  bottle  (the 
larger  the  better)  with  a  linen  case  made  to 
fit  tight :  calico  will  not  be  found  to  answer 
Roll  the  lace  round  it,  taking  care  that  the 
edge  is  kept  smooth,  and  that  the  head  of 
the  succeeding  round  covers  it;  tack  the 
lace  if  there  are  several  lengths,  in  the 
slightest  possible  manner,  and  without  any 
knots.  When  the  lace  is  rolled  round  the 
bottle,  cover  it  tight  with  linen*  Then  rub 
it  well  with  soap  (the  best  curd);  or,  if  very 
dirty,  make  a  strong  lather,  and  let  the 
bottle  remain  in  it  for  a  night ;  rinse  it  well 
by  pouring  water  over  it.  If  possible,  ex- 
pose the  bottle  to  the  sun,  watering  it  fre- 
quently, and  also  to  the  night  air,  and  let 
it  dry  thoroughly  before  you  open  it.  Do 
not,  on  any  account,  use"  hot  water,  as  it 
destroys  the  look  of  newness. 

COAT  (TO  FOLD  FOR  PACKING).  Lav 
the  coat  at  its  full  length  upon  a  table,  with 
the  collar  towards  the  left  hand;  pull  out 
the  collar  so  as  to  make  it  lie  quite  straight; 
turn  up  the  coat  towards  the  collar,  letting 
the  crease  be  just  at  the  elbow;  let  the  lap- 
pel  or  breast  on  one  side  be  turned  smoothly 
back  on  the  arm  and  sleeves.  Turn  tho 
skirt  over  the  lappel,  so  that  the  end  ot  the 
skirt  will  reach  to  the  collar,  and  the  crease 
or  folding  will  be  just  where  the  skirts  part 
at  the  termination  of  the  waist.  When  you 
have  done  on  one  side,  do  the  same  on  the 
other.  Turn  the  collar  towards  the  right- 
hand,  and  fold  one  skirt  over  the  other,  ob- 
serving to  let  the  fold  be  in  the  middle  of 
the  collar. 


234 


FACTS  FOR   EVERYBODY! 


COPPER-PLATE  PRINTING.  An  art 
practised  by  means  of  what  is  called  a  roll- 
ing-press. The  engraved  plate  (copper  or 
Bteel)  is  covered  with  ink,  made  of  oil  and 
lamp-black,    then    cleanly  wiped   on    the 


smooth  parts,  and  laid  on  wet  soft  paper  ; 
and  on  being  passed  between  two  cylin- 
ders with  great  force,  the  impression  of  the 
engraved  part  is  perfectly  transferred  to  the 
paper. 

MUSIC  (AN  EASY  METHOD  OF 
TEACHING  THE  RUDIMENTS  OF). 
The  Staff— Let  the  pupil  be  provided 
with  a  pencil  and  a  moderate-sized  slate  on 
which  has  been  previously  drawn,  with  the 
point  of  a  pen-knife,  the  five  lines  of  the 
Btaff  thus : — 


The  pupil  should  then  be  desired  to  count 
these  lines,  commencing  from  the  lowest, 
which  is  called  the  first-line,  to  the  highest, 
which  is  called  the  fifth  line  ;  and  after  that, 
the  spaces  between  them.  He  must  then  be 
informed  that  the  five  lines  and  four  spaces 
he  had  first  counted  form  a  staff,  and  that 
every  line  or  space  is  called  a  degree, 
bo  that  the  staff  contains  nine  degrees, 
namely,  five  lines  and  four  spaces.  On 
these  lines,  and  in  these  spaces,  the 
heads  of  notes  are  placed,  which  are  formed 
either  in  the  shape  of  an  open  oval,  or  a 
circular  blot.  The  teacher  should  illustrate 
this  upon  the  slate,  thus  : — 


VS  BPACBS. 


This  must  be  repeated  until  thoroughly 
impressed  upon  the'  memory  of  the  pupil, 


and  until  he  is  able  to  make  the  notes  upon 
the  lines  and  within  the  spaces  himself. 

The  Treble,  or  G  Clef — Names  op 
the  Notes. — For  the  second  lesson  the 
slate  should  be  prepared  thus  : — 


And  the  pupil  must  be  told  that  each  of 
the  notes  just  made  are  named  from  the 
first  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet, — namelv, 
A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G ;  but  that,  in  order  to 
tell  the  names  of  these  notes,  a  cfo/must  be 

S laced  at  the  commencement  of  the  staff, 
ut  as  it  is  our  object  not  to  burden  the 
mind  of  the  pupil  with  more  than  is  at  pre- 
sent absolutely  necessary,  it  will  be  sufficient 
here  to  observe,  that  there  are  two  clefs, 
namely,  the  Treble  or  G  clef,  and  the  Bass 
or  F  clef.  The  Treble  or  G  clef  turns  upon 
the  second  line  of  the  staff,  and  all  the 
notes  on  that  line  are  called  G.  The  notes 
before  made  upon  the  staff'  mvst  now  be 
removed,  and  the  teacher  will  write  the 
Treble  clef  thus : — 


•  on  the  clef  line. 


The  names  of  the  notes  upon  the  five 
lines  of  the  staff  in  the  Treble  or  G  clef 
must  now  be  learnt,  the  teacher  first  adding 
the  other  four  to  the  one  already  written  on 
the  second  or  clef  line.  The  pupil  must 
repeat  after  the  teacher — E  on  the  first  line 
within  the  staff  in  the  Treble  clef ;  G  on  the 
second  line  within  the  staff  in  the  Treble 
clef ;  B  on  the  third  line  within  the  staff  in 
the  Treble  clef ;  D  on  the  fourth,  &c. ;  and 
F  on  the  fifth,  &c.  Afterwards,  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  teacher,  the  notes  in  the  spaces 
may  be  introduced,  their  names  being  also 
repeated  in  the  same  manner,  namely,  F  in 
the  first  space  within  the  staff  in  the  Treble 
clef;  A  in  the  second  space  within  the  staff 
in  the  Treble  clef ;  C  in  the  third,  &c. ;  E 
in  the  fourth,  &c.  The  names  of  the  notes 
in  the  spaces  will  be  very  easily  learnt,  as 
the  letters  combined  will  be  found  to  spell 
the  little  word  "Face."  The  slate  should 
then  be  left  thus : — 


;^r«: 


-on  the  clef  line. 


BFGABCDEF 

And  the  pupil  will  now,  no  doubt,  feel 
sufficient  interest  to  conquer  any  little 
difficulty  that  may  remain  before  the  next 
lesson. 


A   MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


235 


The  Bass  or  F  Clef— Names  of  the 
Notes. — The  pupil  should  be  carefully  ex- 
amined in  the  first  and  second  lessons 
Before  the  third  is  commenced.  After  which, 

any  notes  or  letters  that  may  be  Left  upon 
the  slate  must  be  removed,  aiid  tbe  Bast  clef 
written  at  the  commencement  of  the  staff, 
thus: — 

p._£^rri^j:  ~ ~ — on  the  clef  line. 

The  pupil  must  now  be  shown  that  the 
Bass  or  F  clef  is  placed  upon  the  fourth  line 
of  the  staff,  so  that  the  two  little  dots  are  in 
the  third  and  fourth  spaces,  and  all  the  notes 
on  that  line  are  called  F.  The  names  of  the 
notes  upon  the  five  lines,  and  within  the 
four  spaces  of  the  staff  in  the  Bass  or  F  clef 
must  now  be  taught  in  a  manner  exactly 
similar  to  that  given  for  those  of  the  Treble 
in  the  preceding  lesson  ;  the  teacher  being 
particularly  careful  that  the  pupil  repeats, 
after  each  note,  the  name  of  the  clef.  The 
Bass  notes  are  generally  found  to  be  more 
difficult  to  leam  than  those  of  the  Treble ; 
the  principal  reason  of  which  is  that  they 
are  too  often  attempted  before  the  Treble 
have  been  i horoughly  mastered ;  and  years 
afterwards,  when  playing,  the  pupil  will 
frequently  mistake  an  A  for  ?.n  F,  or  an  F 
for  a  D.  It  cannot,  therefore,  be  too  fully 
impressed  upon  the  mind  of  the  teacher, 
that,  even  should  it  take  six  months  to  teach 
a  child  his  notes  upon  the  slate,  they  are 
at  last  really  thoroughly  learned ;  that 
knowledge  will,  at  a  future  time,  more  than 
compensate  both  pupil  and  teacher  for  the 
time  and  patience  expended  in  acquiring  it. 
The  slate  must  now  be  left  thus : — 


F-3I 


-on  the  clef  lino. 


GABCDEFGA 


and  the  names  of  the  notes  well  studied  by 
the  pupil  before  the  next  lesson. 

The  Ledger-Likes  in  the  Treble 
Clef. — Another  staff  may  now  be  drawn 
with  the  penknife  upon  the  slate  below  that 
one  previously  used  for  both  clefs,  and  the 
Treble  clef  written  at  the  commencement  of 
the  upper  staff,  and  the  Bass  clef  at  the 
commencement  of  the  lower  The  pupil  is 
now  required  to  write  any  of  the  notes 
already  learnt  in  cither  clef,  without 
hesitation,  when  directed  by  the  teacher; 
and  if  this  can  be  done  with  ease,  the  pupil 
mav  now  be  taught  the  Ledger-lines. 

When  more  than  nine  notes  are  required, 
short  lines  are  added  above  or  below  the 


stall",  called  ledger-lines.     The  teacher  must 
illustrate  this  upon  the  slate,  thus  :— 

Ledger  linei  above. 


Ledger  Hues  below; 

These  lines,  like  those  of  the  staff,  are 
placed  at  equal  distances  from  each  other, 
and  are  reckoned,  omitting  a  letter  for  the 
space  between  every  two,  in  the  same  way. 
Example  in  the  Treble  clef. — 

Ledger  lines  above. 

c      ■ 
,-t --2---^ 


on  fio 

'clef  lias. 


Ledger  lines  below. 

The  spaces  also  may  be  continued  above 
and  below  the  staff,  the  heads  of  the  notes 
being  placed  in  the  spaces  left  between  the 
Ledger-lines,  thus: — 

Space*  above. 


on  the 
clef  line 


T      B     D 
Spaces  belcvr. 


The  Rotes  upon  the  Ledger-lines  must 
now  be  learnt,  and  the  pupil  requested  to 
look  upon  the  slate,  and  at  the  note  to  which 
the  teacher  will  point,  at  the  same  time 
repeating  after  him  the  names  of  the  notes, 
thus  :  C  on  the  first  line  below  the  staff  in 
the  Treble  clef;  A  on  the  second  line  below 
the  staff  in  the  Treble  clef ;  F  on  the  third 
line  below  the  staff  in  the  Treble  clef;  the 
teacher  observing  that  the  Treble  clef  is 
repeated  distinctly  each  time.  The  notes  on 
the  Ledger-lines  above  the  staff  must  now 
be  repeated  after  the  teacher  also,  thus  :  A 
on  the  first  line  above  the  staff  in  the  Treble 
clef;  C  on  the  second  line  above  the  stall*  in 
the  Treble  clef ;  E  on  the  third  lino  above 
the  staff  in  the  Treble  clef.  Then  the 
names  of  the  notes  in  the  spaces  above  and 
below  the  staff  in  the  Treble  clef  must  be 
learnt,  the  pupil  still  looking  upon  the  slate, 
and  repeating  after  the  teacher,  thus:  D  in 
the-first  space  below  the  staff  in  the  Treble 
clef,  &.c.  i    G  in  the  first  space  above  the 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


staff  in  the  Treble  clef,  &c.   The  note3  must 
now  be  left  upon  the  slate  thus  : — 

Lines  below  the  staff.        Lines  within  the  staff. 
3  2  1  12        3        4        5 

*~Z=Z-  Z&Z.  •*%•        E       G      B     D       F 


Lines  above  the  staff. 
1  2  3 


Spaces  betoto 
the  staff. 


Spaces  within 
the  staff. 


Spaces  above 
the  staff. 

'       *      I 

2      3      4          .     JL     _ 


C     E 
5     B     D 

And  the  pupil  must  study  them  perfectly 
before  the  next  lesson. 

Of  the  Ledger-Lines  in  the  Bass 
Clef. — For  the  fifth  lesson  the  pupil  must 
be  thoroughly  examined  in  all  the  notes  of 
the  Treble  clef,  both  above,  tcithin,  and 
below  the  staff,  and  each  note  written  upon 
the  slate  by  the  pupil  himself,  commencing 
from  F  on  the  third  line  below  the  staff,  to 
E  on  the  third  line  above  the  staff,  and  the 
spaces  in  the  same  way ;  then  he  should 
write  both  linos  and  spaces  consecutively, 
making  the  heads  of  the  notes  on  the  lines 
in  the  shape  of  an  open  oval,  and  those  in 
the  spaces  a  circular  blot,  thus  : — 


?  -  _  -  is:  T  '-*+- 


CDEF  GAB         CDE 

Then  these  should  he  removed  from  the 
elate,  and  the  pupil  directed  to  write  the 
notes  at  all  imaginable  distances,  the  names 
of  which  he  may  easily  ascertain  by  counting 
the  intervening  lines  or  spaces.  If  the 
teacher  finds  that  these  are  all  now  perfectly 
learnt  and  understood,  he  may  proceed  to 
teach  the  pupil  the  names  of  the  notes  in 
the  Bass  clef;  but,  again,  it  may  be  well  to 
warn  him  that,  if  he  commences  to  teach 
the  Bass  notes  before  those  in  the  Treble 
hare  been  thoroughly  learned,  it  will  be 
doubling  his  own  labour,  and  injuring  his 
pupil,  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  in  the 


directions  given  for  those  in  the  Treble  clef; 
not  forgetting,  particularly,  to  observe  that 
the  pupil  repeats  above,  within,  or  below  the 
staff  in  the  Bass  clef,  after  the  name  of 
every  note. 

Ledger  lines  a'  ove. 

i-»-  —  — 

P  — i\*  ■ on  the 

P~— _     clef  lin«. 

8"T     c       E 

Ledger  line*  below. 

Spaces  abot*. 


*-ei^HH?E^ 


:^TZ1_.  on  the 
clclliuo. 


•b    >     * 

Spaces  below. 

Then  the  Bass  notes  must  be  written  by 
the  teacher,  and  left  upon  the  slate  thus. — 


LiiiM  below  like  start'. 
_3 2 1 


l.int  s  ivilliin  tin:  suiif 


Lines  above  the  staff. 
1  2  3 


*-Dh 


Spaces  belou)       Space*  mthin       Spaces  abovt 
the  staff.  the  staff.  tb«  staff. 

1       3      3 


3      2       11 


e   c 


4 

■=p- 


^^M 


And    the    pupil  must     commit    them    to 
memory  before  the  next  lesson. 

The  Notes  and  their  Names  in  both 
Bass  and  Treble  Clef. — The  teacher 
will  now  examine  the  pupil  in  the  Bass 
notes  taught  in  the  preceding  lesson ;  after 
which,  the  pupil  must  write  each  note  upon 
the  slate,  thus  : — 


D 


E      F 


G     A     B     C    D 


-**- 


A  BCD 


A  MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


237 


Ami  if.  after  this,  any  note  called  for  by 
the  teacher  above,  urithin,  or  below  the  staff 
in  cither  clefs  C02.  be  immediately  given  by 
the  pupil,  with  its  name,  6c.,  upon  the  slate, 
he  may  next  be  taught  the  www  of  the  note*, 
Of  the  Six  diffkrf.xi  Sorts  of  Notes. 
— There  are  six  different  kinds  of  notes  used 
in  music,  which  are  expressed  by  adding 
additional  marks  to  the  open  oval  and  the 
circular  blot.  They  are  called  the  Semi- 
breve,  Minim,  Crotchet,  Quaver,  Semi- 
quaver, and  Dcmisemiquaver,  and  are  made 
thus  (the  teacher  must  now  write  these  six 
different  kinds  of  notes  upon  the  slate); — 


Bemibr***. 

Minim. 

|"    ii          1    ■     " 

"ro  tenet. 

q        a   ... 

ri 

"      — "* 

Quaver. 

Semiquaver.    1 

)«mieemiquaver. 

q il 

rf~ 

''         «               1 

The  pupil  must  now  repeat  after  the 
teacher  the  following  description  of  these 
notes,  at  the  same  time  pointing  to  them 
upon  the  slate  thus : — The  semibreve  is  an 
open  oval ;  the  minim  is  an  open  oval  with 
a  stem ;  the  crotchet  is  a  circular  blot  with 
a  stem  ;  the  quaver  is  a  circular  blot  with  a 
stem  and  a  dash;  the  semiq  '■aver  is  a  cir- 
cular blot  with  a  stem  and  two  dashes  ;  the 
demisemiquaver  is  a  circular  blot  with  a 
stem  and  three  dashes.  These  ought  now  to 
be  written  several  times  by  the  pupil  him- 
self upon  the  slate,  and  he  may  afterwards 
be  told  that  these  notes  are  of  various 
lengths,  and  also  that  the  semibreve  is  the 
longest  note  used  in  music,  and  the  demisemi- 
quaver the  shortest :  these  he  should  make 
at  once  upon  the  slate,  and  will  find  no 
difficulty  in  remembering. 

The  teacher  must  now  show  that  every 
one  of  these  notes  is  equal  to  two  of  the 
next  in  value,  thus — 


A 

■emibreve 
is  equal 

A 

mi  um 
is  cjual 

A 

crotchet 
is  equal 

A 

quaver 
is  equal 

A 
semiquaver 
is  equal 

fe 

to  two 

minims. 

rn  "I 

— a— 

to  two 
crotchets. 

to  two 
quavers. 

to  two 
semiquavers 

to  two 
demisemi- 
quavera. 

— i 1 1 

-4—4— 

When  several  notes  below  the  crotchet  in 
value  follow  in  succession,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  put  separate  dashes  to  their  stems, 
but  they  may  be  united  in  groups  and  the 
dash  continued  thus — 


rg-ifEwri1  ZMMM44M  .^J-.ri!3:S5;--.i:eJ- 


W 


The  six  different  kinds  of  notes,  with 
their  names,  must  again  be  written  upon 
the  slate  by  the  teacher,  and  left  for  the 
pupil  to  learn  before  the  next  lesson. 

Of  the  Value  of  Notes. — The  teacher 
must  now  carefully  explain  to  the  pupil 
that  as  the  semibreve  is  equal  to  two  minims, 
it  must  also  be  equal  to  four  crotchets,  or 
eight  quavers,  or  sixteen  semiquavers,  or 
thirty-two  demisemiquaver s,  which  must 
then  be  written  on  the  slate,  thus — 


3=£ 


MzMz*-4-4-*oiz 


i=g 


^^.4^:4lt^^i.t4^Mjr.4:4:4.4:9.i-M:ictf^ti] 

And  that  the  minim  also,  which  is  next 
in  value  to  the  semibreve,  is  equal,  not 
only  to  two  crotchets,  but  to  four  quavers,  or 
eight  semiquavers,  or  sixteen  demisemi' 
quavers,  thus — 


^^^^^SS^^m 


f-iz--- 


The  crotchet,  which  is  next  in  value  to  the 
minim,  is  also  equal  not  only  to  two  quavers, 
but  to  four  semiquavers,  or  eight  demisemi' 
quavers  thus — 

*  4  3 

^3rzfeJzrrir±aJiMt«jJ:i;fc>:«_»z>-tfr: 

And  the  quaver,  which  is  next  in  value  to 
the  crotchet,  is  also  equal,  not  only  to  two 
semiquavers,  but  to  four  demisemiquaver* % 
thus — 

2  4 

and  the  semiquaver,  which  is  next  in  value 
to  the  quaver,  is  equal  to  two  demisemi~ 
quavers,  thus — 


These  must  all  be  left  upon  the  slate,  for 
the  pupil  to  study  before  the  next  lesson.* 

•    In  order  to  do  which,  two  additional  btaves  mu»t  b* 
drawn  on  the  other  sida  of  the  tUte. 


238 


FACTS  FOIL  EVERYBODY 


Of  the  Dotted  Notes,  and  of  the 
Rests. — When  a  dot  is  placed  after  a  note, 
it  makes  the  note  half  as  long  again  as  it 
would  be  without  it,  thus — 


A  dotted 
semibreve 

A  (Jotted 
minim 

A  dotted 
crotchet 

:^=rzz^-rrdz^z^--rL— 

=z^jzrrr=.- 

is  equal 
to  three  crotchets. 

is  equal 
to  three  minims. 

is  equa. 
to  three  quavers. 

rad—  d—ri- 

=£=tst= 

=*=£=£ 

A  dotted  quaver  A  dotted  semiquaver 


is  equal  to 
three  semiquavers. 


is  equal  to 
three  demi  semi  quavers. 


The  teacher  should  inform  the  pupil  that 
each  note  has  its  rest,  or  silence,  of  which 
there  are  six,  named  after  the  six  different 
kinds  of  notes,  and  are  made  thus — (the 
teacher  must  now  write  the  six  notes,  with 
their  respective  rests  beneath  them,  upon  the 
elate) — 


;5)___ 


The  pupil  must  then  repeat  after  the 
teacher  the  following  description  of  these 
rests,  at  the  same  time  pointing  to  them 
upon  the  slate,  thus: — The  semibreve  rest 
is  a  mark  placed  under  a  line  ;  the  minim 
rest  is  a  mark  placed  above  a  line;  the 
crotchet  rest  turns  to  the  right ;  the  quaver 
rest  turns  to  the  left ;  the  semiquaver  rest 
has  two  marks  ;  the  demisemiquaver  three. 
The  teacher  may  now  show  the  pupil  that 
a  dot  placed  after  a  rest  lengthens  it  in  the 
same  manner  as  U  does  the  note  from  which 
it  derives  its  name.  This  lesson  must  also 
be  left  upon  the  slate  for  the  pupil  to  study. 

Of  the  Bkace,  the  Bah,  and  the 
Measure,  and  of  Triple  and  Common 
Time.— Music  for  the  pianoforte  is  written 
upon  two  staves,  which  are  joined  together 
by  a  brace,  made  thus : — 


m    J 


The  upper  staff  is  used  for  the  Treble  or 
G  clef,  the  notes  in  which  are  played  with 
the  right  hand  ;  and  the  lower  staff  for  the 
Bass,  or  F  clef,  the  notes  of  which  are 
played  with  the  left  hand. 

Every  musical  composition  is  divided  into 
equal  portions  of  time,  call  measures,  by 
means  of  upright  lines  drawn  down  the  staff, 
called  Bars,  thus  : — 

Measure. 


E^==l 


Every  measure  must  contain  a  certain 
number  of  notes,  according  to  the  Time 
marked  at  the  beginning  of  the  staff. 

There  are  two  principal  sorts  of  Time; 
viz.  -.—Common  or  Equal  Time  ;  and  Triple, 
or  Unequal  Time.  Common  time  is  expressed 
either  by  the  initial  letter  of  the  word  com- 
mon, or  by  the  figures  f .  The  former  indi- 
cates that  every  measure  will  consist  of 
notes  to  the  value  of  a  semibreve,  thus : — 


2i§H^! 


The  latter,  that  every  measure  will 
consist  of  notes  to  the  value  of  a  minim. 
The  upper  figure  showing  how  many,  and 
the  under  figure  showing  what  kinds,  of 
notes  the  measure  should  contain.  Thus, 
for  example,  in  the  figures  f  we  know,  by 
the  under  figure  being  four,  that  crotchets 
are  to  be  counted,  four  crotchets  only  being 
equal  to  a  semibreve  ;  and  the  upper  figure 
being  two  shows  us  that  the  number  of 
crotchets  ?ach  measure  must  contain  will  be 
two,  thus : — 


^k^>,.fH 


^i^^gjy^E^ 


+5t3-rr — i 

Triple  time  is  expressed  by  the  figures  f, 
f ,  and  |.  By  the  figures  f,  we  know  that 
every  measure  must  consist  of  notes  to  the 
value  of  three  minims,  two  minims  being 
equal  to  a  semibreve,  and  the  upper  figure 
showing  that  three  are  to  be  counted,  thus  : — 


^:gjy£r^^g 


By  the  figures  |  we  know  that  every 
measure  must  consist  of  notes  to  the  value 
of  three  crotchets,  four  crotchets  being  equal 
to  a  semibreve,  thus : — 


553 


Jrirrrrn 


s*^=i=H 


A   MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


239 


And  by  the  figures  f  we  know  that  every 

measure*  must  consist  of  notes  to  the  ralue 

of  three  quavers,  tight  quavers  being  equal 
to  a  sent ibr eve,  thus  : — 


iSilp^pplI 


The  pupil  may  now  practice  by  filling  up 
the  measure  with  notfs  of  a  proper  length 
himself,  while  the  teacher  looks  on. 

In  these  ten  short  and  simple  lessons  we 
have  endeavoured  to  render  the  rudiments 
of  music  as  easy  to  the  pupil  as  possible ; 
and  must  now  'leave  him  entirely  to  the 
care  of  his  teacher,  who  may  begin  at  once 
to  point  out  to  him  the  different  notes  upon 
the  piano,  with  their  Sharps  and  Flats,  &c 
But  we  cannot  conclude  these  remarks  with 
out  strongly  advising  that  no  time,  however 
simple,  be  taught  the  pupil  for  the  first 
tieelve  months  at  least,  but  that  his  practice 
should  be  entirely  confined  to  scales  and 
exercises  ;  great  care  being  taken  (especially 
at  the  commencement)  by  the  teacher  to  form 
the  proper  position  of  the  hand,  without 
which,  although  the  pupil  may  have  much 
natural  taste  for  the  art,  he  will  never  be 
able  to  arrive  at  any  degree  of  perfection  in 
his  execution.  [We  have  to  acknowledge  our 
obligations  for  this  valuable  article  to  that 
universal  favourite  "The  Home  Circle."] 

KNIFE-BOARD  (TO  MAKE  A  COM- 
MON). Cover  with  thick  buff' leather,  on 
which  are  put  emery  one  part,  crocus  martis 
three  parts,  in  very  fine  powder,  mixed  into 
a  thick  paste,  with  a  little  lard  or  sweet-oil, 
and  spread  on  the  leather  to  the  thickness 
of  a  shilling.  This  gives  a  superior  edge  and 
polish  to  knives,  and  will  not  wear  the 
knife  near  so  much  as  the  common  method 
of  using  brick-dust  on  a  board. 

WATER  LOUSE.  A  small  creature  of 
great  activity,  in  most  waters,  shaped  like 
the  engraving. 


PLANTS  (WATER  FOR).  It  is  well 
known  that  rain-water  is  far  better  than 
spring-water  for  promoting  the  growth  of 
plants;  this  is  from  the  former  containing 
that  which  is  a  necessary  ingredient  in  their 
formation — namely,  ammonia — and  which 
is  abundant  in  liquid  manure.  The  efficacy 
of  this  may  be  soon  developed  by  sprinkling 
one-half  o*f  a  grass-plot  with  spring- water, 


and  the  other  half  with  water  in  which 
pounded  corbonatc  of  ammonia  (about  one 
ounce  to  the  gallon)  has  been  dissolved;  the 
former  will  keep  it  alive,  but  the  latter  will 
give  it  vigour  and  luxuriance. 

PRESERVES  (COVERING  FOR).  The 
material  used  by  the  trade  for  covering 
preserves  (instead  of  bladder),  is  made  by 
brushing  over  sheets  of  paper,  of  the  thick- 
ness and  strength  required,  with  linseed 
oil  which  has  been  previously  boiled.  The 
sheets  must  be  hung  upon  a  string,  and  he 
thoroughly  dried  before  using.  This 
material  is  sometimes  used  (a  strong  paper 
being  selected)  to  cover  tulip  shades,  and  as 
a  substitute  for  glass  in  workshop  windows. 

PAPYRUS.  A  reedy  grass,  on  which 
the  ancients  wrote. 


CANDLES  (HOW  TO  MAKE  GOOD). 
Candle-wick,  if  steeped  in  lime  and  saltpetre, 
and  dried  in  the  6un,  will  give  a  clear 
light,  and  be  little  apt  to  run.  Good  candles 
may  be  made  thus :  melt  together  ten  ounces 
of  mutton  tallow,  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of 
camphor,  four  ounces  of  beeswax,  and  two 
ounces  of  alum;  then  run  it  into  moulds,  or 
dip  the  candles.  These  candles  furnish  a 
beautiful  light. 

INDIAN-INK.  Indian-ink,  equal  in 
quality  to  that  imported  from  China,  may  be 
made  by  holding  a  plate  over  the  flame  of  a 
lamp  or  candle  so  as  to  receive  the  fine  soot, 
and  mixing  this  with  size  made  from  parch- 
ment or  uncoloured  leather.  The  Indian- 
ink  is  made  from  fine  lamp-black  and  size, 
with  the  addition  of  a  little  perfume,  whish 
latter  is  by  no  means  essential  to  its  quality. 


240 


FACTS  FOR   EYEKYISODT 


SAP  (THE).  The  sap  of  trees  maybe 
obtained,  by  wounding  a  branch,  or  stem, 
in  spring,  just  before  the  buds  open  ;  or  in 
the  end  of  autumn,  though  less  copiously, 
after  a  slight  frost,  yet  not  during  the  frost. 
It  has  always  been  observed  to  flow  from  the 
young  wood,  or  alburnum,  of  our  trees  not 
from  the  bark.  A  branch  of  the  vine,  cut 
through,  will  yield  about  a  pint  of  this  fluid, 
in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours.  The 
birch  also  affords  much  sap.  It  flows  equally 
upward  and  downward,  from  a  wound. 

This  great  motion,  called  the  flowing  of 
the  sap,  which  is  to  be  detected  principally 
in  the  spring,  and  slightly  in  the  autumn, 
is,  therefore,  totally  distinct  from  that  con- 
stant propulsion  of  it  going  on  in  every 
growing  plant. 

Thisflowing  of  the  sap  has  been  thought 
to  demonstrate  a  circulation ;  because,  there 
being  no  leaves  at  the  time  to  carry  it  off 
by  perspiration,  it  is  evident  that,  if  it  were 
at  these  periods  running  up  the  sap  vessels, 
it  must  run  down  again  by  other  channels. 
But  as  soon  as  the  leaves  expand,  its  motion 
is  no  longer  to  be  detected.  The  effusion  of 
sap  from  plants,  when  cut  or  wounded,  is, 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  com- 
paratively very  small.  It  is  thought,  there- 
fore, that  this  flowing  of  the  sap  is  nothing 
moi-e  than  a  facility  of  the  sap  to  run,  owing 
to  the  peculiar  irritability  of  the  vegetable 
body  at  that  period  ;  and  that  it  runs  only 
when  a  wound  is  made — being  naturally  at 
rest  till  the  leaves  open  and  admit  of  its 
proper  and  regular  conveyance. 

As  soon  as  the  leaves  expand,  insensible 
perspiration  takes  place,  very  copiously, 
chiefly  from  those  organs :  but  also,  m  some 
degree,  from  the  bark  of  the  young  stem 
and  branches.  The  perspiration  of  some 
plants  is  very  great.  The  large  annual  sun- 
flower is  said  to  perspire  about  seventeen 
times  as  as  fast  the  ordinary  perspiration 
of  the  human  skin. 

The  sap,  in  its  passage  through  the  leaves 
and  bark,  becomes  quite  a  new  fluid,  pos- 
sessing the  peculiar  flavour  and  qualities  of 
the  plant;  and  not  only  yielding  woody 
matter  for  the  increase  of  the  vegetable  body, 
but  furnishing  various  secreted  substances 
more  or  less  numerous  and  different  among 
themselves.  These,  accordingly,  are  chiefly 
found  in  the  bark.  In  herbaceous  plants, 
the  stems  of  which  are  only  of  annual  du- 
ration, the  perennial  roots  frequently  con- 
tain these  fluids  in  the  most  perfect  state ; 
nor  are  they,  in  such,  confined  to  the  bark, 
but  deposited  throughout  the  substance,  or 
wood,  of  the  root,  as  in  rhubarb  and  gentian. 
Gum,  or  mucilage,  a  viscid  substance,  of 


little  flavour  or  smell,  and  soluble  in  water, 
is  a  very  common  secretion.  When  super- 
abundant, it  exudes  from  many  trees,  in  the 
form  of  large  drops,  as  in  the  plum,  cherry, 
and  peach  trees,  and  different  species  of  the 
mimosa,  or  sensitive  plants,  one  of  which 
yields  the  gum  arabic,  others  the  gum  Sene- 
gal, &c. 

Resin  is  a  substance  soluble  in  spirits,  as 
the  turpentine  of  the  fir  and  juniper.  Mo.st 
vegetable  exudations  partake  of  a  nature 
between  resin  and  mucilage,  being  partly 
soluble  in  water,  partly  in  spirits ;  and  are 
therefore  called  gum-resins.  The  more  re- 
fined and  volatile  secretions,  of  a  resinous 
nature,  are  called  essential  oils ;  and  are 
often  highly  aromatic  and  odoriferous.  One 
of  the  most  exquisite  of  these  is  afforded  by 
the  cinnamon  bark.  They  exist  in  the 
highest  perfection  in  the  perfumed  effluvia 
of  flowers,  some  of  which,  capable  of  combi- 
nation with  spirituous  fluids,  are  obtainable 
by  distillation,  as  those  of  the  lavender  and 
rose. 

Acid  secretions  are  well  known  to  be  very 
general  in  plants.  The  astringent  principle 
is  a  species  of  acid  ;  it  may  be  derived  from 
various  sources — for  instance  the  tanning 
from  the  oak,  willow,  &c.  An  acid  is  found 
united  with  even  the  sugar  in  the  sugar 
cane. 

Sugar,  more  or  less  pure,  is  very  generally 
found  in  plants.  It  abounds  in  various  roots, 
as  the  carrot,  beet,  and  parsnip;  and  in 
many  plants  of  the  grass  or  cane  kind,  be- 
sides the  famous  sugar  cane. 

It  is  curious  to  observe  not  only  the  various 
secretions  of  different  plants,  by  which  they 
differ  from  each  other  in  taste,  smell,  quali- 
ties, and  medical  virtues,  but  also  their  great 
number  and  striking  difference,  frequently 
in  the  same  plant.  Of  this,  the  peach  tree 
affords  a  familiar  example.  The  gum  of 
this  tree  is  mild  and  mucilaginous :  the  bark, 
leaves,  and  flowers  abound  with  a  bitter  se- 
cretion, than  which  nothing  can  be  more 
distinct  from  the  gum.  The  fruit  is  replete, 
not  only  with  acid,  mucilage,  and  sugar, 
but  with  its  own  peculiar  aromatic  and 
highly  volatile  secretion,  on  which  its  fine 
flavour  depends.  How  far  are  we  yet  from 
understanding  the  vegetable  body,  which 
can  form,  and  keep  separate,  such  distinct 
and  discordant  substances ! 

The  odour  of  plants  is,  unquestionably,  a 
volatile,  essential  oil.  Its  general  nature  is 
evinced  by  its  ready  union  with  spirits  or 
oil,  not  with  water. 

To  all  the  foregoing  secretions  of  vegeta- 
bles may  be  added  those  on  which  their 
various  colours  depend.   We  can  but  imper- 


A  MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


241 


fectly  account  for  the  green,  ro  universal  in 
their  herbage;  butwe  may  gratefully  acknow- 
ledge the  benefit  en<  e  of  the  Creator,  in  cloth- 
ing the  earth  with  a  colour  the  most  pleasing, 

and  the  least  fatiguing  to  the  eye.  We  may 
be  dazzled  with  the  brilliancy  of  a  flower 

garden,  hut  our  eyes  repose  at  leisure  on  the 
verdure  of  a  grove  or  meadow. 

DRESSES  (TO  PRESERVE  COLOURS 
OF).  The  colours  of  merinos,  mousscline- 
de-laincs,  ginghams,  chintzes,  printed  lawns, 
&c,  may  be  preserved  by  using  water  that 
is  only  milk- warm  ;  making  a  lather  with 
white  soap,  before  you  put  in  the  dress,  in- 
stead of  rubbing  it  on  the  material;  and 
stirring  into  a  first  and  second  tub  of  water 
a  large  tablespoonful  of  ox-gall.  The  gall 
can  he  obtained  from  the  butcher,  and  a 
bottle  of  it  should  always  be  kept  in  every 
house.  No  coloured  articles  should  be  al- 
lowed to  remain  long  in  the  water.  They 
must  be  washed  fast,  and  then  rinsed  through 
two  cold  waters.  Into  each  rinsing  water, 
stir  a  tcaspoonful  of  vinegar,  which  will  help 
to  brigmen  the  colours ;  and  after  rinsing, 
hang  them  out.  immediately.  "When  ironing- 
dry  (or  still  a  little  damp),  bring  them  in  ; 
have  irons  ready  heated,  and  iron  them  at 
once,  as  it  injures  the  colours  to  allow  them 
to  remain  damp  too  long,  or  to  sprinkle  and 
roll  them  up  in  a  covering  for  ironing  next 
iay.  If  they  cannot  be  conveniently  ironed 
immediately,  let  them  hang  till  they  are 
quite  dry  ;  and  then  damp  and  fold  them  on 
the ■  following  day,  a  quarter  of  an  hour  be- 
fore ironing.  The  best  way  is  not  to  do 
coloured  dresses  on  the  day  of  the  general 
wash,  but  to  give  them  a  morning  by  them- 
selves. They  should  only  be  undertaken  in 
clear  bright  weather.  If  allowed  to  freeze, 
the  colours  will  be  irreparably  injured.  We 
need  scarcely  say  that  no  coloured  articles 
should  ever  be  boiled  or  scalded.  If  you  get 
from  a  shop  a  slip  for  testing  the  durability 
of  colours,  give  it  a  fair  trial  by  washing  it 
as  above;  afterwards,  pinning  it  to  the 
edge  of  a  towel,  and  hanging  it  to  dry. 
Some  colours,  (especially  pinks  and  light 
greens,)  though  they  may  stand  perfectly 
well  in  washing,  will  change  as  soon  as  a 
warm  iron  is  applied  to  them ;  the  pink 
turning  purplish,  and  the  green  bluish. 
No  coloured  articles  should  be  smoothed  with 
a  hot  iron. 

WOOD  (TO  GIVE  A  FINE  BLACK 
COLOUR  TO).  Steep  the  wood  for  two 
or  three  days  in  luke-warm  water,  in 
which  a  little  alum  has  been  dissolved;  then 
put  a  handful  of  logwood,  cut  small,  into  a 
pint  of  water,  and  boil  it  down  to  less  than 
naif  a  pint.    If  you  then  add  a  little  indigo, 


the  colour  will  be  more  beautiful.  Spread 
a  layer  of  (his  liquor  qujte  hot  on  your  wood, 
with  a  pencil,  which  will  give  it  a  violet 
colour.  When  it  is  drvj  spread  on  another 
layer;  dry  it  again,  and  giv  e  it  a  third ;  then 
ho'il  verdigris  at  discretion,  in  its  own  vine- 
gar, and  spread  a  layer  of  it  on  the  wood; 
when  it  is  dry,  rub  it  with  a  brush,  and  then 
with  oiled  chamois  skin.  This  gives  a  fine 
black,  and  imitates  perfectly  the  colour  of 
ebony. 

GLASS  OR  CHINA  (TO  PACK).  Pro- 
cure some  soft  straw  or  hay  to  pack  them  in, 
and  if  they  are  to  be  sent  a  long  way,  and 
are  heavy,  the  hay  or  straw  should  be  a 
little  damp,  which  will  prevent  them  slip- 
ping about.  Let  the  largest  and  heaviest 
things  be  always  put  undermost,  in  the  box 
or  hamper.  Let  there  be  plenty  of  straw, 
and  pack  the  articles  tight;  but  never  at- 
tempt to  pack  up  glass  or  china  which  is  of 
much  consequence  till  it  hashecn  seen  done 
by  some  one  used  to  the  job.  The  expense  will 
be  but  trifling  to  have  a  person  to  do  it  who 
understands  it,  and  the  loss  may  be  great  if 
articles  of  such  value  are  packed  up  in  an 
improper  manner. 

SHELLS  (TO  POLISH).  This  may  be 
done  by  either  hand-labcur  or  by  varnishing; 
in  both  cases  all  the  rough  parts  must  be 
well  rubbed  down  with  emery  and  water. 
If  they  are  to  be  polished  by  hand  (which  is 
the  best  and  most  lasting  way),  after  they 
have  received  two  or  three  courses  of  emery, 
of  different  degrees  of  fineness,  they  must  do 
finished  with  buff-leather,  dressed  with  rot- 
ten stone  and  oil. 

PASTE.  Good  and  durable  paste  maybe 
made  with  flour  in  the  usual  way,  but  rather 
thick,  with  a  proportion  of  brown  sugar  and 
a  small  quantity  of  corrosive  sublimate. 
The  sugar  keeps  it  flexible,  and  prevents  it 
scaling  off  from  smooth  surfaces,  and  the 
corrosive  sublimate,  independently  from  pre- 
serving it  from  insects,  is  an  effectual  check 
against  its  fermentation.  This  salt,  how- 
ever, does  not  prevent  the  formation  of 
mouldiness ;  but  a  drop  or  two  of  the  essen- 
tial oil  of  lavender,  peppermint,  anise,  or 
bergamot,  is  a  complete  security  against  it. 
Paste  made  in  this  manner  and  exposed  to 
the  air,  dries  without  change  to  a  state  re- 
sembling horn,  so  that  it  may  at  any  time 
be  wetted  again,  and  applied  to  use ;  and  if 
kept  in  a  close  covered  pot  may  be  preserved 
in  a  state  fit  for  use  at  all  times. 

POLISHED  IRON  (TO  PRESERVE). 
Polished  ironwork  may  be  preserved  from 
rust  by  a  mixture  not  very  expensive,  con- 
sisting of  copal  varnish  intimately  mixed 
with  as  much  olive  oil  as  will  give  it  a  degree 


242 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


of  greasiness,  adding  thereto  nearly  as  much 
spirit  of  turpentine  a^of  varnish.  The  cast- 
iron  work  is  best  preserved  hy  rubbing  it 
with  blacklead.  But  where  rust  has  begun 
to  make  its  appearance  on  grates  or  fire- 
irons,  apply  a  mixture  of  tripoli  with  half 
its  quantity  of  sulphur,  intimately  mingled 
on  a  marble  slab,  and  laid  on  with  a  piece  of 
soft  leather-  or  emery  and  oil  may  be  ap- 
plied, with  excellent  effect;  not  laid  on  in 
the  usual  slovenly  way,  but  with  a  spongy 
piece  of  the  fig-tree  fully  saturated  with  the 
mixture.  This  will  not  only  clean  but  po- 
lish, and  render  the  use  of  whiting  un- 
necessary. 

S  fEEL-YARD.  An  instrument  depend- 
ing on  the  principle  that  equal  multiples  of 
matter  and  motion  produce  equal  momenta; 
so  that  a  lever  revolving  at  the  centre  D, 


2  3  4  S    & 


and  moving  a  body  at  one  inch  from  the 
centre  equal  to  six  pounds,  will  be  balanced 
by  another  body  of  one  pound  at  six  inches 
from  D. 

STICKING-PLASTER.  Take  half  an 
ounce  of  benzoin,  and  six  ounces  of  rectified 
spirit,  dissolve  and  strain;  then  take  one 
ounce  of  isinglass,  and  half  a  pint  of  hot 
•water;  dissolve  and  strain  apart  from  the 
former.  Mix  the  two,  and  cool.  This  jelly 
is  to  be  brushed  ten  or  twelve  times  over 
black  silk,  stretched  smooth.  Dry,  and 
finish  with  a  solution  of  four  ounces  of  chian 
turpentine,  in  six  ounces  of  tincture  of 
benzoin. 

SALAMANDER.  A  species  of  lizard  of 
deep  black  and  orange  colours,  and  perfectly 


harmless.     Superstition  ascribed  to  it  the 
power  of  resisting  fire. 

FURNITURE-POLISH.  Melt  beeswax 
in  spirits  of  turpentine,  with  a  very  small 
proportion  of  resin.      When  it  is  entirely 


dissolved,  dip  in  it  a  sponge,  and  wash  the 
mahogany  lightly  over  with  it.  Imme- 
diately afterwards,  rub  it  off  with  a  clean 
soft  cloth.  For  carved  furniture,  spread  the 
mixture  on  with  a  small  soft  brush,  and 
rub  it  off  with  another  brush,  a  very  little 
harder. 

OURANG-OUTANG.  An  ape  without  a 
tail,  like  a  dwarf  man,  but  without  organs 
of  speech,  or  muscles  for  laughter. 


PORCELAIN  OR  GLASS-WARE  (TO 
CLEAN).  The  best  material  for  this  pur- 
pose is  fuller' s-ear tli ;  but  it  must  be  beaten 
into  a  fine  powder,  and  carefully  cleared 
from  all  rough  or  hard  particles,  which 
might  endanger  the  polish  of  the  brilliant 
surface.  In  cleaning  porcelain  it  must  also 
be  observed  that  some  species  require  more 
care  and  attention  than  others,  as  china- 
ware  in  common  use  frequently  loses  some 
of  its  colours.  The  red,  especially  of  ver- 
milion, is  the  first  to  go,  because  that  colour, 
together  with  some  others,  is  laid  on  by  the 
Chinese  after  burning. 

ROSES  (TO  RESTORE  FADED).  Throw 
some  sulphur  on  a  chafingdish  of  hot  coal, 
hold  a  faded  rose  over  the  flames  of  the  hot 
sulphur,  and  it  will  become  quite  white ;  in, 
this  state  dip  it  into  water;  put  it  into  a  box 
or  drawer  for  three  or  four  hours;  when 
taken  out  it  will  be  quite  red  again. 

PLIERS.  An  instrument,  or  double  lever, 
the  fulcrum  of  which  is  at  the  centre,  and  it 


enables  watchmakers  and  other  artisans  to 
take  firm  hold  of  any  small  objects. 


A  MISCELLANY  OP  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


243 


SEPTEMBER  is  literally  the  seventh 
month  of  the  year  according  to  the  ancient 
Roman  calendar,  as  established  by  Romulus, 
but  the  ninth  of  Nunia's  year  *  It  derives 
its  name  from  Septan,  seven,  and  intier,  a 
shower  of  rain,  as  this  is  generally  the  com- 
mencement of  the  rainy  season.  The  Senate 
of  Rome  would  have. named  it  Tiberius,  in 
honour  of  that  emperor,  but  he  rejected  the 
compliment.  Domitian  called  it  Ger- 
manicus.  It  was  also  named  Antoninus  in 
honour  of  Antoninus  Pius;  and  Commodus 
called  it  Herculeus;  but  the  name  of  Sep- 
tember, though  improper  if  we  consider  its 
{dace  in  the  number  of  months,  has  out- 
ived  every  other  appellation.  Originally 
the  month  had  only  sixteen  days  assigned 
to  it  in  the  old  Alban  calendar ;  but  they 
were  increased  to  thirty  by  Romulus,  and  to 
thirty-one  by  Julius  Cwsar,  while  Augustus 
reduced  the  number  of  days  to  thirty,  as 
they  exist  at  the  present  time. 

Our  Saxon  ancestors  called  this  month 
Gerst  Monath.  Verstegan  informs  us  that 
the  reason  it  was  thus  called  was,  "that 
barley,  which  that  monath  commonly 
yeelded,  was  antiently  called  gerst,  the 
name  of  barley  being  given  unto  it  by 
reason  of  the  drinke  therewith  made,  called 
beere,  and  from  bcerlegh  it  came  to  be 
berlegh,  and  from  berlegh  to  barley.  So,  in 
like  manner,  beere h eg m — to  wit,  the  over- 
decking  or  covering  of  beere — came  to  be 
her  ham,  and  afterwards  barme,  having  since 
gotten  I  wot  not  how  many  names  be- 
sides. This  excellent  and  healthsome 
liquor,  beere,  antiently  also  catled  ael,  as  of 
the  Danes  it  yet  is  (beere  and  ale  being  in 
effect  all  one),  was  first  of  the  Germans  in- 
vented and  brought  into  use." 

The  Synonymes  of  the  month  are — in 
Latin,  September;  French,  Septembre ; 
ltalian,Settembre;andPoTtugvieae,Setembr(>. 


This  month  is  allegorically  represented  as 
a  young  man  dressed  in  "purple,   with  a 


wreath  of  white  and  purple  grapes  upon  his 
head,  and  with  a  merry  countenance. 
Under  his  left  arm  he  holds  a  bundle  of 
oats,  and  in  his  right-hand  a  cornucopia  of 
the  ripe  fruits  of  the  season.  The  sign  of 
Libra,  the  balance,  on  his  right,  is  sym- 
bolical of  the  sun  entering  that  constellation 
on  the  23rd  of  the  month. 

*On  Monday,  the  5th  day  of  September, 
1774,  there  were  assembled  at  Carpenter's 
Hall,  In  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  a  number  of 
men  who  liad  been  chosen  and  appointed  by 
the  several  colonies  in  North  America  to  hold 
a  Congress  For  the  purpose  of  discussing  cer- 
tain grievances  imputed  against  the  mother 
country.  This  Congress  resolved,  on  the  next 
day,  that  each  colony  should  have  one  vote 
only.  On  Tuesday,  the  2d  July,  177G,  the 
Congress  resolved,  "  That  these  United  Colo- 
nies are  and  of  right  ought  to  be  free  and  in- 
dependent States,"  etc.,  and  on  Thursday,  the 
4th  of  July,  the  whole  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence having  been  agreed  upon,  it  was 
publicly  read  to  the  people.  Shortly  after,  on 
the  9th  of  September,  it  was  resolved  that 
the  words  "  United  Colonies"  should  be  no 
longer  used,  and  that  the  "  United  States 
ok  America/'  should  thenceforward  be  the 
style  and  title  of  the  Union.  On  Saturday, 
the  15th  November,  1777,  "  Articles  of  Con- 
federation and  Perpetual  Union  of  the  United 
States  of  America"  were  agreed  to  by  the 
State  delegates,  subject  to  the  ratification  of 
the  State  legislatures  severally.  Eight  of  the 
States  ratified  these  articles  on  the  9th  July, 
1778  ;  one  on  the  21st  July  ;  one  on  the  24th 
July  ;  one  on  the  2Gth  November  of  the  same 
year  ;  one  ou  the  22d  February,  1779  ;  and 
the  last  one  on  the  1st  March,  1781.  Here 
was  a  bond  of  union  between  thirteen  iude- 

{>endent  States,  whose  delegates  in  Congress 
egislated  for  the  general  welfare,  and  execu- 
ted certain  powers,  so  far  as  they  were  per- 
mitted by  the  articles  aforesaid.  The  follow- 
ing are  the  names  of  the  Presidents  of  the 
Continental    Congress   from    1774    to    1788. 

Peyton  Randolph,  Virginia,  5th  September, 
1774. 

Henry  Middleton,  South  Carolina,  22d 
October,  1774. 

Peyton  Randolph,  Virginia,  10th  May, 
1775. 

John  Hancock,  Massachusetts,  24th  May, 
1776. 

Henry  Laurens,  South  Carolina,  1st  No- 
vember, 1777. 

John  Jay,  New  York,  10th  December,  1778. 

Samuel  Huntingdon,  Connecticut,  28th 
September,  1779. 

Thomas  McKean,  Delaware,  10th  July, 
1781. 

John  Hanson,  Maryland,  5th  November, 
1781. 


from  Wells'  "  Illcstratbd  National  Handbook.    New  York:  J.  G.  Wells.    Price  50  Cts. 


244 


FACTS  POit  EVERYBODY! 


Elias  Boudinot,  New  Jersey,  4th  Novem 
ber,  1732. 

Thomas  Mifflin,  Pennsylvania,  3d  Novem- 
ber, 1783. 

Richard  Henry  Loe,  Virginia,  30th  Novem- 
ber, 1784. 

Nathaniel  Gorham,  Massachusetts,  6th  Jan- 
uary, 1786. 

Arthur  St.  Clair,  Pennsylvania,  2d  Febru- 
ary, 1787. 

Cyrus  Griffin,  Virginia,  22d  January,  1788. 

The  seat  of  government  was  established  as 
follows  : 

At  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  commencing  Septem- 
ber 5, 1774  and  May  10, 1775. 

At  Baltimore,  Md.,  December  20, 1776. 

At  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  March  4, 1777. 

At  Lancaster,  Pa,  September  27, 1777. 

At  York,  Pa.,  September  30, 1777. 

At  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  2, 1778. 

At  Princeton,  N.  J.,  June  30, 1783. 

At  Annapolis,  Md.,  November  26,  1783. 

At  Trenton,  N.  J.,  November  1, 1784. 

At  New  York,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  11,  1785. 

The  Constitution  was  adopted  on  the  17th 
of  September,  1787,  by  the  Convention  ap- 
pointed in  pursuance  of  the  resolution  of  the 
Congress  of  the  Confederation,  of  the  21st  of 
February,  1787,  aud  ratified  by  the  conven- 
tions of  the  several  States  as  follows  : 

By  convention  of  Delaware,  7th  December, 
1787. 

By  convention  of  Pennsylvania,  12th  De- 
cember, 1787. 

By  convention  of  New  Jersey,  18th  Decem- 
ber, 1787. 

By  convention  of  Georgia,  2d  January, 
1<  88. 

By  convention  of  Connecticut,  9th  Janu- 
ary, 1788. 

By  convention  of  Massachusetts,  6th  Feb- 
ruary, 1788. 

By  convention  of  Maryland,  28th  April, 
1788. 

By  convention  of  South  Carolina,  23d  May, 
1788. 

By  convention  of  New  Hampshire,  21st 
Juue,  1788. 

By  convention  of  Virginia,  26th  June,  1788. 

By  convention  of  New  York,  26th  July, 
1788.  ' 

By  convention  of  North  Carolina,  21st  No- 
vember, 1789. 

By  convention  of  Rhode  Island,  29th  May, 
1790. 

The  first  ten  of  the  amendments  to  the 
United  States  Constitution  were  proposed  on 
the  25th  day  of  September,  in  the  year  1789, 
and  ratified  by  the  constitutional  number  of 
States  on  the  15th  of  December,  1797.  The 
eleventh  amendment  was  proposed  on  the 
8th  of  January,  1798,  and  the  twelfth  on  the 
25th  of  September,  1804. 


OCTOBER  was  the  eighth  month  of 
Romulus' s  year,  as  the  name  implies,  being 
derived  from  Octo,  eight,  and  imber,  a 
shower  of  rain  ;  but  in  the  calendar  of 
Numa,  and  of  Julius  Caesar,  it  was  classed 
as  the  tenth  month  of  the  calendar,  as  at 
the  present  time.  The  Senate  of  Rome 
gave  this  month  the  name  of  Faustinus,  in 
compliment  to  Faustina,  the  wife  of  the 
Emperor  Antoninus ;  and  Domitian  called 
it  after  himself;  but,  in  spite  of  all  attempts 
to  alter  the  name,  it  has  continued  to  pre- 
serve the  one  originally  given  by  the  old 
Romans.  The  number  of  its  days,  in  the 
time  of  Romulus,  was  the  same  as  at  pre- 
sent. Numa  Pompilius  reduced  them  to 
twenty-nine ;  but  Julius  and  Augustus 
Ctesar  each  added  one  day,  so  that  the 
original  u  umber  of  days  was  restored,  and 
has  not  been  altered  since. 

Among  our  Saxon  ancestors  this  month 
was  called  Wyn  Monath,  or  wine  month, 
wyn  signifying  wine ;  and  Verstegan  ob- 
serves:— ''Albeit  they  had  not  antiently 
wines  made  in  Germany,  yet  in  this  season 
had  they  them  from  divers  countries  adjoin- 
ing." They  also  called  it  Winter  fulleth,  or 
fylleth,  from  the  approach  of  winter. 

Synonymes.  —  In  Latin,  October ;  in 
French,  Octobre;  in  Italian,  Ottobre;  and 
in  Portuguese,  Outubro. 


The  Symbol,  or  Allegory  of  the  month  is  * 
young  man,  dressed  in  a  garment  of  carna- 
tion and  yellow,  indicative  of  the  hue  of  the 
trees  at  this  season ;  his  head  is  decorated 
with  a  garland  of  acorns  and  oak-leaves, 
and  his  face 

"Full  of  merry  glee, 
For  yet  his  noule  was  fotty  of  the  must, 
"Which  he  was  treading,  in  the  wine-fat's  lec, 
And  of  the  joyous  <>yle,  whose  gentle  gust 
Made  him  so  frollick." 

In  his  right-hand  he  held  a  basket  of 
medlars,  chesnuts,  mushrooms,  and  other 
fruits,  "ripe  and  rare;"  while  in  his  left 


A  MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


245 


hand  ho  grasped  the  sign  Scorpio,  tho 
Bcor.iion,  symbolical  of  the  buii  entering 
that  constellation  on  the  23rd  of  the  month. 

On  the  17th  day  of  October,  1777,  Bar- 
goyne,  finding  himself  surrounded,  and  de- 
spairing of  recieving  reinforcements,  Barren* 
dered  his  army  to  (Jeneral  dates,  who  had 
shortly  prior  been  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  Northern  division,  whereby  the  Amer- 
ican army  came  into  the  possession  of  a  fine 
train  of  brass  artillery,  5,(100  muskets,  and 
Immense  quantities  of  other  munitions  of 
war. 

6th.  Faith. — This  name,  in  tho  Church 
of  England  calendar,  was  given  in  honour 
of  a  female  at  Aquitaine,  who  was  put  to 
death  under  Dai  ian.  She  was  the  titular 
Mint  of  several  churches  in  France,  parti- 
cularly that  of  Longueville,  in  Normandy, 
which  was  erected  by  Walter  Giffard,  Earl 
of  Buckingham. 

9;h.  St.  Dcmjs,  or  Denis,  is  the  patron 
saint  of  France,"  and  the  legend  informs  us, 
that  lie  was  beheaded,  with  some  other 
martyrs,  in  the  year  272,  upon  an  eminence 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris,  since  called 
Mons  Marty  rum  (MontmartreJ ,  in  honour 
of  them. 

11th.  Old  Michaclmas'day. — A  custom 
formerly  prevailed  in  Hertfordshire  for 
young  men  to  assemble  in  tho  fields,  and 
choose  a  leader,  whom  they  were  obliged  to 
follow  through  fields  and  ditches.  This 
occurred  every  seven  years,  and  every  pub- 
lican then  supplied  a  gallon  of  ale  and  a 
ganging  cake— -a  plum  cake — so  called  from 
the  day  being  termed  a  ganging-day. 

17th.  St.  Ethel  drcda  was  the  daughter  of 
Annas,  king  of  the  East  Angles,  and  born 
about  630,  at  Ixning,  formerly  a  noted 
town  on  the  western  border  of  Suffolk. 
Having  taken  the  veil,  she  ultimately  be- 
came an  abbess,  and  acquired  celebrity  for 
having  saved  herself  and  nuns  from  the 
outrage  of  the  Danes  by  mutilating  their 
faces,  which  so  exasperated  the  Danes,  that 
they  fired  the  convent,  and  destroyed  its 
inniatcs. 

18th.  St.  Luke.—  This  festival  was  ap- 
pointed in  the  twelfth  century,  in  honour  of 
the  Evangelist.  He  is  said'  to  have  died 
about  the  year  70,  at  the  age  of  eighty-four, 
having  written  his  gospel  when  seventy-six 
years  of  age. 

20th.  On  this  day,  in  1632,  was  bcrn  the 
celebrated  architect,  Sir  Christopher 
WreW.  He  was  the  son  of  the  Dean  of 
Windsor,  and  first  drew  his  breath  at  East 
Knoyle,  in  Wiltshire,  llis  mathematical 
talents  were  precociously  manifested;  and 
at  the  age  of  fifteen  ho  wrote  "A  New 


System  of  Spherical  Trigonometry  ;"  but  it 
was  in  1663  that  his  architectural  genius 
was  first  called  into  action,  when  he  was 
commissioned  to  prepare  designs  for  tho 
restoration  of  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  the 
building  of  which  was  begun  in  1675. 
Besides  this  magnificent  pile  he  erected  tho 
hospitals  at  Chelsea  and  Greenwich,  various 
public  edifices,  and  about  sixty  churches. 
He  died  in  1723. 

26th.  St.  Crispin.— Formerly  St.  Cris- 
pinian's  name  was  coupled  with  St.  Cris- 
pin's, but  it  has  long  been  disjoined  from  it. 
These  two  saints  are  said  to  have  been  two 
Roman  youths  of  good  birth,  brothers,  who 
in  the  third  century  went  as  Christian  mis- 
sionaries to  France,  and  preached  for  a  long 
time  at  Soissons.  In  imitation  of  St.  Paul, 
they  supported  themselves  by  working  at 
the  trade  of  a  shoemaker  by  night,  while 
they  preached  during  the  day. 

28tb.  St.  Simon  and  St.  Jude  is  a  festival 
of  the  English  Church.  Simon  is  said  to 
have  suffered  martyrdom  in  Britain.  St. 
Jude,  also  called  Thaddeus,  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom in  Persia. 

29th.  On  this  day  was  beheaded  the 
illustrious  navigator  and  historian,  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh.  He  was  born  at  11  ud- 
leigh,  in  Devonshire,  and  did  eminent 
service  for  Queen  Elizabeth,  particularly  in 
his  discovery  of  Virginia,  and  in  the  defeat 
of  the  Spanish  Armada ;  but  on  the  acces- 
sion of  James  I.  he  lost  his  interest  at 
Court,  was  stripped  of  his  preferments,  un- 
justly accused  of  high  treason,  tried,  con- 
demned, and  executed  on  the  29th  October, 
1618.  The  grand  work  which  has  esta- 
blished his  fame  is  "The  History  of  the 
World,"  to  the  end  of  the  Macedonian 
Empire,  B.C.  323. 

31st.  All-hallow  Even,  or  Hallow  E'en, 
is  the  great  festival  of  the  month,  and  is  tho 
vigil  of  All-Saints' -day.  Many  curious 
customs  are  connected  with  this  day. 
Burns  informs  us,  in  a  note  to  his  poem  on 
"Hallow  E'en,"  that  "the  first  ceremony  of 
the  festival  is  pulling  each  a  stock  or  plant 
of  kail.  They  must  go  out,  hand  in  hand, 
with  eyes  shut,  and  pull  the  first  they  meet 
with;  its  being  big  or  little,  straight  or 
crooked,  is  prophetic  of  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  grand  object  of  all  their  spells — the 
husband  or  wife.  If  any  yird,  or  earth, 
stick  to  the  root,  that  is  tocher,  or  fortune  ; 
and  the  taste  of  the  custoe,  that  is,  the 
heart  of  the  stem,  is  indicative  of  the  natu- 
ral temper  and  disposition.  Lastly,  the 
stems,  or,  to  give  them  their  ordinary  ap- 
pellation, the  runts,  are  placed  somewhere 
above  thi  head  of  the  door ;  and  the  Chris- 


240 


PACTS  for  everybody: 


tian  names  of  the  people  whom  chance 
brings  into  the  house  are,  according  to  the 
priority  of  placing  the  runts,  the  names  in 
question." 

FLOWER  (THE).  The  flower  consists 
of  several  parts. 

The  calyx,  or  flower  cup,  forms  the  ex- 
ternal integument  which  protects  the  bud 
before  it  expands  :  it  consists  of  several 
parts,  called  sepales,  resembling  small  leaves, 
both  in  form  and  colour.  These  sepales  are, 
in  general,  more  or  less  soldered  together ; 
sometimes  so  completely  as  to  form  a  cup 
apparently  of  one  piece. 

Above  and  wit  bin  the  calyx  rises  the 
corolla,  which  is  tbe  coloured"  part  of  the 
flower.  It  is  composed  of  several  petals, 
either  separate  or  cohering,  so  as  to  form  a 
corolla  of  one  single  piece :  in  the  latter  case, 
the  flower  is  called  monopetalous.  When 
the  petals  first  burst  from  the  calyx,  and 
expand  in  all  their  beauty,  they  still  serve 
to  protect  the  central  parts  of  the  flower. 
They  are  at  first  curved  inwards,  forming  a 
concavity  around  the  delicate  organs  which 
occupy  the  centre.  This  not  only  shelters 
them  from  external  inj ury,  but  reflects  the 
sun's  rays  upon  them,  like  a  concave  mirror; 
thus  rearing  them,  as  it  were,  in  a  hot-house. 
When  these  parts  are  full  grown,  the  arti- 
ficial heat  being  no  longer  necsssar)',  aud 
the  admission  of  light  and  air  being  not 
only  safe  but  advantageous,  the  petals  ex- 
pand ;  leaving  the  internal  organs  exposed 
to  the  free  agency  of  these  elements. 

At  the  base  of  the  petals  is  generally 
situated  an  organ,  called  the  nectary.  This 
is  the  store  whence  the  bee  derives  honey. 

The  most  important  parts  of  the  flower 
are  those  organs  which  occupy  the  centre. 
It  is  here  that  the  seed  which  is  to  propa- 
gate the  plant  is  lodged,  in  a  vessel  called 
the  ovary,  or  seed-vessel.  From  its  summit 
rises  a  little  threadlike  stalk,  called  a  style  ; 
which,  at  its  extremity,  supports  a  small, 
spongy  substance,  denominated  the  stigma. 
These  three  parts  form  a  whole,  which  bears 
the  name  of  carpel. 

Immediately  surrounding  the  pistils  are 
situated  the  stamens;  each  of  which  consists 
of  a  slender  filament,  supporting  a  little  bag, 
or  case,  called  an  anther,  filled  with  pollen, 
which  is  a  species  of  dust  or  powder.  The 
anthers,  when  ripe,  burst;  and,  being  more 
elevated  than  the  stigma,  shed  their  pollen 
upon  it ;  Avithout  which  no  seed  can  be  per- 
fected. 

In  some  vegetables  the  stamens  are  in  one 
flower  and  the  pistils  in  another  ;  in  others, 
the  stamens  and  pistils  are  upon  separate 
plants.    In  these  cases  the  pollen  is  con- 


veyed from  the  one  to  the  other  by  means 
of  the  wind,  or  by  winged  insects,  which,  in 
penetrating,  by  means  of  their  long  and 
pliant  proboscis,  within  the  recesses  of  the 
corolla,  in  order  to  obtain  the  nectar,  cover 
their  downy  wings  with  the  pollen.  This 
unheeded  burden  they  convey  to  the  next 
flower  on  which  they  alight ;  and  in  working 
their  way  to  the  nectary,  it  is  rubbed  off  and 
falls  on  the  stigma.  Every  insect,  however 
ephemeral,  every  weed,  however  insigni- 
ficant, ha3  its  part  assigned  in  the  great 
system  of  the  universe. 

In  Persia,  very  few  of  the  palm  and  date 
trees,  under  cultivation,  have  stamens,  those 
having  pistils  being  preferred,  as  alone 
yielding  fruit.  In  the  season  of  flowering, 
the  peasants  gather  branches  of  the  wild 
palm  trees,  whose  blossoms  contain  stamens, 
and  spread  them  over  those  which  are  cul- 
tivated, so  that  the  pollen  comes  in  contact 
with  the  pistils,  and  fertilizes  the  flower. 

There  were  two  remarkable  palm-trees  in 
Italy.  The  one,  situated  at  Otranto,  had  no 
stamens;  the  other,  at  Brindisi,  which  is 
about  forty  miles  distant,  had  no  pistils; 
consequently,  neither  of  those  trees  bore 
seed.  But  when,  after  the  growth  of  many 
years,  they  not  only  rose  superior  to  all  the 
trees  of  the  neighbouring  forests,  but  over- 
topped all  the  buildings  which  intervened, 
the  pollen  of  the  palm-tree  at  Brindisi  was 
wafted  by  the  wind  to  the  pistils  of  that  of 
Otranto ;  and,  to  the  astonishment  of  every 
one,  the  latter  bore  fruit. 

SEED.  The  seed,  from  which  the  future 
plant  proceeds,  is  the  sole  end  and  aim  of 
all  the  parts  of  fructification.  It  consists  of 
c-everal  parts,  the  most  essential  of  which  is 
the  embryo,  or  germen,  called  by  Linnieus, 
co)  culum,  whence  the  life  and  organization 
of  the  future  plant  originate. 

The  -cotyledons,  or  seed  lobes,  are  imme- 
diately attached  to  the  embryo,  of  which 
they  form,  properly  speaking,  a  part.  They 
are  commonly  two  in  number,  and,  when 
the  seed  has  sufficiently  established  its  root, 
generally  rise  out  of  the  ground,  and  form  a 
kind  of  leaves.  Hilum,  the  scar,  is  the 
point  by  which  the  seed  is  attached  to  its 
seed-vessel,  or  receptacle,  and  through  which 
alone  nourishment  is  imparted  for  the  per- 
fecting of  its  internal  parts  ;  it  is  also  the 
point  through  which  the  radical  is  protruded 
in  the  first  stage  of  germination. 

There  is  no  part  of  the  vegetable  kingdom 
which  offers  so  many  striking  proofs  of  ad- 
mirable contrivance  as  the  seed.  The  care 
which  Providence  has  bestowed  upon  it  is 
astonishing. 

Independently  of  the  innumerable  means 


A  MISCELLANY  OP  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE* 


247 


which  are  adopted  for  maturing  and  pro- 
tecting tlu>  organs  on  which  the  production 
of  the  Med  depends,  and  which  ferna  part  of 
the  system  of  provision  for  perfecting  it— 
Independently,  too,  of  the  countless  con- 
trivances, some  highly  artificial,  for  the 
imme.liate  purpose  of  perfecting  it,  —  the 
mode  in  which  this  organ  is  preserved  after 
it  is  matured  evinces  consummate  care  and 
wisdom.  Sometimes  it  is  packed  up  in  a 
capsule,  a  vessel  composed  of  tough  and 
strong  coats ;  sometimes,  as  in  stone-fruits 
and  nuts,  it  is  closed  in  a  strong  shell,  which 
again  is  enclosed  in  a  pulp ;  sometimes,  as 
in  grapes  and  berries,  it  is  plumped  overhead 
in  a  glutinous  syrup,  contained  within  a 
skin  or  bladder ;  at  other  times,  as  in  applet 
and  pears,  it  is  embedded  in  the  heart  of  a 
firm  fleshy  substance ;  or,  as  in  strawberries, 
pricked  into  the  surface  of  a  soft  pulp.  These 
and  many  other  varieties  exist  in  what  are 
called  fruits.  In  pulse,  and  grain,  and 
grasses, — in  trees,  and  shrubs  and  flowers, — 
the  variety  of  seed-vessels  is  incomputable. 
"We  have' the  seeds,  as  in  the  pea  tribe, 
regularly  disposed  in  parchment  pods,  which 
completely  exclude  the  wet ;  the  pod  also, 
not  seldom,  as  in  the  bean,  lined  with  a  fine 
down  distended  like  a  blown  bladder;  or  we 
have  the  seed  enveloped  in  wool,  as  in  the 
cotton-plant ;  lodged,  as  in  pines,  between 
the  hard  and  compact  scales  of  a  cone  ;  or, 
barricadoed,  as  in  the  artichoke  and  thistle, 
with  spikes  and  prickles;  in  mushrooms, 
placed  under  a  penthouse ;  in  ferns,  within 
slits  in  the  back  part  of  the  leaf;  or,  which 
is  the  most  general  organization  of  all,  we 
find  them  covered  by  a  strong  close  tunicle, 
and  attached  to  the  stem,  according  to  an 
order  appropriated  to  each  plant,  as  is  seen 
in  several  kinds  of  grain  and  of  grasses. 

Equally  numerous  and  admirable  are  the 
contrivances  for  dispersing  seeds  Who  has 
not  listened,  in  a  calm  and  sunny  day,  to  the 
crackling  of  furze-hushes,  caused  by  the  ex- 
plosion of  their  little  elastic  pods,  or  watched 
the  down  of  innumerable  se^ds  floating  on 
the  summer  breeze,  till  they  are  overtaken 
by  a  shower,  which,  moistening  their  wings, 
stops  their  further  flight,  aud  at  the  same 
time  accomplishes  its  tinal  purpose,  by  im- 
mediately promoting  the  germination  01  each 
seed  in  the  moist  earth  ? 

How  little  are  children  aware,  as  they 
hlow  away  the  seeds  of  the  dandelion,  or 
stick  burs  in  sport  on  each  other's  clothes, 
that  they  are  fulfilling  one  of  the  great  ends 
of  nature. 

The  awns  of  grasses  answer  the  same  end. 

Pulpy  fruits  serve  quadrupeds  and  birds 
as  food,  while  their  seeds,  often  small,  hard. 


and  indigestible,  pass  uninjured  through  the 
intestines,  and  are  deposited,  far  from  their 
original  place  of  growth,  in  a  condition  per- 
fectly fit  for  vegetation. 

liven  such  seeds  as  are  themselves  eaten, 
like  the  various  sorts  of  nuts,  are  hoarded 
up  in  the  ground,  and  occasionally  forgotten, 
or  carried  to  a  distance,  and  in  part  only 
devoured. 

The  ocean  itself  serves  to  waft  the  larger 
kind  of  seeds  from  their  native  soil  to  far 
distant  shores. 

LITHOGRAPHIC  STONES  (TO  PACK). 
The  accompanying  figure  will  explain  this 
more    readily    than    any  description.      A 


and  B  represent  two  stones  secured  in  a 
box,  C,  I),  E,  F,  by  slips  of  wood,  c,  d,  e, 
f,  which  are  screwed  to  the  sides  of  the 
box.  The  stone  B  is  placed  in  the  box 
with  its  face  upwards,  then  the  slips 
of  wood  (c,  d,)  screwed  in,  and  then  the 
next  stone  (A)  face  upwards,  and  lastly 
the  slips  (/,  <?,)  and  the  lid  over  all.  Thus 
packed,  they  may  be  conveyed  to  any 
distance  without  any  danger  of  injury  to 
the  stones  or  drawings. 

PAPER-HANGINGS  (TO  CLEAN).  Cut 
into  eight  half-quarters  a  stale  quartern 
loaf;  with  one  of  these  pieces,  after  having 
blown  off  all  the  dust  from  the  paper  to  be 
cleaned,  by  means  of  a  good  pair  of  bellows, 
begin  at  the  top  of  the  room,  holding  the 
crust  in  the  hand,  and  wiping  lightly  down- 
ward with  the  crumb  about  half  a  yard  at 
each  stroke,  till  the  upper  part  of  the  hang- 
ings is  completely  cleaned  all  round  ;  then 
go  again  round  with  the  like  sweeping 
stroke  downward,  always  comme: icing  each 
successive  course  a  little  higher  than  the 
upper  stroke  had  extended  till  the  bottom 
be  finished.  This  operation,  if  carefully 
performed,  will  frequently  make  very  old 
paper  look  almost  equal  to  new.  Great 
caution  must  be  used  not  by  any  means  to 
rub  the  paper  hard,  nor  to  attempt  cleaning 
it  the  cross  or  horizontal  way.  The  dirty 
part  of  the  bread  too  must  be  each  time  cut 
away,  and  the  pieces  renewed  as  soon  as  at 
all  necessary.  (How  to  Choose  Paper- 
hamrinjrs,  see  p.  177.) 

COURT-PLASTER  (TO  MAKE).  Stretch 

tightly  some    thin   black  or  flesh-coloured 

silk  in  a   wooden  frame,   securing  it  with 

packthread   or   small  tacks.       Then  go  all 

1  over  it  with  a  soft-bristle  brush,  dipped  in 


248 


FACTS  FOR   EVERYBODY! 


dissolved  isinglass  or  strong  gum-arabic 
water.  Give  it  two  or  three  coats,  letting 
it  dry  between  each.  Then  go  several  times 
over  it  with  white  of  egg. 

FOX  AND  GEESE.  Take  a  piece  of 
well-seasoned  wood,  about  nine  inches 
square,  and  cut  off  the  corners,  so  as  to  make 
it  octagonal ;  then  draw,  cut  into  the  wood, 


and  afterwards  paint,  or  simply  paint,  the 
figure  shown  in  the  accompanying  dia- 
gram, and  bore  a  hole  at  the  junction  of  the 
lines,  as  indicated  by  the  O's  and  6'a  in 
the  figure.  Fix  four  or  eight  small  feet  to 
the  board,  and  then  prepare  the  eighteen 
men. 
•  Q>  The  men  are  divided  into  seven- 
j3  teen  geese  and  one  fox,  the  latter 
<J>  of  which  is  distinguished  by  its 
size  and  colour.  The  men  may  be 
cut  out  of  a  piece  of  wood,  and 
should  be  somewhat  like  the  an- 
nexed figure  and  size.  They  may 
be  turned  for  a  few  pence." 

Instead  of  having  a  wooden 
board,  the  above  figure  may  be 
drawn  upon  a  piece  of  cardboard, 
1,111  and  chequer  or  draught-men  used 
instead  of  the  others,  distinguish- 
ing the  fox  by  placing  one  man 
above  the  other,  the  same  as  a 
king  in  draughts. 

Sometimes  this  game  is  played 
with     sixteen    men    instead *  of 
eighteen— viz.   fifteen  geese  and 
one  fox. 
"When  about  to  play,  arrange  the  fox  in 
>ard, 


the  centre  of  the  board,  as  indicated  by  the 
square  black  mark,  and  the  geese  at  the 
stations  or  points  marked  thus  ■ —  9  ;  if 
seventeen  men  are  used,  the  two  extra  geese 
must  be  placed  in  the  two  blank  points — O.  I  brush  (a  hogs-bristle  brush)  lay  it  all  over 


The  fox  can  move  both  ways,  either 
backwards  or  forwards ;  the  geese  can  only 
move  forward,  in  the  direction  of  the  right 
lines  ;  but  they  cannot  pass  over  two  spots 
at  one  time. 

The  object  of  the  game  is,  for  the  geese 
to  pen  up  the  fox  so  that  he  cannot  move, 
and  for  the  fox  to  reduce  the  number  of  the 
geese  by  taking  as  many  as  he  can,  which 
he  does  by  jumping  over  every  one  that  has 
a  point  or  hole  before  or  behind  him  that  is 
not  filled  up. 

The  geese  cannot  take  the  fox  if  he  stands 
close  to  them ;  but  the  fox  may  always 
take  the  geese,  provided  there  is  a  blank 
point  before  or  behind  it,  as  described 
above. 

Neither  fox  or  geese  can  move  more  than 
from  one  point  to  another  at  a  time,  unless 
previously  agreed  upon,  and  they  must 
always  keep  along  the  line. 

If  a  skilful  player  has  the  geese,  the  fox 
is  almost  sure  to  be  penned  up,  and  there- 
fore the  fox  should  not  be  too  hasty  in  his 
moves. 

GLASS  (TO  JOIN).  Melt  a  little  isin- 
glass in  spirits  of  wine,  and  add  a  small 
quantity  of  water.  "Warm  the  mixture 
gently  over  a  moderate  fire.  When  mixed, 
by  thoroughly  melting  it  will  form  glue  per- 
fectly transparent,  and  which  will  reunite 
broken  glass  so  nicely  and  firmly  that  the 
joining  will  scarcely  be  perceptible  to  the 
most  critical  eye.  Lime  mixed  with  the 
white  of  an  egg  forms  a  very  strong  cement 
for  glass,  porcelain,  &c,  but  it  must  be  done 
neatly,  as,  when  hard,  the  superfluous  part 
cannot  easily  be  smoothed  or  taken  off. 

FEATHERS  (TO  DYE  BLUE.)  The 
feathers  must  be  first  well  washed  in  soap 
and  water,  then  exposed  to  the  air  for 
several  days.  Lastly,  after  being  well  rinsed 
in  pure  warm  water,  they  must  be  dipped 
in  hot  alum-water.  A  solution  of  indigo 
composition,  commonly  called  chemic  blue, 
having  been  prepared,  the  feathers  are 
to  be  dipped  therein.  The  immersion  in 
alum-water,  and  in  the  dye-water,  to  be 
alternately  performed  till  the  requisite  shade 
is  obtained. 

VARNISH  (TO  COLOUR  BASKETS 
AND  OLD  STRAW  HATS.)  Take  either 
red  or  black  sealing-wax ;  to  every  two 
ounces  of  sealing  wax  add  one  ounce  of  rec- 
tified spirits  of  wine  ;  pound  the  wax  fine, 
then  sift  it  through  a  fine  lawn  sieve  till 
you  have  made  it  extremely  fine  ;  put  it 
into  a  large  phial  with  the  spirits  of  wine  ; 
shake  it ;  let  it  stand  near  the  fire  forty- 
eight  hours,  shaking  it  often  ;  then  with  a 


A  MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


249 


the  baskets.  Let  it  dry,  and  repeat  the  ap- 
plication a  second  time. 

BRONZING.  Rronse  of  a  good  colour 
acquires  by  oxidation  a  tine  green  tint, 
called  path/a  antiqtta.  Corinthian  brass 
receives  in  this  way  a  beautiful  clear  green 
colour.  This  appearance  is  imitated  by  an 
artificial  process  called  bronzing.  A  solution 
of  sal-ammoniac  and  salt  of  sorrel  in  vine- 
gar is  used  for  bronzing  metals.  Any 
number  of  layers  may  be  applied,  and  the 
lliade  becomes  deeper  in  proportion  to  the 
number  applied.  For  bronzing  sculptures 
of  wood,  plaster-figures,  &c,  a  composition 
of  yellow  ochre,  Prussian  blue,  and  lamp- 
black, dissolved  in  glue-water,  is  employed. 

SHUTTLE.  A  piece  of  wood  which  in 
weaving  passes  a  cross  thread  through  the 
wrap. 


GLUE  (RICE).  Mix  together  rice-flour 
and  cold  water  to  a  thick  paste,  pressing 
out  all  the  lumps  with  a  spoon,  and  making 
it  verv  smooth.  Then  dilute  it  with  a  little 
more  "water  (altogether,  you  may  allow  a 
gill  of  water  to  a  tablespoonful  of  rice-flour), 
and  boil  it  slowly  as  long  as  you  would  boil 
starch,  stirring  it  frequently.  When  done, 
set  it  to  cool.  Use  it  for  pasting  fine  paper, 
and  for  any  little  ornamental  articles 
made  of  pasteboard.  It  is  a  very  nice  and 
durable  cement.  The  water  in  which  rice 
has  been  boiled  for  the  table  will  afford  a 
cement  for  slight  purposes. 

LIFE  AND  DEATH  AVERAGE.  In 
Turkey,  the  deaths  are  to  the  population 
as  1  in  30.  In  Prussia,  1  in  39.  In  Portugal, 
1  in  40.  In  Spaiu,  1  in  40.  In  Switzerland, 
1  in  40.  In  Austria,  1  in  40.  In  Norway, 
1  in  41.  In  Sweden,  1  in  41.  In  France,  1 
in  42.  In  Belgium,  1  in  43.  In  Russia, 
(Europe),  1  in  44.  In  Denmark,  1  in  45.  In 
"England,  1  in  46.  In  the  United  States,  1  in 
74.  In  Lower  Canada,  1  in  92.  In  Upper 
Canada,  1  in  102. 

CONSUMPTION  OF  TEA  AND  COFFEE. 
The  number  of  pounds  of  tea  and  coffee  au- 
nually  consumed  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
world  is  estimated  to  be  80,000,000. 

FRUIT  (TO  RACK  FOR  CARRIAGE). 

If  fruit  is  to  be  sent  to  any  considerable 
distance,  great  care  should  be  taken  in 
packing  it:  it  should  net  be  done  in  baskets, 
as  they  are  liable  to  be  bruised  among  heavy 
luggage,  and  the  fruit  of  course  will  be  im- 
paired. Forsyth,  therefore,  recommends 
boxes  made  of  strong  deal,  of  different  sizes, 


according  to  the  quantity  of  fruit  to  be 
packed.  In  packing,  proceed  thus :— First 
put  a  layer  of  fine,  long,  dry  moss  in  the 
bottom  of  the  tin  box,  then  a  layer  of  cur- 
rants or  cherries,  then  another  layer  of  moss, 
and  so  on  alternately  fruit  and  moss,  until 
the  box  is  so  full  that  when  the  lid  is  hasped 
down  the  fruit  may  be  so  firmly  packed  as  to 
preserve  them  from  friction.  Then  make  a 
layer  of  tine  moss  and  short,  soft,  dry 
grass,  well  mixed,  in  the  bottom  of  the  deal 
box;  pack  in  the  melons  with  some  of  the 
same,  tight  in  between  all  the  rows,  and 
also  between  the  melons  in  the  same  row, 
till  the  layer  is  finished ;  choosing  the  fruit 
as  nearly  of  a  size  as  possible,  filling  up 
every  interstice  with  the  moss  and  grass. 
When  the  melons  are  packed,  put  a  thin, 
layer  of  moss  and  grass  over  them,  upon 
which  place  the  tin  box  with  the  currants, 
packing  it  firmly  all  round  with  moss  to 

{>revent  it  from  shaking ;  then  put  a  thin 
aver  of  moss  over  the  box,  and  pack  the 
pears  firmly  (but  so  as  not  to  bruise  them) 
on  that  layer,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
melons ;  and  so  on  with  the  peaches,  necta- 
rines, plums,  and  lastly  the  grapes,  filling  up 
the  box  with  moss,  that  the  lid  may  shut 
down  so  light  as  to  prevent  any  friction 
among  the  fruit.  The  boxes  should  have 
locks,  and  two  keys  which  may  serve  for, 
them  all :  each  of  the  persons  who  pack  and. 
unpack  the  fruit  having  a  key.  The  moss  and 
grass  should  always  be  returned  in  the  boxes, 
which,  with  a  little  addition,  will  serve  tho 
whole  season,  being  shaken  up  and  well 
aired  after  each  journey,  and  keeping  it 
sweet  and  clean.  After  the  wooden  box  is 
locked,  cord  it  firmly.  If  fruit  be  packed 
according  to  the  above  directions,  it  may  be 
sent  to  the  farthest  part*  of  the  kingdom 
with  perfect  safety. 

TORTOISE.  A  very  harmless  animal, 
with  a  shelly  covering,  which  sleeps  through 
the  winter,  and  lives  to  a  great  age.    Its 


flesh  is  eaten  in  the  West  Indies,  and  its 
covering  serves  for  ornaments. 

DIAPIIANLE.  This  beautiful  art  is  so 
simple  in  its  elements  that  it  will  not  take 
much  space  to  initiate  the  reader  into  its 
mysteries.  The  principal  purposes  to  which 
it  is  applicable  are  for  the  decoration  of  hall 


260 


PACTS  FOB  everybody: 


windows,  churches,  lamp-shades,  stair-cases, 
hand-screens,  windows,  and  window-blinds, 
Chinese  lanterns,  and  conservatories  ;  but 
it  is  equally  available  for  every  purpose  in 
which  the  combination  of  transparency  and 
ornament  enter.  Although  the  chief  fea- 
tures of  this  art  are  the  decoration  of  glass 
to  the  resemblance  of  stained  windows  and 
painted  transparencies,  it  may  be  used  for 
the  adornment  of  window-blinds,  &c,  upon 
muslin  or  silk. 

The  materials  are  glass,  muslin  or  silk, 
a  roller,  brushes,  designs,  one  bottle  of 
clcarin';:  liquid,  prepared  gum^and  a  bottle  of 
washable  varnish. 

Be  sure  that  the  glass  ia  free  from  im- 
perfections, such  as  specks  or  bubbles,  and 
scrupulously  cleansed.  Of  course,  if  it  is 
already  fixed  in  window-frames,  you  must 
take  it  as  you  find  it.  Muslin  for  pictures 
is  preferable  to  silk,  for  its  cheapness  and 
possession  of  great  transparency.  "Which- 
ever may  be  chosen,  observe  that  it  must  be 
tightly  stretched  upon  a  frame,  and  that  the 
muslin  be  free  from  coarse  threads.  Much 
of  the  beauty  of  the  work  depends  on  the 
careful  selection  of  the  designs.  In  experi- 
ments, choose  a  simple  design,  the  subject 
of  which  must  be  left  to  the  fancy  of  the 
person  engaged  in  the  work.  The  brushes 
(hog's  hair)  will  be  sufficient  for  the  appli- 
cation of  the  varnish  and  cement.  Starch, 
mixed  with  cold  water,  and  boiled,  is  the 
best  cement  that  can  be  used  to  make  the 
designs  adhere  to  the  glass ;  but  gum  or  size 
will  do,  if  more  convenient.  The  cement 
must  be  thinly  laid  on.  The  washable 
varnish  renders  the  picture  easy  to  clean, 
and  the  clearing  liquid  is  used  to  destroy 
the  opacity  of  the  paper.  It  must  be  applied 
to  the  blank  side  of  the  picture. 

Lay  the  glass  fiat  upon  a  folded  cloth; 
then  cut  out  the  subjects,  and  placing  them 
upon  the  blank  side  of  the  grounding  paper, 
(the  plain  side  upwards),  trace  the  outline 
by  rubbing  on  with  the  finger  a  small 
quantity  of  blacklead ;  after  this,  cut  the 
paper  so  that  the  subject  may  clearly  fit  it. 
Much  care  must  be  exercised  in  these 
operations.  The  next  process  in  order  will 
be  the  fasteninq  of  the  papers  on  glass. 
This  is  done  with  a  sponge  and  water ;  the 
uncoloured  part  of  the  paper  must  be  made 
quite  damp  ;  then  put  on  the  glass  and  the 
printed  sides  a  thin  coating  of  the  cement. 
Take  care  that  no  air-bubbles  remain  be- 
tween the  glass  and  print,  and  also  observe 
that  the  papers  must  be  kept  damp  while  the 
operation  is  carried  on  ;  for,  if  the  cement  is 
allowed  to  dry,  it  will  destroy  the  trans- 
parency when  the  clearing  liquid  is  used. 


The  cement  requires  about  six  hours  to 
dry,  when  two  coatings  of  the  liquid  should 
be  applied  to  the  back  of  the  print. 

As  a  remedy,  if  it  is  not  clear,  rub  on  an 
additional  supply  of  clearing  liquid  on  the 
opaque  parts.  Let  the  glass  remain  for 
twelve  hours,  that  the  paper  may  dry,  after 
which  apply  the  washable  varnish.  There 
are  other  methods,  but  they  are  somewhat 
inferior. 

After  stretching  the  muslin  or  silk  tightly 
on  a  frame,  take  the  sheets,  laying  the  plain 
sides  upwards  to  receive  the  clearing  liquid, 
which  put  on  with  a  brush,  and  when  dry, 
give  it  another  coating.  A  coating  of 
cement  will  now  be  necessary  to  apply  to 
the  coloured  side  of  the  paper,  taking  great 
care  to  press  it  equally  with  the  roller. 
There  is  now  nothing  left  to  the  completion 
of  the  transparency  but  to  varnish  it.  If 
the  picture  be  misty,  again  use  the  clearing 
liquid. 

Painting  upon  Glass  or  Muslin.  For 
this  purpose  you  will  require  the  following 
colours: — Raw  and  burnt  sienna,  brown 
pink,  Prussian  blue,  yellow  lake,  crimson 
lake,  rose  madder,  French  ultramarine,  ivory 
black,  burnt  umber,  gamboge,  verdigris. 
In  using  these  colours,  should  they  work 
stiffly,  work  a  little  turpentine  with  them. 
If  your  painting  is  on  glass,  after  laying  it 
flat  on  the  print  you  have  chosen  to  copy, 
with  ivory  black  and  a  fine  sable-pencil 
trace  the  outlines,  and  after  it  is  dry,  let  the 
colouring  commence.  There  is  but  little 
difference  in  the  operations  of  painting  on 
glass  or  muslin.  The  latter  material  should 
have  a  coating  of  parchment  size  after  it  has 
been  tightly  stretched ;  but  the  process  of 
colouring  is  precisely  the  same  as  in  the 
process  on  glass. 

Painting  Glass  and  Muslin  in  Water- 
Colours.  The  same  colours  are  used  as 
those  previously  enumerated,  omitting  the 
verdigris.  First,  see  that  the  glass  is  free 
from  grease,  and  if  not,  wash  it  with  a  little 
gall.  If  the  operations  are  to  be  on  muslin, 
better  apply  a  thin  coating  of  size  before 
working.  Add  a  little  gall  to  your  cake 
colours  after  they  are  diluted  with  water  on 
the  slab,  and  then  proceed  as  in  oil  colour. 
Between  each  layer  of  colour,  as  water- 
colours  quickly  dry,  give  the  glass  a  coating 
of  mastic  varnish.  After  the  outline  is  com- 
plete, the  glass  should  be  placed  on  a  frame, 
and  supported  on  both  sides  by  an  upright 
piece  of  wood.  The  colours  may  be 
heightened  by  applying  others  of  the  same 
tint;  and,  for  the  sake  of  durability,  a 
second  sheet  of  glass  should  be  placed  over 
the  work  in  all  departments  of  this  art. 


A    MISCELLANY   OF    USEFUL    KXOWT.FDOE. 


251 


For  using  oudinauy  Enc.kavings  on 
Or. ass.  The  paper  they  are  printed  on 
should  contain  no  size.  1  amp  the  plain 
side  of  the  picture  with  a  sponge,  and  apply 
to  fche  other  a  coating  of  washable  vxrni&h; 
then  warm  the  glass,  lay  on  the  print,  picas 
with  the  roller,  and  place  it  at  some  distance 
from  the  fire  to  dry.  The  next  process 
requires  great  care,  or  the  beauty  of  the 
engraving  will  be  injured.  Damp  the  print 
agjiin  with  water,  and  rub  off  the  super- 
fluous paper  ;  after  this,  and  when  the  mi. na- 
ture has  been  absorbed,  apply  the  clearing 
liquid  with  a  camel-ha  r brush.  When  it  is 
thoroughly  hardened,  the  washable  varnish 
can  be  applied,  and  the  work  is  finished. 

Imitation  of  Gkotjnd  Glass  may  be 
effected  by  taking  equal  quantities  of  ground 
white  lead  and  sacrum,  and  mixing  with  one 
part  of  boiled  oil  and  two  of  turpentine, 
slightly  tinted  with  yellow  or  blue.  When 
this  is  done,  take  a  painter's  clean  duster, 
and  gently  dab  with  the  ends  of  the  hair, 
until  the  work  has  assumed  the  uniformity 
of  appearance  necessary  to  its  perfection. 

Bi'AINS  (TO  REMOVE  FROM  THE 
HANDS).  Damp  the  hands  first  with  water, 
then  rub  them  with  tartaric  acid,  or  salt  of 
lemons,  as  you  would  with  soap;  rinse  them, 
and  rub  them  dry.  Tartaric  acid  or  salt  of 
lemons  will  quickly  remove  stains  from 
white  muslin  or  linens.  Put  less  than  half 
a  teaspoonful  of  the  salt  or  acid  into  a  table- 
spoonful  of  water;  wet  the  stain  with  it, 
and  lay  it  in  the  sun  for  at  least  an  hour; 
wet  it  once  or  twice  with  cold  water  during 
the  time.  If  this  does  not  quite  remove  it, 
repeat  the  acid- water,  and  lay  it  again  in 
the  sun. 

SHAVING  SOAP.  Good  white  soap  (in 
thin  shavings),  three  pounds;  palm  soap, 
one  pound ;  soft  water,  three  quarters  of  a 
pound;  soda,  one  ounce.  Melt  carefully 
over  a  slow  fire,  in  an  earthen  vessel ;  then 
add  oil  of  lavender  sixty  drops,  oil  of  lemon 
forty  drops ;  bergaraot,  fifty  drops.  Mix 
weli  and  make  it  into  forms. 

M  A1IOGAXY  (ARTIFICIAL).  The  fol- 
lowing method  of  giving  any  species  of  wood 
of  a  close  grain  the  appearance  of  mahogany 
in  texture,  density,  and  polish,  is  said  to  be 
practised  in  France  with  success.  The  sur- 
face is  planed  smooth,  and  the  wood  is  then 
rubbed  with  a  solution  of  nitrous  acid  ;  one 
ounce  of  dragon's  blood  is  dissolved  in  nearly 
a  pint  of  spirits  of  twine;  this,  and  one- 
third  of  an  ounce  of  carbonate  of  soda,  are 
then  to  be  mixed  together  and  filtered,  and 
the  liquid  in  this  thin  state  is  to  be  laid  on 
with  a  soft  brush.  This  process  is  to  be  re- 
peated, and  in  a  short  interval  afterwards 


the  wood  poatessea  the  external  appearance 
of  mahogany.  When  the  polish  diminishes 
in  brilliancy,  it  may  be  restored  by  the  use 
of  a  little  cold-drawn  linseed  oil. 

GKATK  PAPER  (ORNAMENTAL).  The 
accompanying  illustration,*  when  drawn 
upon  paper  and  cut  out,  will  require  some 
amount  of  patience  and  perseverance  ;  but 
the  paper,  when  completed.,  will  amply 
repay  the  operator  for  all  the  trouble,  as  it 
is  extremely  elegant,  and  at  the  same  time 
inexpensive. 

The  materials  required  for  each  paper  are, 
two  sheets  of  white  tissue-paper,  and  some 
paste  or  mucilage. 

The  instruments  required  are,  a  sharp 
pair  of  fine-pointed  scissors,  a  lead  pencil 
(F,"or  F  F),  needle  and  sewing  cotton,  and 
a  circular  punch  (o). 

To  prepare  the  materials,  take  two  large 
sheets  of  tissue-paper,  and  paste  or  gum 
them  very  neatly  together  by  their  longest 
sides,  so  as  to  form  a  large  sheet. 

When  dry,  fold  the  paper  in  the  centre, 
and  double  it  again ;  mark  off  the  exact 
distance  of  each  bar  or  pattern  with  a 
pencil,  and  rule  the  paper  according  to  the 
des*gn  given ;  then  tack  it  along  the  spaces 
between  each  bar,  so  as  to  prevent  it  moving 
during  the  process  of  cutting  out.  Sketch 
the  design  according  to  pattern  or  taste,  and 
then  proceed  to  cut  out  all  the  shaded  parts 
with  a  sharp  pair  of  scissors,  taking  care  not 
to  sever  the  connecting  pieces  ;  but  if  they 
should  be  divided  by  accident,  the  two  parts 
must  be  neatly  joined  with  a  little  gum  or 
paste  and  tissue  paper. 

In  marking  off  the  design,  it  may  be  some 
guide  to  our  readers  to  inform  them  of  the 
dimensions  of  each  part  of  a  paper  according 
to  the  accompanying  design. 

When  the  paper  is  folded  and  tacked — 
No.  1  should  measure  i)\  in.  long  and  2  in.  wide. 

n    2 9 4* 

.,   3 H|, Si 

*    4 15  3* 

m   6 m *  • 

,.  « m u     „ 

n    7 171 * 

-    8 19J 2 

When  all  the  shaded  parts  have  been  cut 
out,  and  the  design  finished  by  punching 
the  parts  that  require  it  in  Nos.  5,  6,  7,  and 
8,  the  basting-threads  must  be  removed,  the 

Saper  carefully  opened  out;  and,  the  top 
eing  neatly  tied  with  a  piece  of  thread,  the 
ornament  should  be  suspended  to  a  nail 
driven  in  the  chimney,  hung  over  a  piece  of 
wood  like  a  cross,  and  placed  over  a  heap  of 
faded  grate  shavings,  or  thrown  over  a  stiff 
sheet  of  datk-coloured  paper  arranged  on 
purpose.     (*  See  next  page.) 


252 


FACTS  foe  eveeybody: 


7        8 


A  MISCELLANY  OP  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


253 


MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS  (TO 
STAIN).  Crimson — Boil  one  pound  of 
ground  Brazil-wood  in  three  quarts  of  water 
for  an  hour;  strain  it,  and  add  half  an  ounce 
of  cochineal  j  boil  it  again  for  half  an  hour 
gently,  aud  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  Pukple — 
Boil  a  pound  of  chip  logwood  in  three  quarts 
of  water  for  an  hour ;  then  add  four  ounces 
of  alum. 

TTVOLI,  OR  CHINESE  BILLIARDS. 
This  is  a  very  interesting  game,  and  is 
easily  played.    The  board  with  which  you 


play  varies  in  length  from  2  feet  6  inches 
to  4  feet  or  upwards,  and  is  shaped  as  shown 
in  the  accompanying  figure.  It  may  be 
easily  made  by  any  ingenious  person,  by 
attending  to  the  following  directions  :  par- 
tition off  a  space  on  each  side  of  the  board 
(a  b)  sufficiently  wide  for  the  marble  or 
ball  with  which  you  play  to  run  freely 
along.  Place  a  piece  of  wood,  about  3£ 
inches  in  length,  at  the  lower  end  of  each" 
passage  (c),  and  fix  it  at  an  angle  of  about 
ten  degrees.  Divide  the  space  between  the 
two  passages  at  the  lower  end  (c)  into  ten 
compartments,  and  paint  a  number  before 
each,  in  the  older  observed  in  the  figure. 
12 


|  Six  specs  are  to  be  left  in  the  board  for  the 
marbles  or  balls  to  drop  into,  and  these  are 
to  have  a  central  portion  sunk  in  the  board 
a  (as  c  in  the  annexed  figure), 

into  which  the  marble  or 
ball  (Jb)  drops ;  a  wire  (a)  is 
bent  over  the  circle  so  as  to 
form  an  arch,  and  proper 
numbers  are  to  be  painted 
before  each,  as  shown  in  the 
figure.  A  small  dent  is  to  be  made  in  the 
board,  midway  between  the  30  resting- 
point  and  the  arch  of  the  board,  and  10 
painted  in  front  of  it.  The  space  between 
the  two  passages  (a  b)  must  be  ruled  into  a 
diamond -shaped  pattern,  as  seen  in  the 
figure,  each  diamond  measuring  one  inch 
on  all  its  sides ;  and  when  this  is  done  the 
lines  must  be  painted  black,  and  a  thick 
pin  driven  into  each  of  its  angles  (indicated 
by  a  dot  in  the  figure).  It  now  only  re- 
mains to  finish  the  board  by  affixing  a  thin 
piece  of  wood  («?),  which  extends  from 
/  to  f ;  and  to  provide  two  balls  or  marbles, 
one  dark  and  the  other  white ;  and  two 
small  cues,  or  tapered  sticks,  with  which 
the  game  is  played. 

Before  the  game  is  commenced,  the  upper 
end  (d)  of  the  board  must  be  slightly 
elevated  (about  two  inches)  from  the  table. 


1.  Any  number  of  persons  may  play,  and 
if  more  than  two,  sides,  or  partners,  are  to 
be  chosen. 

2.  The  number  of  the  game  is  previously 
agreed  upon  by  the  players,  being  some- 
times fixed  as  low  as  2,000,  or  at  10,000,  or 
30,000. 

3.  The  dark  ball  counts  ten  times  the 
number  into  which  it  falls.  For  example : 
if  it  lodges  in  50  cup  it  counts  500,  and 
so  on. 

4.  The  white  ball  only  marks  those 
numbers  into  which  it  falls. 

5.  If  a  ball  lodges  against  a  pin,  the 
player  striking  the  ball  does  not  mark  any 
thing. 

6.  If  a  ball  makes  the  circuit  of  the 
board,  that  is,  from  c  on  one  side  to  c  on 
the  other,  the  player  loses  10. 

7.  If  a  ball  is  not  struck  with  sufficient 
force,  so  that,  instead  of  leaving  the  passage, 
it  returns  again  to  the  starting  point,  c,  the 
player  loses  10. 

8.  The  choice  of  first  player  is  decided  by 
the  highest  number  obtained  by  the  first 
throw,  the  winner  to  have  the  option  of 
scoring  the  number. 

9.  The  player  who  obtains  the  highest 
number  first,  wins  the  game. 


254 


FACTS  for  .everybody: 


TRANSFER  PAPER  (TO  MAKE). 
1.  Take  starch,  6  ounces;  gum  arabic,  2 
ounces;  aim  i,  1  ounce.  Make  a  Btrong 
solution  of  each  separately  in  hot  water. 
Mix,  and  apply  it  to  one  side  of  the  .leaves 
of  paper  while  warm,  by  means  of  a  clean 
painting-brush:  and  when  dry,  a  second 
and  a  third  coat  may  be  given;  lastly, 
press  it,  to  make  it  smooth. 

2.  Give  the  paper  three  coats  of  thin 
size,  one  coat  of  good  white  starch,  and 
one  coat  of  a  solution  of  gamboge  in 
water:  the  whole  to  be  applied  with  a 
sponge,  and  each  coat  to  be  allowed  to 
dry  before  the  other  is  applied.  The 
whole 'of  the  solutions  to  be  fresh  made. 

3.  (M.  Bregeaut's  recipe).  Take  of 
starch,  2  drachms ;  gum  arabic  in  powder, 
2  scruples ;  alum,  10  grains ;  yellow  berries 
pounded,  10  grains.  Some  hours  previous 
to  making  the  transfer-paper,  put  the  gum 
to  dissolve  in  water;  dissolve  the  alum 
separately,  and  make  the  starch  rather  thin, 
then  add  successively  the  gum  and  the 
alum,  stirring  well.  Boil  the  berries  well 
in  water,  strain,  and  add  the  residue  to  the 
mixture.  Apply  the  mixture  warm  to  the 
paper  (which  should  be  unsized),  by  means 
of  a  flat  brush :  when  a  sufficient  coating 
is  given,  the  paper  must  be  either  glazed, 
or  run  through  the  pres3,  the  yellow  face 
downwards,  on  a  clean  lithographic  stone. 

Before  writing,  the  paper  must  be  rubbed 
with  some  powdered  gum-sandarach,  to 
prevent  the  ink  spreading,  afterwards 
wipe  it  off  with  a  hare's-foot.  If  you 
have  any  difficulty  in  using  the  steel  pen, 
use  a  crow-quill  or  common  quill. 

WHITE  HOUSE-PAINT  (TO  MAKE 
ECONOMICAL).  Skim-milk,  two  quarts; 
fresh  slaked  lime,  eight  ounces ;  linseed-oil, 
six  ounces;  white  burgundy  pitch,  two 
ounces ;  Spanish  white,  three  pounds.  The 
lime  to  be  slaked  in  water,  exposed  to  the 
air,  mixed  in  about  one-fourth  of  the  milk ; 
the  oil  in  which  the  pitch  is  previously  dis- 
solved to  be  added  a  little  at  a  time  ;  then 
the  rest  of  the  milk,  and  afterwards  the 
Spanish  white.  This  quantity  is  sufficient 
for  twenty-seven  square  yards,  two  coats, 
and  the  expense  not  more  than  tenpence. 

TOETOISESHELL  (TO  MEND).  Bring 
the  edges  of  the  pieces  to  fit  each  other,  ob- 
serving to  give  the  same  inclination  of  grain 
to  each ;  then  secure  them  in  a  piece  of 
paper,  and  place  them  between  hot  irons  or 
nincers ;  apply  pressure,  and  let  them  cool. 
I'ake  care  that  the  heat  is  not  too  great,  or 
it  will  burn  the  shell. 

TULIP  (CULTIVATION  OF  THE). 
The  tulip  is  a  native  of  Persia,  and  was  first 


introduced  into  Europe  at  Constantinople, 
where  it  was,  and  still  is,  a  great  favourite 
with  the  worshippers  of  Allah.  In  1554, 
Auger  Gislem  Busbec,  better  known  aa 
Busbequis,  being  at  the  Porte  as  ambassador 
from  Ferdinand  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
procured  some  seeds  and  bulbs,  which  he 
transmitted  to  Vienna,  with  the  remark 
that  "  the  Turks  charged  a  high  price  for 
them."  Several  amusing  stories  are  related 
about  these  bulbs ;  how  they  were  at  first 
eaten  as  onions,  but  found  unpalateable ; 
how  they  were  then  made  into  a  conserve 
with  sugar,  but  their  flavour  not  improved ; 
and  how,  at  last,  being  thrown  out  on  a 
manure-heap,  as  worthless,  a  few  bloomed, 
revealing  the  true  use  of  the  plant.  This 
was  its  first  introduction  into  "Western 
Europe. 

In  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury occurred  that  remarkable  historical 
episode,  the  "  tulipomania."  It  commenced 
in  Holland,  from  thence  it  spread  to  France ; 
and,  no  doubt,  would  have  invaded  England 
if  the  inhabitants  of  that  country  had  not 
been  fully  engaged  with  the  more  sanguinary 
mania  of  civil  war. 

The  peculiar  habit  of  the  tulip  not 
permitting  it  to  be  freely  and  quickly 
propagated,  is  no  doubt  the  reason  why 
some  particular  varieties  have  been  so 
highly  esteemed.  From  the  time  of  sowing 
the  seed,  five  years  at  least  must  elapse 
before  the  flower  appears,  and  this  first 
bloom  is  almost  invariably  a  self,  or  mere 
ground  colour.  In  this  state  the  plant  is 
termed  a  breeder;  and  when  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years,  more  or  less,  the  petals 
become  striped  and' variegated,  it  is  then 
termed  broken. 

There  are  two  species  of  tulips  extensively 
cultivated  in  America — the  earliest  of  which 
is  the  Van  Thol.  The  late-flowering  variety 
is  the  garden  tulip — the  T.  Gesncriana,  the 
prize  flower  and  tulip  par  excellence.  Our 
florists  divide  this  species  into  three  classes, 
viz.,  roses,  byblomens,  and  bizarres.  The 
roses  are  marked  by  crimson,  pink,  scarlet, 
or  cherry-colour,  on  a  white  ground.  The 
byblomehs  are  marked  with  black,  lilac,  or 
purple  on  a  white  ground.  The  bizarres 
are  marked  with  purple  or  red,  on  a  yellow 
ground.  These  clashes  are  still  further 
divided  into  Ranted  and  feathered.  A  flamed 
tulip  is  one  that  has  a  dark-pointed  spat, 
somewhat  in  shape  like  the  flame  of  a 
candle,  in  the  centre  of  each  sepal.  Though 
it  has  become  almost  conventional  among 
amateurs  and  gardeners  to  speak,  and  write 
too,  of  a  tulip's  petal,  yet  the  word  is  a  gross 
botanical  misnomer.      A  tulip  has  neither 


A   MISCELLANT  OP  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


255 


oorolla  nor  petal,  but  merely  a  calyx  of 
coloured  sepals.  A  feathered  tulip  has  a 
dark-coloured  edge  round  it,  gradually 
becoming  lighter  on  the  margin  next  the 
centre  of  the  sepal;  the  feathering  is  said 
to  be  tight*  if  narrow  ;  heavy,  if  broad  ;  and 
irregular )  if  its  inner  edge  has  a  broken 
outline.  In  some  instances  a  tulip  may  be 
both  feathered  and  flamed. 

To  display  tulips  to  the  best  advantage, 
they  must  be  grown  in  beds,  situated  in  an 
open,  airy  part  of  the  garden.  The  exact 
size  of  a  oed  is,  as  the  reader  will  presently 
see,  easily  determined  by  the  number  of 
plants  it  is  intended  to  contain.  The  re- 
quired dimensions  being  marked  out,  the 
soil  should  be  removed  to  the  depth  of  twenty 
inches:  and  a  layer  of  sound  fresh  loam, 
ten  inches  thick,  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the 
excavation.  Over  the  loam  must  be  laid 
twelve  inches  in  depth  of  thoroughly  rotten 
two -year-old  cow-manure ;  and  over  this 
last,  another  layer  of  loam,  two  inches  deep 
at  the  sides  and  three  in  the  centre,  thus 
leaving  the  surface  slightly  convex.  The 
bed  should  be  prepared  in  the  beginning  of 
October,  so  as  to  allow  it  to  settle  before  the 
time  of  planting,  which  is  from  the  first  to 
the  tenth  of  November;  and  at  this  time 
the  bed  will  be  about  two  inches  higher  than 
the  circumjacent  walks. 

Mr.  Groom,  of  England  one  of  the  first 
tulip-growers  in  the  world,  and  who,  no 
doubt,  possesses  the  best  collection  extant — 
the  Dutch  having  completely  lost  their 
pre-eminence  in  the  finer  varieties — culti- 
vates these  plants  in  beds  of  four  feet  in 
width.  When  the  bed  is  ready  to  receive 
the  bulbs,  its  surface  is  brought  to  an  accu- 
rate convex  curve,  by  means  of  a  piece  of 
board,  in  the  required  form,  termed  a  strike. 
This  being  done,  the  places  of  each  and 
every  bulb  are  exactly  marked  by  the  same 
implement,  which  is  divided  into  eight 
spaces  of  six  inches  each.  On  the  flat  side 
of  the  strike,  at  the  marks  between  the 
spaces,  are  small  staples  which  receive  seven 
small  peg- ;  fliese,  when  the  strike  is  laid 
across  the  bed,  mark  the  places  for  one  row 
of  bulbs.  From  this  first  row,  which  is  six 
inches  from  one  end  of  the  bed,  six  inches 
are  measured  at  each  side,  and  the  strike 
being  again  laid  over  the  bed  at  the  termi- 
nation of  these  measurements,  gives  the 
places  of  the  plants  in  the  next  row — the 
same  method  being  continued  till  every 
place  is  accurately  determined.  From  the 
foregoing,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  are 
seven  bulbs  in  each  row  across  the  bed  ; 
that  each  bulb  is  six  inches  apart,  every 
Wj  v    from  another ;  and  that  the  side  and 


end  ones  are  six  inches  from  the  edge  of  the 
bed — the  length  of  the  bed  depending  v.yon 
the  number  of  bulbs  the  grower  possesses, 
or  chooses  to  plant  in  it ;  a  bed  twenty -live 
feet  in  length  is  said  to  have  the  most 
brilliant  effect.  The  places  for  the  bulbs 
having  been  thus  found,  a  little  clean  sand 
should  be  sprinkled  on  each  position,  the 
bulb  placed  on  it,  and  a  little  very  sandy 
earth  put  over,  so  as  to  envelope  each  bulb 
in  a  cone.  The  bed  should  then  be  covered 
with  a  sound,  fresh  loam,  and  the  surface* 
smoothed  off  with  the  back  of  the  strike, 
which  for  this  purpose  is  formed  with  a 
curve  and  shoulders ;  the  former  taking  in 
the  breadth  of  the  bed,  while  the  latter 
slides  against  boards  placed  at  each  side ; 
the  whole  moved  onwards,  takes  off  the 
redundant  soil,  leaving  the  surface  regularly 
rounded,  the  centre  being  six  inches  higher 
than  at  the  sides.  The  tallest-growing 
flowers  must  be  placed  in  the  centre;  the 
nearest  in  size  next,  and  so  decreasing  in 
height,  the  shortest  are  placed  at  the  sides.. 
The  convexity  of  surface  permits  the  bulbs 
to  be  covered  with  a  depth  of  soil  pro- 
portionate to  the  size  of  the  plant.  No 
tulip  bulb,  however  strong  the  plant  may 
be,  should  bq  covered  by  more  than  four 
inches  of  soil,  measuring  from  its  upper 
part ;  nor  should  it  be  buried  less  than  two 
inches,  however  small  or  weak  it  may  be. 

It  is  a  most  important  object  to  arrange 
the  bulbs  in  the  bed,  so  that  when  in  bloom 
the  plants  will  make  the  greatest  possible 
display. 

If  symptoms  of  frost  appear  after  the 
bulbs  are  planted,  the  bed  must  be  covered 
with  fern,  straw,  or  other  similar  protection; 
for  though  the  tulip  can  scarcely  be  de- 
stroyed by  the  most  rigorous  frost  known  in 
this  climate,  yet  a  short  exposure  to  even  a 
slight  congelation  will  injure  the  bulb,  and 
it",  effects  will  be  plainly  apparent  in  the 
blooming  season  by  the  split  discoloured 
sepals,  and  other  imperfections  of  the  flower. 
When  the  plants  appear  above  ground,  the 
protecting  material  must  be  removed,  the 
surface  of  the  soil  slightly  stirred,  and  a 
covering  of  hoops  and  mats,  or  waterproof 
transparent  cloth,  which  is  much  better, 
placed  over  the  bed,  as  heavy  rain,  hail,  or 
frost,  are  equally  injurious ;  air  and  light, 
however,  must  be  ireely  admitted  on  all 
favourable  occasions.  In  March,  the  bed 
should  be  again  stirred,  and  the  soil  drawn 
close  to  the  stems  of  the  plants.  The  cover- 
ing should  be  removed  on  fine  days  only, 
until  about  the  latter  end  of  April,  when  it 
must  be  taken  away  altogether  to  make 
room  for  the  top -cloth  or  awning,  which 


156 


TACTS   FOR  EVERYBODY! 


should  then  "be  erected  oyer  the  hed.  A 
cheap  and  simple  awning,  consisting  of  a 
few  uprights  and  rafters,  and  a  piece  of 
canvas,  may  be  erected  by  any  one  possess- 
ing the  minutest  development  of  the  organ 
of  constructiveness ;  the  subjoined  figure, 
which  we  trust  requires  but  little  explana- 
tion, is  intended  to  represent 


f^TT 

n — 

n 

€~L  m 

i 

1 

J 

'""*.* 
,i// 

-774 

i — 

An  Economical  Awning. 

The  canvas  is  fastened  along  the  ridge  a  a, 
and  should  be  long  enough  to  reach  down 
to  the  ground.  A  roller,  b  b,  is  fixed  to  the 
lower  edge  of  the  canvas,  and  a  cord  attached 
to  the  ridge  is  brought  down  under  the 
canvas,  round  the  roller,  and  up  over  the 
canvas  to  a  pulley  at  e  ;  so  that  by  pulling 
or  slackening  the  cord  d,  the  canvas  is  rolled 
up  or  let  down.  On  the  other  side  of  the 
frame  there  is  also  another  cord,  canvas, 
roller,  and  pulley,  used  in  the  same  manner, 
and  for  the  same  purpose.  The  blooming  sea- 
son draws  on  apace  in  May,  and  from  the 
moment  that  the  flowers  commence  to  show 
colour,  neither  sunshine  nor  rain  must  be 
allowed  to  fall  upon  them.  Still,  a  free  cir- 
culation of  air  must  be  constantly  kept  up, 
and  therefore  the  canvas  should  not  be  let 
down  close  to  the  ground  except  in  windy 
weather,  which  is  exceedingly  prejudicial 
to  the  flowers;  then  the  canvas  should  be 
let  down  close  on  the  windy  side.  If  any 
bulbs  have  perished,  or  failed  to  produce 
bloom — a  great  eyesore  in  a  bed — the  de- 
ficiency may  be  supplied  by  transplanting 
others  with  the  transplanter  (see  p.  141). 

During  the  time  that  the  flowers  are  in 
bloom,  each  one  should  be  particularly 
examined,  tulip-book  in  hand,  and  memo- 
randa made  according  to  their  individual 
and  general  appearance.  As  soon  as  the 
bloom  commences  to  fade,  the  awning 
should  be  removed,  and  the  plants  exposed 
to  the  full  influence  of  the  sun  and  air. 
When  the  sepals  drop,  the  seed-pods  should 
l»e  picked  off;  and  about  the  end  of  June, 
or  beginning  of  July,  when  the  foliage  has 
turned  yellow  and  shrivelled,  the  bulbs  may 
be  taken  up,  the  offsets  separated  from  them, 
and  the  stems  out  off  with  a  sharp  knife, 


about  half  an  inch  from  the  bulbs,  and  the 
latter  put  in  drawers  placed  in  the  shade, 
there  to  dry  and  harden. 

In  August  the  bulbs  should  be  cleaned 
free  from  dirt;  their  skins  and  the  bit  of 
stem  adhering  to  them  taken  away:  each 
one  placed  in  its  own  division  of  the  drawer, 
and  the  drawers  placed  in  the  cabinet. 
About  this  time,  too,  the  compost  should  be 
thrown  out  of  the  bed,  and  the  fresh  com 
post  for  next  season  carefully  turned  ove 
and  searched,  for  those  destructive  pests,  tht 
wire-worm  and  grub.  In  September,  the 
bed  may  be  planned  and  arranged  in  the 
drawers.  In  October  the  offsets  should  be 
planted  out  in  the  reserve  garden.  Choose 
a  dry,  airy  situation;  the  soil  should  be 
fresh  sandy  loam,  with  a  little  rotten  cow- 
manure,  placed  from  seven  to  twelve  inchea 
beneath  the  surface.  The  beds  should  be 
raised  six  or  eight  inches  above  the  alleys, 
formed  rather  convex  on  the  surface,  and 
provided  with  hoops  and  mats,  to  use  as 
occasion  may  require,  as  protection  from 
heavy  rains,  hail,  and  frost.  Tulips  never 
require  to  be  artificially  watered,  even  in 
the  driest  seasons,  at  any  period  from  plant- 
ing to  taking  up.  At  the  same  time  mo- 
derate, gentle  showers  in  spring,  before  the 
flowers  appear,  are  most  beneficial  to  the 
plants,  and  at  such  times  the  covers  should 
be  removed. 


Tulipa  Gesneriana,  var.— Duke  of  Sutherland, 
(a  Bizarre), 

The  tyro,  when  purchasing  bulbs,  should 
select  those  that  have  not  lost  the  brown 
skin — are  not  mouldy  nor  soft  at  the  root 
end,  and  are  full,  solid,  and  rather  pointed 
at  the  other. 


A  MISCELLANY   OF   USEFUL   KNOWLEDGES. 


257 


GHOUP  OV  MNCHB3. 


BULLFINCH  (THE).  Bullfinches  are 
permanent  residents  with  us ;  not  very 
plentiful  in  any  loeality.  They  may  be 
round  in  most  places  where  there  are  leafy 
coverts,  and  especially  near  fruit  gardens, 
to  which  they  do  much  mischief  by  picking 
the  buds  off*  the  trees.  The  gardeners  call 
them  "  pick-a-buds,"  and  wage  a  war  of 
extermination  against  them.  It  should  be 
remembered,  however,  that  these  birds  are 
great  insect-destroyers,  and,  perhaps,  do  as 
much  good  as  harm.  It  is,  indeed,  con- 
tended by  some  authorities  that  every  bud 
which  they  pick  off  envelopes  a  grub,  that 
being  the  object  sought  for,  and  that  alone 
eaten,  and  the  vegetable  covering  rejected. 
"We  cannot  say  whether  this  be  the  case  or 
not,  but  would  fain  give  our  friond  "bully" 
the  benefit  of  the  doubt. 

The  bullfinch's  nest  is  sometimes  found 
in  the  apple  or  some  other  fruit  tree  ;  it  is 
usually  at  a  considerable  height  from  the 
ground.  The  young  should  be  taken  early, 
if  they  are  to  be  taught  to  pipe,  or  imitate 
the  songs  of  other  birds.  Just  as  the  tail 
feathers  begin  to  appear,  that  is,  when  they 
aie  about  twelve  or  fourteen  days  old,  is 
perhaps  the  best  time.  Bolton  says  much 
younger,  but  we  think  this  injudicious,  for 
several  reasons.  The  best  food  for  the 
young  bird  is  crumbs  of  white  bread,  satu- 
rated with  boiling  milk,  and  mixed  with  an 
equal  quantity  of  soaked  and  bruised  rape- 
seed.  As  they  grow  up,  poppy  and  millet- 
seed,  sprouting  corn,  lettuce  and  water- 


cresses,  fruit  and  nuts,  should  be  given 
them;  they  may  also  have,  when  fully 
grown,  such  food  as  they  chiefly  take  when 
in  a  wild  state — viz.  fir  and  pine-seeds, 
most  berries  that  have  kernels,  buds  of  the 
beech,  maple,  oak,  and  other  trees,  and 
seeds  of  the  nettle,  and  any  of  the  oruciform 
plants.  The  young  males  may  be  distin- 
guished from  the  females  by  the  red  tinge 
on  the  breast ;  the  latter  can  be  taught  to 
pipe,  but  never  so  easily  and  so  well  as  the 
former,  and  they  are  never  such  handsome 
birds,  being  destitute  of  that  beautiful  car- 
mine tint  which  gives  such  warmth  and 
richness  to  the  plumage  of  the  cock  bull- 
finch. Bechstein  advises  that  the  young 
birds  should  have  buckwheat  grits,  6teeped 
in  milk,  and  mixed  with  rape-seed ;  and 
while  recommending  for  the  old  ones  hemp 


and  rape-seed,  says  that  they  live  longest  if 
fed  on  the  latter  oi.ly,  with  now  and  then  a 
little  plain  biscuit,    the  former  being  so 


253 


PACTS  FOB  everybody: 


heating  aa  sometimes  to  produce  blindness, 
and  bring  on  atrophy.  If  loose  in  the  room 
or  aviary,  they  will  do  very  well  on  the  food 
given  to  the  other  birds. 

Grown  bullfinches  are  easily  caught  by 
means  of  limed  twigs,  or  a  common  trap. 
In  spring  they  readily  answer  to  the  call  of 
the  decoy  bird,  or  even  a  gentle  "tui,  tui!" 
uttered  by  the  fowler.  In  autumn,  wild 
berries  will  perhaps  prove  the  most  effectual 
bait.  Birds  thus  caught  are  generally 
more  healthy,  and  attain  a  greater  age  than 
those  brought  up  in  confinement,  simply 
because  they  feed,  when  young,  upon  their 
natural  food,  and  are  not  weakened  by  the 
bits  of  sugar  and  other  delicacies  usually 
given  to  feathered  pets ;  under  any  circum- 
stances, however,  this  does  not  appear  to  be 
a  long-lived  bird,  eight  years  being  the 
maximum  age  attained  by  the  captive  bull- 
finch, which  more  commonly  does  not  live 
beyond  six.  Of  course  there  are  exceptions 
to  this,  as  to  all  other  rules,  but  they  are 
few. 

The  chief  maladies  to  which  bullfinches 
are  subjected  are,  constipation,  dysentery, 
epilepsy,  melancholy  (or  dejection).  in 
this  latter  state,  without  exhibiting  any 
particular  marks  of  disease,  they  sit  apart, 
mope,  and  refuse  to  sing ;  they  should  then 
be  fed  exclusively  on  steeped  rape-seed,  all 
delicacies  or  exciting  food  being  avoided; 
change  of  scene  is  good  for  them.  When 
moulting,  they  should  have  a  rusty  nail  in 
the  water,  and  good  nourishing  food,  in- 
cluding a  few  ant's  eggs,  if  they  can  be 
procured.  The  other  maladies  may  be 
treated  in  the  same  way  as  directed  for 
the  canary.     (See  p.  85.) 

.  CARVING.  How  often  is  a  well-spread 
dinner  disfigured  by  blundering  awkward 
carving.  It  is  a  duty  most  shun,  because 
most  are  unskilled  in  the  art.  Yet  one  of 
the  most  important  acquisitions  in  the  rou- 
tine of  daily  life  is  the  ability  to  carve  well, 
and  not  only  well  but  elegantly.  It  is  true 
that  the  modes  now  adopted  of  sending 
meats,  &c,  to  table,  are  fast  banishing  the 
necessity  for  promiscuous  carving  from  the 
richly-served  boards  of  the  wealthy ;  but  in 
the  circles  of  middle  life,  where  the  refine- 
ments of  cookery  are  not  adopted,  the  utility 
of  a  skill  in  the  use  of  a  carving-knife  is 
sufficiently  obvious. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  neces- 
sity for  this  acquirement  is  confined  to  the 
heads  of  families  alone,  it  is  as  important 
for  the  bachelor  visitor  to  be  familiar  with 
the  art  as  it  is  for  the  host  himself ;  indeed, 
he  is  singled  out  usually  for  the  task  of 
carving  a  side  dish,  which  happening  to  be 


poultry  of  some  kind,  becomes  a  task  most 
embarrassing  to  him,  if  he  should  happen 
to  be  ignorant  of  the  modus  operandi  of 
skilfully  dissecting  a  fowl.  Ladies  ought 
especially  to  make  carving  a  study  ;  at  their 
own  houses,  they  grace  the  table,  and 
should  be  enabled  to  perform  the  task 
allotted  to  them  with  sufficient  skill  to 
prevent  remark,  or  the  calling  forth  of 
eager  proffers  of  assistance  from  good- 
natured  visitors  near,  who  probably  could 
not  present  any  better  claim  to  a  neat  per- 
formance. 

Carving  presents  no  difficulties;  it  simply 
requires  knowledge.  All  displays  of  exer- 
tion or  violence  are  in  very  bad  taste ;  for  if 
not  proving  an  evidence  of  the  want  of 
ability  on  the  part  of  the  carver,  they  pre- 
sent a  very  strong  testimony  of  the  tough- 
ness of  a  joint  or  the  more  than  full  age  of 
a  bird  :  in  both  cases  they  should  be  avoided. 
A  good  knife  of  moderate  size,  sufficient 
length  of  handle,  and  very  sharp,  is  re- 
quisite ;  for  a  lady  it  should  be  light,  and 
smaller  than  that  used  by  gentlemen. 
Fowls  are  very  easily  carved;  and  joints, 
such  as  loins,  breasts,  fore-quarters,  &c, 
the  butcher  should  have  strict  injunctions 
to  separate  the  joints  well. 

The  dish  upon  which  the  article  to  be 
carved  is  placed  should  be  conveniently 
near  to  the  carver,  so  that  he  has  full  con- 
trol over  it ;  for  if  far  off,  nothing  can  pre- 
vent an  ungracefulness  of  appearance. 


In  serving  fish,  some  nicety  and  care 
must  be  exercised ;  here  lightness  of  hand 
and  dexterity  of  management  is  necessary, 
and  can  only  be  acquired  by  practice.  The 
flakes  which,  in  such  fish  as  salmon  and 
cod,  are  large,  should  not  be  broken  in 
serving,  for  the  beauty  of  the  fish  is  then 
destroyed,  and  the  appetite  for  it  injured. 
In  addition  to  the  skill  in  the  use  of  the 
knife,  there  is  also  required  another  de- 
scription of  knowledge,  and  that  is  an 
acquaintance  with  the  best  parts  of  the 
joint,  fowl,  or  fish  being  carved.  Thus,  in 
a  haunch  of  venison,  the  fat,  which  is  a 
favourite,  must  be  served  with  each  slice ; 
in  the  shoulder  of  mutton  there  are  some 
delicate  cuts  in  the  under  part.  The  breast 
and  wings  are  the  best  parts  of  a  fowrl ;  and 
the  trail  of  a  woodcock  on  a  toast  is  the 
choicest  part  of  the  bird.  In  fish  a  part  of 
the  roe,  melt,  or  liver  should  accompany 
the  piece  of  fish  served.  The  list,  however, 
is  too  numerous  to  mention  here  ;  and,  in- 
deed, the  knowledge  can  only  be  acquired 
by  experience.    In  large  establishments  the 


A    MISCELLANY  OF  USF.FTJL  KNOWLEDGE. 


25U 


gross  dishes  are  carved  at  the  buffet  by  the 
butler,  but  in  middle  society  they  are  placed 
upon  the  table. 

BOILED  TONGUE. 

Carve  across  the  tongue,  but  do  not  cut 
through;  keep  the  slices  rather  thin,  and 
help  the  fat  from  underneath. 

SUCKING  PIO. 


The  cook  should  send  a  roast  pig  to  table 
as  displayed  here,  garnished  with  head 
and  ears;  carve  the  joints  in  the  direction 
shown  by  the  lines  in  the  diagram,  then 
divide  the  ribs,  serve  with  plenty  of  sauce : 
should  one  of  the  joints  be  too  much,  it  may 
be  separated  :  bread  sauce  and  stuffing 
should  accompany  it.  An  ear  and  the  jaw 
are  favourite  parts  with  many  people. 

BOILED   BABBIT* 


Remove  the  legs  and  shoulders,  they  very 
easily  separate ;  divide  the  back  into  two 
parts,  and  by  holding  the  fork  firmly  in  the 
back,  and  passing  the  knife  underneath 
near  the  middle,  and  bending  it  back,  this 
is  accomplished  readily.  The  most  tender 
part  is  on  the  loins,  the  meat  there  is  of  a 
very  delicate  flavour;  liver  should  be 
helped  with  it. 

BOAST  TUBXEY. 


Poultry    requires    skilful    carving;    the 
requisites  are  grace  of  manner,  ease  in  the 


performance,  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the 
position  of  the  joints,  and  the  most  com- 
plete mode  of  dissecting,  so  as  to  obtain  the 
Largest  quantity  of  meat.  In  no  case  is  the 
ability  more  demanded  than  in  carving  a 
roast  turkey.  Unless  this  is  done  well,  there 
is  not  only  much  waste,  but  the  appearance 
of  the  turkey  is  spoiled.  You  will  com- 
mence by  carving  elices  from  each  side  of 
the  breast,  in  the  same  directions  as  the 
lines  marked  in  the  engraving,  cutting  from 
A  to  B.  Now  remove  the  legs,  dividing  the 
thighs  from  the  drumsticks ;  and  here  an 
instrument  termed  a  disjointer  will  be  found 
serviceable,  for  unless  the  turkey  be  very 
young,  and  the  union  of  the  joints  very 
accurately  taken,  dislocation  becomes  diffi- 
cult :  the  disjointer  effects  the  separation  at 
once,  and  it  possesses  also  the  advantages  of 
enabling  the  carver  to  divide  a  thigh  into 
two,  thus  permitting  a  less  bulky  portion  of 
a  part  much  esteemed  to  be  served.  The 
pinions  and  that  portion  of  the  body  re- 
moved with  it  are  always  a  delicacy,  and 
care  should  be  taken  to  carve  them  nicely ; 
the  joint  of  the  pinion  will  be  found  at  b. 
The  stuffing,  whether  truffles  or  whatever 
it  may  be  made  of,  you  will  obtain  by 
making  an  opening  at  c. 

BOILED  TUBXEY. 


Boiled  turkey  is  trussed  in  a  different 
fashion  to  the  roast,  but  the  same  directions 
given  for  the  first  applies  to  the  second. 
The  legs  in  the  boiled  turkey  being  drawn 
into  the  body  may  cause  some  little  difficulty 
at  first  in  their  separation,  but  a  little  prac- 
tice will  soon  surmount  it. 

TUEKEY  POULTS. 

Kefer  to  directions  for  carving  pheasants 

BOAST  FOWL. 

c 


This  operation  is  a  nice  and  skilful  one 


260 


to  perform ;  it  requires  both  observation  and 
practice.  Insert  the  knife  between  the 
legs  and  the  side,  press  back  the  leg  with 
blade  of  the  knife,  and  the  joint  will  dis- 
close itself :  if  young  it  will  part,  but  at 
best,  if  judiciously  managed,  will  require 
but  a  nick  where  the  joints  unite.  Remove 
your  wing  from  D  toB;  cut  through  and  lay 
it  back  as  with  the  leg,  separating  the  joint 
with  the  edge  of  your  knife;  remove  the 
merrythought  and  neck-bones  next;  this 
you  will  accomplish  by  inserting  the  knife 
and  forcing  it  under  the  bones,  raise  it,  and 
it  will  readily  separate  from  the  breast.  You 
■will  divide  the  breast  from  the  body  by 
cutting  through  the  small  ribs  down  to  the 
Tent,  turn  the  back  uppermost ;  now  put 
your  knife  into  about  the  centre  between 
the  neck  and  rump,  raise  the  lower  part 
firmly  yet  gently,  it  will  easily  separate, 
turn  the  neck  or  rump  from  you,  take  off 
the  side  bones,  and  the  fowl  is  carved. 

boiled  fowl  (breast) .  boiled  fowl  (back) . 


FACTS  FO-R  EVERYBODY : 


In  separating  the  thigh  from  the  drum- 
stick, you  must  insert  the  knife  exactly  at 
the  joint  we  have  indicated 
in  the  engraving;  this  how- 
ever will  be  found  to  re- 
quire practice,  for  the  joint 
must  be  accurately  hit,  or 
else  much  difficulty  will  be 
experienced  in  getting  the 
parts  asunder.  There  is 
no  difference  in  carving 
roast  and  boiled^  fowls,  if 
full  grown ;  but  in  a  very 
young  fowl,  when  roasted, 
the  breast  is  served  whole. 
The  wings  and  breast  are  in 
the  highest  favour,  but  the  leg  of  a  young 
fowl  is  an  excellent  part.  Capons,  when 
very  fine  and  roasted,  should  have  slice3 
carved  from  the  breast. 

ROAST  GOOSE. 

Follow  with  your  knife  the  lines  marked 
in  the  engraving,  a  to  n,  and  cut  slices ; 
then  remove  the  wing,  and  if  the  party  be 


large,  tba  legs  must  also  be  removed  ;  and 
here  the  disjoint er  will  again  prove  service- 


able. The  stuffing,  as  in  the  turkey,  will 
be  obtained  by  making  an  insertion  at  the 
aprcm  c. 

PHEASANT. 

Clear  the  leg  by  inserting  the  edge  of 
the  knife  between  it 
and  the  body,  then 
take  off  the  wings, 
B  to  A,  but  do  not 
remove  much  of  the 
breast  with  them  ; 
you  are  thus  enabled 
to  obtain  some  nice 
slices;  the  pheasant 
is  then  carved,  as  a 
fowl.  The  breast  is 
first  in  estimation, 
then  the  wings,  and 
after  these  the  merry- 
thought ;  lovers  of  game  prefer  a  leg. 

Guinea  Fowl  are  carved  in  the  same 
manner. 

PARTRIDGE. 

Separate  the  legs,   and  then  divide  the 
bird  into  three  parts,  leaving  each  leg  and 
^s.     #..         wing  together.     The 
breast  is  then  divi- 
ded from  the   back, 
and   helped     whole, 
the      latter      being 
assisted  with  any  of 
the  other  parts.  When 
Hk  the  party  consists  en- 
^tirely  of  gentlemen, 
_i^i  the  bird    is    divided 

into  two  by  cutting  right  through  from  the 
vent  to  the  neck. 

Quails,  Landrail,  Wheatears,  Larks, 
and  all  small  birds  are  served  whole. 

Grouse  and  Plover  are  carved  as  par- 
tridges. 

Snipe  and  Woodcock  are  divided  into 
two  parts;  the  trail  being  served  on  toast. 

Wild  Duck  and  Widgeon.  The  breast 
of  these  fowls  being  the  best  portion  is 
carvel  in  slices,  which  being  removed,  a 
glass  of  old  port,  made  hot,  is  poured  in ; 
the  half  of  a  lemon  seasoned  with  cayenne 
and  salt  should  then  be  squeezed  in,  the 


A  MISCELLANY  OP  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


201 


Bliccs  relnid  in  their  places,  and  then  served, 
the  joints  being  removed  the  same  as  in 
other  fowl. 


riGEON  (breast). 


(pigeon  back). 


Like  "Woodcock,  these  birds  are  cut  in 
half,  through  the  breast  and  back,  and 
helped. 


Trussing. — Run  a  skewer  through  the 
two  shoulders,  at  2;  another  through  the 
head  at  1,  or  pass  it  into  the  mouth  and 
through  the  body,  to  keep  the  head  in  its 
place ;  two  others  should  be  passed  through 
the  roots  of  the  ears,  to  keep  them  erect ; 
and  another  through  the  legs  at  3.  The 
inside  of  the  ears  should  be  singed  out  with 
a  hot  poker  before  roasting,  and  the  eyes 
extracted  with  a  fork.  Many  people  let 
a  hare  soak  in  cold  water  all  night  before 
trussing,  but  a  few  hours  is  quite  sufficient 
to  extract  the  blood. 

Carving. — Insert  the  point  of  the  knife 
inside  the  shoulder  at  6,  and  divide  all  the 
way  down  to  the  rump,  on  both  sides,  in 
the  line  6,  7,  8,  which  will  separate  the 
hare  into  three  pieces.  Sever  the  shoulders 
in  the  direction  of  5,  6,  7,  and  the  legs  in  a 
similar  manner;  as  the  latter  is  too  large 
for  one  person  in  a  large  hare,  it  should  be 
divided  from  the  thi^h.  Now  behead  it, 
cut  off  the  ears  close  to  the  roots,  and  di- 
vide the  upper  from  the  lower  jaw ;  then 
place  the  former  on  a  plate,  put  the  point 
of  the  knife  into  the  forehead,  and  divide 
it  through  the  centre  down  to  the  nose.  Cut 
the  back  into  several  small  pieces  in  the 
lines  9 — 10,  and  proceed  to  assist,  giving 
Borne  stuffing  (which  is  found  below  10) 
and  gravy  to  each  person.  This  can  only 
be  done  easily  when  the  animal  is  young ; 
12* 


if  old,  it  must  be  cut  up  as  follows:  Cut  off 
the  legs  and  shoulders  first,  and  then  cut 
out  long  narrow  slices  on  each  side  of  the 
back-bone  in  the  direction  7—8 ;  then  di- 
vide the  back-bone  into  three  or  more  parts, 
and  behead  the  hare  us  usual.  The  prime 
parts  are  the  back  and  legs;  the  ears  are 
considered  a  luxury  by  some,  and  60  are  the 
head,  brains,  and  bloody  parts  of  the  neck. 
The  best  part  of  the  leg  is  the  fleshy  part  of 
the  thigh  at  8 

RABBITS, 

Whether  for  roasting  or  boiling,  ara  trussed 
and  cut  up  the  same  as  a  hare,  except  that 
the  back  is  divided  into  two  or  three  parts, 
without  separating  it  from  the  belly.  The 
best  parts  are  the  shoulders  and  back  ;  the 
head  should  not  be  given  unless  asked  for. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  observe,  that  all 
printed  directions  must  fail  without  constant 
practice;  yet,  with  practice,  and  due  at- 
tention to  the  rules  we  have  laid  down,  we 
doubt  not  that  many  of  our  readers  will 
speedilv  become  good  carvers. 

NUTRITIOUS  FOOD.  The  following 
statement  shows  the  proportion  of  nutriment 
contained  in  various  articles  of  food: — 
Greens  and  turnips  contain  8  lbs.  in  the  100: 
carrots,  14  lbs.  in  the  100  ;  potatoes,  25  lbs. 
in  the  100;  butcher's  meat  sorted,  about 
35  lbs.  in  the  100  ;  wheaten  bread,  85  lba. 
in  the  100  ;  broad  beanc,  89  lbs.  in  the  100; 
peas,  92  lbs.  in  the  100 ;  lentils,  94  lbs.  in 
the  100;  French  beans  in  grain,  from  92  to 
94  lbs. 

GALL-NUTS.  The  gall-nuts  used  in 
making  ink  are  produced  by  the  insect 
which  punctures  the  leaves  of  a  species  of 
oak  very  common  in  Asia  Minor,  where  they 
are  collected  in  considerable  quantities  by 
the  poorer  inhabitants ;  from  the  different 
ports  of  the  Levant  they  are  exported  to 
various  parts  of  the  world.  The  galls  held 
in  the  greatest  estimation  are  those  known 
in  commerce  under  the  name  of  blue  galls. 
These  are  the  produce  of  the  first  gathering, 
before  the  fly  has  issued  from  the  gall. 

BIRDS  (RAPID  FLIGHT  OF).  A. 
vulture  can  fly  at  the  rate  of  150  miles 
an  hour.  Observations  made  on  the  coast 
of  Labrador  convinced  Major  Cartwright 
that  wild  geese  could  travel  at  the  rate 
of  90  miles  an  hour.  The  common  crow 
can  fly  25  miles ;  and  swallows,  according 
to  Spallanzi,  92  miles  an  hour.  It  is 
said  that  a  falcon  was  discovered  at  Malta 
twenty-four  hours  after  the  departure  of 
Henrv  IV.  from  Fontuinebleau.  If  true, 
this  bird  must  have  flown  for  24  hours  at 
the  rate  of  57  miles  an  hour,  not  allowing 
him  to  rest  a  moment  during  the  whole  time. 


PACTS  FOR  everybody: 


PAINTS  (TO  MIX).  In  mixing  paints, 
observe  that  for  out-door  work  you  must 
use  principally,  or  wholly,  boiled  oil,  unless 
it  be  for  the  decorative  parts  of  houses,  &c, 
then  mix  as  for  in-door  work.  For  in-door 
work  use  linseed- oil,  turpentine,  and  a  little 
" driers,"  observing,  that  the  less  oil,  the 
less  will  be  the  gloss ;  and  that  for  "flatted 
white,"  &c.,  the  colour,  being  ground  in 
oil,  will  scarcely  require  any  further  addi- 
tion of  that  article,  as  the  object  is  to  have 
it  dull.  The  best  "driers  are  ground 
litharge  and  sugar  of  lead ;  the  former  for 
dark  and  middle  tints,  and  the  latter  for 
light  ones.  (To  Remove  the  Smell  of  Paint, 
see  p.  35.) 

WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES. 

AVOIRDUPOISE  WEIGHT. 

16  Drams 1  ounce,  oz. 

16  Ounces 1  pound,  lb. 

14  Pounds 1  stone. 

28  Pounds 1  qr.  of  cwt. 

4  Qrs.  or  112  lbs.  ...     1  cwt. 
20  Cwt,  or  2240  lbs.     .    .    1  ton. 
19£  Cwt.  or  2184  lbs.   .    .    1  fother  of  lead. 
AH  coarse  and  heavy  goods,  subject  to 
waste,  are  weighed  by  this  weight. 

TROY  WEIGHT. 

4  Grains 1  carat. 

6  Carats  or  24  grs  .  .  .  1  pennyweight. 
20  Pennyweights  or  480  grs.  1  ounce,  oz. 

12  Ounces 1  pound. 

By  this  weight  are  weighed  Gold,  Silver, 
Jewels,  Amber,  Precious  Stones,  &c.  The 
proportion  of  a  pound  Troy  to  a  pound 
Avoirdupoise  is  as  14  to  17. — 14  oz.  11  dwts. 
16  grs.  Troy,  or  7000  grains,  are  equal  to  a 
pound  Avoirdupoise.  A  pound  Troy  con- 
tains 5760  grains. 

CLOTH  MEASURE. 

2\  Inches 1  nail 

4  Nails .  1  qr.  of  a  yard. 

3  Quarters 1  Flemish  ell. 

4  Quarters 1  yard,  or  36  in. 

5  Quarters 1  English  ell. 

6  Quarters 1  French  ell. 

The  English  Ell  is  used  in  Holland,  but 

most  articles  are  measured  by  the  Yard. 

CUBIC  MEASURE. 

1728  Cubic  inches 1  foot. 

27  Feet 1  yard. 

WOOL  "WEIGHT. 

7  Pounds 1  clove. 

2  Cloves,  or  14  lbs 1  stone. 

2  Stones,  or  28  lbs 1  tod. 

64  Tods,  or  182  lbs 1  wey. 

2'Weys,  or  364  lbs 1  sack. 

%  Sacks Hast. 

This  weight  is  used  for  wool  only. 


APOTHECARIES'   WEIGHT. 

20  Grains    ...    1  scruple,  20  grs.  Troy, 
3  Scruples.    .     .     1  drachm,  60       „    • 
8  Drachms     .    .     1  ounce,  480        „ 
12  Ounces   .    •     .     1  pound,  5760      „ 

Apothecaries  and  Chemists  use  this  weight 
in  compounding  medicines,  but  they  buy 
their  drugs  by  Avoirdupoise  weight.  The 
pound  and  ounce  are  the  same  as  in  Troy 
weight,  only  differently  divided  and  sub- 
divided 

DRY  MEASURE. 

2  Pint* 1  quart. 

2  Quarts,  or  4  Pints     .  1  pottle  or  \  peck. 

2  Pottles,  or  4  Quarts   .  1  gallon. 

2  Gallons 1  peck. 

4  Pecks,  or  8  Gallons    .  1  bushel. 

4  Bushels 1  coomb. 

2  Coombs,  or  8  Bushels  1  quarter. 

5  Quarters,  or  10  Coombs  )  ■•  __,_  _.  .     » 

or  40  Bushels.  j  1  wey,  or  load. 

2  Weys,  or  80  Bushels  .    1  last. 

Corn,  Fruit,  Oysters,  Seeds,  and  other 
dry  goods  are  measured  by  this  measure. 

HAY,  ETC. 

36  Pounds  ....  1  truss  of  straw. 

56  Pounds  ....  1  truss  of  hay. 

60  Pounds  ....  1  truss  of  new  hay. 

36  Trusses  ....  1  load. 

LONG  MEASURE. 

3  Barley-corns  in  length  1  inch 

4  Inches      ....    1  hand's  breadth. 
12  Inches      ....     1  foot. 

3  Feet 1  yard. 

5  Feet 1  pace. 

6  Feet  or  2  Yards  .     .     1  fathom. 

5£  Yards,  or  16*>  Feet    1  rod,  pole,  or  perch 

4  Rods,  or  22  Yards  .    1  chain  of  laud. 
40  Poles,  or  10  Chains    1  furlong. 

8  Furlongs, or  1760 Yds.  1  mile. 

3  Miles 1  league. 

60  Gcographical,or  69|  \  ,  j.>p.rpp 
English StatuteMiles  ) l  dtSree- 
This  table  refers  to  things  of  length  only. 

ALE  AND  BEER  MEASURE. 

2  Pints 1  quart. 

4  Quarts 1  gallon. 

9  Gallons 1  firkin. 

2  Firkins 1  kilderkin. 

2  Kilderkins 1  barrel 

54  Gallons 1  hogshead. 

108  Gallons 1  butt. 

SQUARE  MEASURE. 

144  Inches 1  foot. 

9  Feet 1  yard. 

30}  Yards 1  pole. 

40  Poles     .......  1  rood. 

4  Roods        ......  1  acre. 

30  Acres         ......  lyd.  of  land 

100  Acres    .......  lhide. 

640  Acres 1  mile. 


A   MlSCFLLANY   OF   USEFFL  KNOWLEDGE. 


263 


WINE  MEASURE. 

2  Pints 1  quart. 

4  Quarts        1  gallon. 

10  Gallons  of  brandy    .    .    .    1  anker. 

18  Gallons       , 1  runlet. 

42  Gallons      ...••.    1  tierce. 
G;>  Gallons       ......     1  hogshead. 

81  Gallons 1  puncheon. 

2  Hogsheads 1  pipe  or  butt 

2  Pipes 1  tun. 

paper. 
20  Sheets  .....     1  quire  of  outsides 

24  Sheets   .     •    •    .    .     1  quire  of  insides. 

25  Sheets  .    •    •    •    .    1  quire  of  Printers 
20  Quires  .    .    •    .    .    1  ream. 

2  Reams  .    •    •    .    .     1  bundle. 

10  Reams 1  bale. 

TIME. 

60  Seconds 1  minute. 

60  Minutes 1  hour. 

24  Hours 1  day. 

7  Davs 1  week. 

4  Weeks 1  month* 

13  Mouths  1  day  6  hours  .    1  year. 

365  Days 1  common  year 

366  Days 1  leap  year. 

100  Years 1  century. 

*A  Lunar  Month  contains  28  days,  being 
the  time  in  which  the  moon  revolves  round 
the  earth.  A  Solar  Month  is  the  space  of 
time  in  which  the  sun  passes  through  a  sign 
of  the  zodiac.  A  Solar  Year  is  generally 
reckoned  to  contain  365  days,  6  hours ;  but 
the  exact  time  in  which  the  earth  performs 
its  annual  revolution  round  the  sun  is  365 
days,  6  hours,  9  minutes,  and  11  seconds. 
Dividing  the  year  of  our  Lord  by  4,  we 
know  whether  or  not  it  is  leap-year,  by 
there  being,  or  not  being,  a  remainder. 
Thus,  1824  divided  by  4,  leaves  no  remainder 
and  is  therefore  leap-year.  The  year  1800 
was  an  exception,  and  so  will  be  1900,  a  day 
dropt  in  a  hundred  years  being  necessary  to 
keep  the  calculations  accurate.  In  the  year 
1582,  it  was  observed  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII., 
that  since  the  commencement  of  the  Julian 
calculation  of  365£  days  to  the  year,  it  had 
exceeded  the  true  time  10  days ;  and  there- 
fore he  ordered  10  days  to  be  taken  from  the 
calendar,  and  the  11th  of  March  to  be  ac- 
counted the  21st.  The  Pope's  edict  was 
generally  observed  by  the  nations  subject  to 
nis  authority,  but  the  Protestant  countries 
continued  the  use  of  the  Julian  reckoning, 
which  gave  rise  to  the  two  modes  of  compu- 
tation that  yet  prevail  in  Europe,  called  the 
old  style  and  new  style.  The  New  Style  was 
adopted  in  Britain,  by  Act  of  Parliament, 
in  the  year  1752,  when  the  1st  of  September 
was  called  the  12th.  Still  the  calendar, 
according  to  the  present  calculation,  will 


exceed  the  true  time  by  3  hours  in  every 
400  years. 

ROMAN   MONEY,    WEIGHTS,   AND  MEA8URE8. 

Money. — The  Romans,  like  other  ancient 
nations,  at  first  had  no  coined  money,  but 
either  exchanged  commodities  with  one 
another,  or  used  a  certain  weight  of  un- 
coined brass,  or  other  metal.  Hence  the 
names  which  indicated  certain  pieces  of 
money,  when  coin  came  to  be  used,  were 
the.  same  as  those  which  were  used  to  indi- 
cate weights. 

Brass  Coins.— The  first  brass  coin  that 
was  used  at  Rome  was  called  As,  made  in 
the  reign  of  Servius  Tullius;  and  being 
stamped  with  the  heads  of  oxen,  sheep, 
swine,  &c,  was  called  pecunia,  from  pecus. 
Hence  JEs*  brass,  is  often  put  for  monev ; 
JErarium,  for  treasury,  &c.  Sometime 
afterwards  the  stamp  was  changed,  and  on 
one  side  it  bore  the  figure  of  Janus ;  on  the 
other  the  beak  of  a  ship.  The  As  originally 
weighed  a  pound,  but  was  gradually  reduced, 
and  in  the  first  Punic  war,  Asses  were 
coined  of  only  two  ounces  in  weight ;  in  the 
second  Punic  war,  of  only  one  ounce  ;  and. 
in  the  year  of  the  city  563,  of  only  half  an 
ounce.  The  other  brass  coins  were  the 
Semissis,  the  Triens,  the  Quadrans  or 
Teruncius,  and  the  Sextans. 

The  As,  invalueof  ourmoney  }  aJa°$JJ™ 
Semissig    ....         half  an  As. 
Triens        ....        one-third. 
Quadrans,  or  Teruncius     .        one-fourth. 
Sextans     ....        one-sixth. 

Silver. — Silver  was  first  coined  in  the 
year  of  the  city  484,  five  years  before  the 
first  Punic  war:  the  impressions  upon 
which  were  usually,  on  one  side,  carriages 
drawn  by  two  or  four  beasts,  and  on  the 
reverse,  the  head  of  Roma,  with  a  helmet. 
On  some  were  stamped  the  figure  of  Victory. 
The  coins  of  silver  were  the  Sestertius 
Quinarius,  Denarius,  and  Centussis. 
Sestertius,  marked  L.L.S.  for  libra 

libra  semis,   or  by  abbreviation 

H.S.,  worth  2\  Asses,  or  in  our 

money .     .    0     2£ 

Quinarius,  marked  V,  worth  five 

A3ses 0     8 

Denarius,  marked  X,    worth  ten 

Asses 0   15} 

Centussis,  worth  ten  Denarii     .    .  $1    60 

Gold. — Gold  coin  was  first  struck  in  the 
year  of  the  city  546,  in  the  second  Punio 
war,  and  called  Aureus,  the  stamps  upon  it 
were  chiefly  the  images  of  the  Emperors. 
The  Aureus,  at  first,  was  equal  in  value  to 
25  Denarii,  or  100  Sestertii  j  or  in  our  money, 


2G4 


FACTS  FOE  EVERYBODY 


to  $3  98.  Soon  afterwards  it  was  de- 
based, and  under  the  later  Emperors  was 
worth  only  $3  70. 

Accounts  were  kept  in  Sestertii  and  Ses- 
tertia.  The  Sestertium  was  not  a  coin,  but 
a  shorter  expression  for  1000  Sestertii,  or  in 
our  money    about  $40. 

AVe  find  also  mentioned  the  Libra,  con- 
taining 12  oz.  of  silver,  worth  $15,  and  the 
Talentum,  worth  about  $965. 

Besides  the  ordiuary  coins,  there  were 
various  medals  struck  to  commemorate  im- 
portant events,  properly  called  Medallions ; 
for  what  we  commonly  term  Roman  medals 
were  their  current  money. 

MEASURES   OF  LENGTH. 

The  Roman  measures  of  length  or  dis- 
tance were  feet,  cubits,  paces,  stadia,  and 
miles. 
Foot  .    .    .    .    .    .    0       0       0      12 

Cubit 0       0       1       6 

Passus,  or  Pace    .     .    0        0        6        0 

Stadium,  or  Furlong      0    208        3        0 

8  Stadia,  or  1000  Paces  10        0        0 

The  Roman  Acre  contained  240  feet  in 

length,  and  120  in  breadth,  that  is,  28,800 

square  feet. 

WEIGHTS. 

The  chief  weight  among  the  Romans  was 
the  As,  or  Libra,  a  pound,  equal  in  English 
Troy  weight  to  10  oz.  18  dwt.  13  grs. ;  this 
Libra  was  divided  into  12  parts,  tJnciae 
(ounces),  and  these  Uncise  into  several  less 
weights. 

MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY. 

The  most  common  measure  of  capacity 
was  the  Amphora,  called  also  Quadrantal 
or  Cadus,  containing  nearly  9  English 
gallons.  They  had  also  a  measure  called 
Congius,  equal  to  &  of  an  Amphora,  or  lg  of 
a  gallon  English ;  and  another  called  Sex- 
tarius,  equal  to  £  of  the  Congius,  or  about 
a  pint  and  a  half. 

ROMAN  DIVISION  OF  TIME. 

Romulus  is  said  to  have  divided  the  year 
into  ten  months,  beginning  with  March; 
Numa  added  the  other  two  months.  "When 
Julius  Csesar  became  master  of  the  State,  he 
adjusted  the  year  according  to  the  course 
of  the  sun,  and  assigned  to  each  month  the 
number  of  days  which  it  still  contains. 
This  is  the  famous  Julian  Tear  which  con- 
tinues in  use  to  this  day  in  all  Christian 
countries,  without  any  variation,  except 
that  of  the  Old  and  New  Style,  occasioned 
by  Pope  Gregory,   A.  D.  1582. 

The  Romans  divided  their  months  into 
three  parts,  by  Calends,  Ides,  and  Nones. 
The  1st  day  was  called  the  Calends,  the  5th 


day  the  Nones,  and  the  13th  the  Ides ;  except 
in  March,  May,  July,  and  October,  when 
the  Nones  fell  on  the  7th,  and  the  Ides  on 
the  loth. 

The  custom  of  dividing  time  into  weeks 
was  introduced  under  the  Emperors,  being 
derived  from  the  Egyptians ;  and  the  days 
of  the  week  were  named  from  the  planets, 
•viz.: — 

Dies  Solis  Sunday 

Luna?  Monday 

Martis  ^  Tuesday 

Mercurii  Wednesday 

Jovis  Thursday 

Veneris  Friday 

Saturni  Saturday. 

In  marking  the  days,  they  counted  back- 
wards; thus  they  called  the  last  day  of 
December,  Pridie  Calendas  Jamiarii,  or  the 
day  before  the  Calends  of  January :  the  30th 
day  they  called  the  3rd  day  before  the 
Calends  of  January ;  and  so  on  through  the 
year. 

In  leap-year  the  24th  and  25th  days  of 
February  were  both  called  the  6th  day 
before  the  Calends  of  March,  and  hence  this 
year  is  called  Bissextilis. 

The  day,  as  with  us,  was  divided  into  12 
hours,  and  lasted  from  six  o'clock  in  the 
morning  till  six  in  the  evening.  The  night 
was  divided  into  four  watches,  each  consist- 
ing of  three  hours. 

The  Romans  had  no  clocks  or  watches, 
and  the  first  dial  is  said  to  have  been 
erected  in  Rome  so  late  as  447  years  after 
the  building  of  the  city. 

Tables  of  Weights  and  Measures  mentioned 
in  Scripture. 

MEASURES  OF  LENGTH. 

m.  yds.  ft.  in.  d.e. 

A  Finger  ....       0     0  0  0  2£ 

AHandbreadtk     .       0     0  0  3  If 

A  Span      ....       0     0  0  10  2\ 

A  Cubit     ....       0     0  1  9  2h 

A  Fathom.     ...       0     2  1  3  \\ 

Ezekiel's  reed    .    .       0     3  0  0  0 

Do.  according  to  others  0     3  1  11  0| 

The  Measuring  Line      0    48  1  11  0 

A  Stadium  or  Furlong    0  243  0|   0  0 

A  Sabbath-day's  Journeyl216  0  0  0 

The  Eastern  Mile  .       1  672  0  0  0 

A  Day's  Journey    .      33  288  0  0  0 

LIQUID  MEASURE. 

gals.  qts.  pts. 

The  Log 0  0  Of 

The  Firkin  or  Metretes   .       0  3  '  l| 

The  Hin 1  1  0 

The  Bath 7  2  O* 

The  Homer,  or  Cor    .    .      75  2  l| 


A  MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


2G5 


The  Cab 
The  Ome:  . 
The  Seah  . 
The  Ephah  . 
The  Lethech 
Tho  Homer  . 


DRY  MEASURE. 

bush.  pks.  pts. 
....        0        0        2J 


WEIGHTS. 

lbs.  oz.  dwts.  gr. 

A  Shekel 0     0  9       2\ 

AManeh 2     3  6    10 

A  Talent 113  10  1    10 

MONEY. 


$ 

Gts. 

A  Gcrah     .    •    •    .    • 

2 

A  Zuzah     .    •    •    •    • 

12 

ABekuh 

25 

A  Shekel  (Silver)    .    . 

50 

Golden  Doric,  or  Dram"  , 

\                 5 

18 

A  Shekel  of  Gold      .     . 

9 

00 

A  Maneh  or  Mina    .    . 

29 

50 

A  Talent  of  Silver   .    . 

1,707 

00 

A  Talent  of  Gold      .    . 

27,320 

00 

THE  JEWISH  METHOD  OF  RECKONING  TIME. 

The  day,  reckoning  from  sun-rise,  and 
the  night,  reckoning  from  sun-set,  were  each 
divided  into  12  equal  parts,  called  the  1st, 
2nd,  3rd,  4th,  &c,  hours. 

THE  WATCHES. 

The  First  Watch  was  from  sun-set  to  the 
third  hour  of  the  night.  The  Second,  or 
Middle  Watch,  was  from  the  third  hour  to 
the  sixth.  The  Third  Watch,  or  Coekcrow- 
ing,  was  from  the  sixth  hour  to  the  ninth. 
The  Fourth,  or  Morning  Watch,  was  from 
the  ninth  hour  to  sun-rise. 

MILK.  Milk  consists  of  water  holding 
in  solution  casein  or  cheese,  sugar  of  milk, 
various  salts,  and,  in  suspension,  fatty 
matter  in  the  form  of  myriads  of  semi- 
opaque  globules,  to  which  the  colour  and 
opacity  of  milk  is  due. 

Skim-milk,  butter-milk,  cream,  butter, 
curd3  and  whey,  cream-cheese,  and  ordi- 
nary cheese,  are  mere  modifications  of 
milk,  differing  only  from  each  other  either 
in  the  abstraction  of  one  or  more  of  its 
constituents,  or  else  in  the  variation  of  their 
proportions. 

Butter  differs  little  from  cream,  but  is 
more  completely  separated  from  the  sugar, 
cheese,  and  salts  ;  and  the  fat  globules 
in  place  of  being  free  and  distinct  have 
all  run  together,  so  as  to  form  a  semi-solid 
substance. 

Cheese  is  made  from  skim-milk,  entire 
milk,  or  cream:  it  consists  of  the  casein 
and  butter.     The    cheese   prepared   from 


skim-milk  containing  the  smallest  quantity 
of  butter;  that  from  entire  milk,  as  Clu  shire 
( hi  esc,  .i  larger  quantity  ;  and  that  from 
cream,  as  Stilton  cheese,  the  most  of  all. 

Now,  although  the  casein  and  sugar  of 
milk,  as  well  as  the  butter,  vary  in  quantity 
in  different  cases,  yet  ordinarily  tho 
quality  of  milk  is  estimated  by  the  amount 
of  cream  which  it  yields. 

For  the  determination  of  tho  quality  of 
milk  it  is,  however,  requisite  not  only  to 
ascertain  the  amount  of  cream  which  it 
yields,  but  also  to  take  the  specific  gravity 
or  density  of  the  milk. 

In  estimating  the  specific  gravity  of 
any  liquid,  distilled  water  is  taken  as  tho 
standard,  being  reckoned  at  1,000.  Now 
milk,  holding  as  it  does  in  solution  a  large 
quantity  of  sugar,  casein,  and  salts,  is  of 
course  much  heavier  than  water ;  and  it  is 
stated  that  milk  of  good  quality  should 
have  a  specific  gravity  of  about  1,031.  But 
milk,  as  we  have  seen,  contains  also  a 
large  proportion  of  fatty  matter,  and  which, 
being  much  lighter  than  distilled  water, 
serves  when  equally  suspended  through  the 
fluid,  to  decrease  its  density.  The  larger 
therefore  the  quantity  of  cream,  the  lower 
will  be  the  specific  gravity — some  milks, 
owing  to  the  large  quantity  of  cream  con- 
tained in  them,  possessing  a  density  of  only 
1,020,  or  even  less. 

We  have  said  that  the  butter  is  suspended 
in  milk  in  the  form  of  innumerable  drop- 
lets of  various  sizes ;  in  rich  milk,  these 
are  particularly  abundant,  so  that  when 
a  drop  of  such  milk  is  viewed  under  an 
object-glass  of  high  magnifying  power,  the 
field  is  crowded  with  myriads  of  these 
globules,  as  shown  in  fig.  1. 


Fig.  L— Good  Milk. 


266' 


facts  ron  eteetbodt: 


In  an  impoverished  milk,  the  globules 
■will  be  smaller  in  size  and  fewer,  and  the 
field  of  vision  will  present  the  appearance 
of  fig.  2 


Fig.  2.-Poor  Milk. 
"When  curd  of  milk  is  examined  under 
the  microscope,  the  butter  is  still  seen  as 
droplets  of  fat,  and  the  cheese  as  a  granular 
substance  of  a  yellowish  colour.     See  fi 


£fc 


So  ?^t«l|^^»  *** 


Fig.  3.— Curd  of  Milk. 

Of  all  articles  of  food,  none  is  so  much 
adulterated  as  milk.  We  find  different 
■writers  naming  a  variety  of  ingredients 
as  commonly  employed  in  the  adulteration 
of  it— amongst  which  may  be  mentioned 
■flour,  milk  of  almonds,  gum  arabic,  gum 
tragacanth,  chalk,  turmeric  carbonate  of 
socfa,  sugar,  emulsion  of  hemp-seed,  and 
sheep  and  horses'  brains,  rubbed  up  with 
■water  into  an  emulsion. 

HAIR  (THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE). 
1.  Hair  is  found  to  grow  on  all  parts  of  the 


surface  of  the  body,  except  the  palms  cf 
the  hands  and  the  soles-«f  the  feet. 

2.  The  hair  differs  considerably  in  length, 
thickness,  shape,  and  colour;  according  to 
situation,  race,  family,  sex,  and  age. 

3.  As  hair  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  it  is 
obviously  one  of  the  most  appropriate  cover- 
ings for  the  bodies  of  animals,  or  the  head 
of  man,  because  heat  escapes  very  slowly 
through  it.  The  surface  of  the  body  is 
protected  from  the  influence  of  excessive 
heat,  moisture,  and  electricity,  by  means  of 
the  hair. 

4.  "The  hair,"  says  Mr.  Paget,  the  emi- 
nent anatomist,  "in  its  constant  growth, 
serves,  over  and  above  its  local  purposes, 
for  the  advantage  of  the  whole  body,  in 
that,  as  it  grows,  it  removes,  from  the  blood 
the  bisulphide  of  protein  and  other  consti- 
tuents of  its  substance,  which  are  thus  ex- 
creted from  the  body."  It  is  therefore 
evident  that  the  hair  performs  an  important 
part  in  the  animal  economy.  It  has  been 
remarked  that  shaving  or  cutting  the  hair 
assists  in  the  removal  of  carbon  and  hy- 
drogen from  the  system  ;  consequently  long 
hair  is  injurious. 

5.  If  we  but 
look  at  the 
back  of  our 
hands  we  shall 
observe  the 
hair  issuing 
from  small  de- 
pressions in 
the  skin. 
These  depres- 
sions are  the 
orifices  of  the 
hair  -  follicles, 
which  extend 
to  various 
depths,  in  the 
corium,  and 
are  always 
lined  with 
cells  of  the 
same  kind  as 
those  found 
in  the  epi- 
dermis. 

6.  Here  is  a 
diagram  that 
will  explain 
how  the  hair  is  retained  in  the  skin,  an<! 
if  you  examine  it  attentively  you  will  be 
able  to  understand  the  relative  positions  or 
the  various  parts.  The  diagram  represent* 
a  section  of  the  human  scalp,  showing  the 
manner  in  which  the  hair  penetrates  i  t ; 
a,  is  the  hair-follicle ;  b,  the  hair  within  the 


Fig.l. 


A  MTSCELTANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


267 


i**# 


Fig.  2. 


follicle;  a,  the  epidermis;  d  d,  the  seba- 
ceous glands  opening  into  the  hair-follicle  ; 
e,  the  fattv  tissue,  with  the  cellular  tissue 
underneath  it,  in  which  the  base  of  the 
hair- follicle  is  embedded. 

7.    As  we   have  seen 
above,   the  sweat-glands 
are    connected  with  the 
hair  -  follicles ;    and,    in 
the  accompanying  figure, 
you  .  will    observe     that 
there  are    no  less  than 
six  of  these  glands  open- 
ing into  the  hair-follicle 
which    belongs    to   the 
beard. 
8.  The  shaft  of  the  hair  is  that  part 
■which  you  discern  above  the  surface  of  the 
skin  (fig.  1,  b)f  and  if  you  follow  it  into 
that  membrane,    you 
will   see    that   it   is 
lodged  in    a  fold    of 
what  is  termed  base- 
ment   membrane,    or 
its  follicle,  which  is 
larger  or  bulbous   at 
the  lower    part,  like 
the  hair  which  is  in- 
&    side  it.    The  accom- 

\ c  panying  diagram  will 

enable  you  to  undcr- 
/ —  *  stand  the  relative  po- 
Y  sitions  of  the  adjacent 

I  parts  to  the  hair. 

Fig  3.*  9.  The  hair-follicle 

is  merely  a  turning-in  of  the  skin,  so  as  to 
invest  the  hair,  and  its  inside  is  a  continua- 
tion of  the  epidermis ;  for  the  cells  are  of 
the  same  nature  (fig.  2,  c),  the  deeper  ones 
"being  somewhat  round,  while  the  superficial 
ones  are  flattened  and  scaly  (<?).  The  follicle 
is  kept  in  its  place  according  to  the  size  and 
strength  of  the  hair,  by  means  of  the  ad 
joining  tissues  (sec.  6,  fig.  1),  and  the  small 
vessels,  called  capillaries,  which  afford  ma- 
terials for  increase. 

10.  The  hair  grows  from  the  bottom  of 
the  follicle,  being  formed  by  the  secretions  of 
these  cells,  and  being  gradually  pushed  up- 
wards by  them,  so  as  to  increase  its  length. 

11.  As  the  cells  ascend  in  the  bulb  of  the 
hair,  they  become  larger  until  they  reach 
the  central  part — hence  the  increased  size 
of  the  bulb;  but  when  the  shaft  commences, 
the  cells  become  longer,  denser,  and,  in  fact, 
fibrous. 

•  Fig.  3.  a,  mass  of  cells  in  the  centre  of  the  hair, 
filled  with  pigment;  b,  basement  membrane  of  the 
hair  follicle;  c,  laver  of  epidermic  cells;  d,  Imbricated 
cells,  loaded  with  pigment  at  the  lower  par  ,  and  be- 
coming gradually  compressed  as  they  approach  the 
surface  of  the  skin ;  t.  layer  of  imbricate  a  cells. 


Fig.  4- 


12.  By  simply  crushing  the  hair,  we  are 
able  to  discern  its  fibrous  nature;  but  this 
may  be  more  readily  demonstrated  after  the 
hair  has  been  softened  by  maceration  in  an 
acid. 

13.  Hair  consists  of  a  cortical  or  fibrous 
homy  texture  which  invests  it,  and  a  me- 
dullary or  pith-like  substance,  which  is  ob- 
served on  the  inside. 

14.  The  cortex,  or  bark  of  the  hair,  is 
formed  by  a  single  layer  of  cells  being  im- 
bricated (fig.  2,  e)y  and  forming  a  thin  layer 
outside  the  fibrous  tissue  of  the  shaft.  These 
cells  overlap  each  other,  so  that  their  edges 

give  a  serrated  feel  and  ap- 
pearance to  the  hair.  If  you 
rub  your  finger  from  root  to 
point  over  a  hair,  and  then 
rub  it  backwards,  you  will 
find  that  its  surface  is  ser- 
rated; and,  if  the  hair  is 
very  large,  you  will  find  that  the  roughness 
is  greater, — because  there  is  usually  a  double 
series  of  imbrications  in  the  large  hairs. 

15.  If  we  make  a  longitudinal  section  of 
the  shaft  of  a  hair,  we  find  that  the  centre 

T.,rr,.,, «,.!#,,  is  made  up  of  a  series  of 
| ;.  $  i* i  |i|  cells,  filled  up  with  pigment, 
\  ■}  ii  and  contained  in  the  fibrous 
>  |  ipart  of  its  substance.     In 
$  J!  ( 'lif  I  or^er  t°  observe  this  appear- 
'    "  '  *  ance,  we  must  use  a  sharp 

Fig.  6.t  razor  to  make  the  section, 
and  a  magnifying  power  of  about  150  ;  but 
as  every  person  is  not  able  to  do  so,  we  have 
given  a  diagram  of  the  appearance  of  the 
longitudinal  section  of  the  hair. 

16.  If  we  take  a  hair,  and  cut  it  across 
with  a  sharp  razor,  so  as  to  make  a  very 

'-^^^v  thin  section  of  it — a  mere 

a0y*|/|p5»S.       shaving,   in  fact  —  we 

••H^./^^-f-v^     shall  observe  three  parts : 

first,  a  thin  varnish-like 

layer  of  flattened  cells; 

then  asetof  fibres,  which 

are  placed  further  apart 

Vig.O.t  as    they    approach    the 

centre,  which  is  dotted  here  and  there  with 

pigment-cells  in  some  hairs,  but  is  always 

loose,  and  looks  like  pith. 

17.  The  hair  varies  in  length  according 
to  situation,  sex,  and  race.  In  the  Kurilian 
race,  there  are  individuals  who  have  hair 
growing  down  the  back  and  covering  nearly 
the  whole  body.    The  average  length  of  the 

•  Fig.  4-  A  portion  of  hair  magnified  so  as  to  show 
the  imbrication  of  the  outside. 

t  Fig.  5.  Longitudinal  section  of  a  hair,  showing  the 
imbrication  of  the  cortex,  and  the  pigment  cells  in  the 
fibrous  part. 

t  Fig.  0.  Transverse  section  of  a  hair,  showing  tbj 
three  different  textures. 


268 


FACTS  FOE  EVERYBODY: 


beard  is  ten  inches,  but  some  men  have  had 
beards  that  swept  the  ground.  Women  have 
also  been  met  with  Avhose  hair  reached  to 
their  feet;  but  yet  the  ordinary  length  is 
only  from  twenty  to  forty  inches. 

18.  Colour  influences  its  texture:  thus 
flaxen  hair  is  said  to  be  the  finest,  and  black 
the  coarsest ;  and  as  hair  becomes  gray,  it 
becomes  coarser.  "VVithof,  a  German  anato- 
mist, states  that  a  square  inch  of  tbe  skin 
of  the  head  contains  598  black  hairs,  648 
chesnut  hairs,  and  728  flaxen  hairs. 

19.  The  colours  and  shades  of  the  human 
hair  are  very  numerous,  and  depend,  in  a 
measure,  upon  age,  climate,  and  race.  The 
following  table  will  give  some  idea  of  the 
varieties  caused  by  race  and  climatal  in- 
fluence:— 

Kace  or  Tribe.  Hair. 

Afghans    black. 

Arabs black    and   crisp,   with 

grizzly  beards. 

Armenians    dark. 

Berberincs,       or  )  ■,    ,         ,     ,         .     - . 
Nubians  of  the    dar?>  ,and  strQnSl7  f™- 

Nile    J     zled- 

Calif ornians black,  long,  very  strong, 

and  not  woolly. 
Chinese  &Indo-   J  thick,  coarse,  lank,  and 
Chinese   ....    |     l\^g     Wlth    8Canty 

Circassians    brown  or  black. 

Egyptians black  and  crisp. 

Endamenes  (  th!ck'  rouSh>  a?d  *in- 

(New  Guinea)   j      ™£Uy7xthout     hem* 

Esquimaux  coal  -  black,     straight, 

strong,  and  long  black. 

Ethiopian black  and  crisp. 

Greeks  black,  brown,  and  flaxen. 

Kamtsehatkans    ..black. 

Kurds     black. 

Kurilians  or  Ainos  very  black, 

Mantschoos brown. 

Mexicans thick,  black,  coarse,  and 

glossv;  beard  thin. 
Mongolians black,  stiff,  straight,  and 

sparing. 
Ossetines brown  or  light,  and  some  • 

times  red  beards. 
Patagonians lank  and  black;    beard 

scanty. 

Singhalese    black. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  with  respect  to  the 
colour  of  the  hair,  that  it  varies  with  the 
colour  of  the  iris,  or  coloured  part  of  the 
eye,  and  the  general  hue  of  the  skin.  It 
has  been  remarked,  and  with  more  degree 
of  truth  than  is  generally  believed,  that  the 
darker  the  hair  the  stronger  the  body,  and 
vice  versa. 


20.  The  difference  of  colour  in  human 
hair  appears  to  depend,  according  to  Vau- 
quelin,  on  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  pe- 
culiar oil.  He  states  that  black  hair  con- 
sists of, — 1.  An  animal  matter,  which  con- 
stitutes the  greater  part.  2.  A  white  con- 
crete oil,  in  small  quantity.  3.  Another  oil 
of  a  grayish-green  colour,  more  abundant 
than  the  former.  4.  Iron,  the  state  of  which 
in  the  hair  is  uncertain.  5.  A  minute  pro- 
portion of  oxide  of  manganese.  6.  Phos- 
phate of  lime.  7.  Carbonate  of  lime,  in 
very  small  quantity.  8.  Silex  and  sulphur, 
each  in  considerable  quantity. 

21.  Hair  is  remarkably  elastic  and  strong. 
A  single  hair  from  the  head  of  a  boy  only 
eight  years  of  age  supported  the  weight  of 
7 "812  grains;  and  one  from  the  head  of  a 
man  twenty-two  years  of  age  supported 
14-285  grains.  "Weber  states  that  a  hair  10 
inches  long  will  stretch  to  13  inches. 

HAIR  (MANAGEMENT  OP  THE). 
Pass  a  fine-tooth  comb,  at  regular  intervals 
every  twenty-four  hours,  through  the  hair, 
in  order  to  keep  it  from  matting  or  en- 
tangling ;  separate  the  hairs  carefully  and 
repeatedly,  so  as  to  allow  the  air  to  pass 
through  them  for  several  minutes;  use  a 
brush  that  will  serve  the  double  purpose 
of  cleansing  the  scalp  and  gently  stimu- 
lating the  hair-bulbs.  Before  going  to 
bed,  it  will  be  desirable  to  part  the  hair 
evenly,  so  as  to  avoid  false  folds,  or  what 
is  commonly  called  turning  against  the 
grain,  which  might  even  cause  the  hairs  to 
break.  Such  are  the  usual  and  ordinary 
requirements  as  to  the  management  of  the 
hair.  There  is,  on  the  other  hand,  a  class 
of  persons  who  carry  to  excess  the  dressing 
and  adornment  of  the  hair,  especially  those 
who  are  gifted  with  hair  of  the  finest 
quality.  Thus,  for  example,  females  who 
are  in  the  habit,  during  the  ordinary  opera- 
tions of  the  toilette,  of  dragging  and  twist- 
ing the  hair,  so  as  almost  to  draw  the  skin 
with  it ;  the  effect  of  which  is,  in  the  first 
instance,  to  break  the  hairs  and  fatigue  the 
scalp,  and  finally  to  alter  the  bulb  itself. 

FLOWERS  (LANGUAGE  OF).  The  first 
rule  to  be  observed  in  our  floral  grammar 
is,  that  the  pronoun  lor  me  is  expressed  by 
inclining  the  symbol  flower  to  the  left,  and 
the  pronoun  thou  and  thee  by  inclining  it 
to  the  right.  "When,  however,  it  is  not  a 
real  flower  offered,  but  a  representation 
upon  paper,  these  positions  must  be  re- 
versed, so  that  the  symbol  leans  to  the 
heart  of  the  person  whom  it  is  to  signify. 

The  second  rule  is,  that  the  opposite  of  a 
particular  sentiment  expressed  by  a  flower 
presented    upright   is   denoted   when   tho 


A.    31TSCFLLANY   OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


2(M 


symbol  is  reversed ;  thus  a  rose-bud  sent 
upright,  with  its  thorns  and  leaves,  means, 
"I  tear,  but  I  hope."  If  the  bud  is  re- 
turned upside  down,  it  means,  "  You  must 
neither  hope  nor  fear."  Should  the  thorns, 
however,  be  stripped  off,  the  signification 
is,  "There  is  everything  to  hope;"  but  if 
stripped  of  its  leaves,  "  There  is  everything 
to  rear."  By  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
expression  of  almost  all  flowers  may  be 
varied  by  a  change  in  their  positions,  or  an 
alteration  of  their  state  or  condition.  For 
example,  the  marigold  flower  placed  in  the 
hand  signifies  "  trouble  of  spirits  ;"  on  the 
heart,  "trouble  or  love;"  on  the  bosom, 
"  weariness."  The  pansy  held  upright  de- 
notes "  heart's-ease  ;"  reversed,  it  speaks 
the  contrary.  When  presented  upright,  it 
savs,  "  Think  of  me  ;"  and  when  pendent, 
"  Forget  me."  So,  too,  the  amaryllis, 
■which  is  the  emblem  of  pride,  may  be  made 
to  express,  "My  pride  is  humbled,"  or, 
"Your  pride  is  checked,"  by  holding  it 
downwards,  and  to  the  right  or  left,  as  the 
sense  requires.  Then,  again,  the  wall- 
flower, which  is  the  emblem  of  fidelity  in 
misfortune,  if  presented  with  the  stalk  up- 
ward would  intimate  that  the  person  to 
whom  it  was  turned  was  unfaithful  in  the 
time  of  trouble. 

The  third  rule  has  relation  to  the  manner 
in  which  certain  words  may  be  represented ; 
as,  for  instance,  the  articles,  by  tendrils 
with  single,  double,  and  treble  branches,  as 
under — 


The  .. 


The  numbers  are  represented  by  leaflets 
running  from  one  to  eleven,  as  thus — 


rf   0  '  * 


From  eleven  to  twenty,  berries  are  added 
to  the  ten  leaves  thus — 


From  twenty  to  one  hundred,  compound 
leaves  are  added  to  the  other  ten  for  the 
decimals,  and  berries  stand  for  the  odd 
numbers,  bo — 


270 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY 


A  hundred  is  represented  by  ten  tens ; 
and  this  may  be  increased  by  a  third  leaflet 
and  a  branch  of  berries  up  to  999. 


A  thousand  may  be  symbolized  by  a  frond 
of  fern,  having  ten  or  more  leaves,  and  to 
this  a  common  leaflet  may  be  added  to  in- 
crease the  number  of  thousands.  In  this 
way  any  given  number  may  be  represented 
in  foliage,  such  as  the  date  of  a  year  in 
which  a  birth-day,  or  other  event,  occurs 
to  which  it  is  desirable  to  make  allusion,  in 
an  emblematic  wreath  or  floral  picture. 
Thus,  if  I  presented  my  love  with  a  mute 
yet  eloquent  expression  of  good  wishes  on 
her  eighteenth  birthday,  I  should  probably 
do  it  in  this  wise  : — Within  an  evergreen 
wreath  (lasting  as  my  affection),  consisting 
of  ten  leaflets  and  eiglitberries  (the  age  of  the 
beloved  one),  I  would  place  a  red  rose-bud 
(pure  and  lovely),  or  a  white  lily  (pure  and 
modest),  its  spotless  petals  half  concealing 
a  ripe  strawberry  (perfect  excellence) ;  and 
to  this  I  might  add  a  blossom  of  the  rose- 
scented  geranium  (expressive  of  my  prefe- 
rence), a  peach  blossom  to  say  "  I  am  your 
captive,"  fern  for  sincerity,  and  perhaps 
bachelor's  buttons  for  hope  in  love. 

This  is,  however,  as  far  as  we  need  carry 
the  example.  Our  readers  will  at  once  un- 
derstand our  application  of  the  principles 
laid  down  as  a  basis  for  this  delightful  lan- 
guage of  flowers,  in  which  all  the  days  of 
the  week  are  symbolized  as  follows : — 

Monday  by  a  leaf  of  the  lotus  or  water- 
lily,  nt/mpheea,  half  represented  light,  half 
dark.  Selected  because  the  eastern  nations 
consider  the  lotus  as — 

"  The  emblem  and  cradle  of  creative  night." 

Tuesday  has  a  leaf,  half  of  which  is 
light,  to  signify  the  heavens ;  and  the  other 
half  blue  or  sea-green,  meaning  the  waters, 
in  reference  to  the  second  day's  work  of 
creation. 

Wednesday.  The  emblematical  leaf  for 
this  day  is  divided  into  three  colours  flight 
for  the  heavens,  blue  for  the  waters,  and 
green  for  the  earth. 

Thursday    has  ft  green   lotus  leaf,  on 


which  is  placed  a  flower,  figurative  of  the 
great  luminary  created  on  the  fourth  day. 

Friday  has  a  leaf  on  which  an  insect  is 
feeding— "Let  the  earth  bring  forth  the 
living  creatures." 

Saturday.  The  leaf  for  this  day  is  filled 
with  fruit — "  I  have  given  you  every  herb 
bearing  seed,  and  every  tree,  in  which  is 
the  fruit." 

Sunday.  Simply  an  olive  leaf,  sacred  to 
peace  or  rest. 

The  floral  emblems  of  the  month  are  thus 
given  by  Phillips  : — 

January  is  represented  by  a  robin,  en- 
circled in  a  garland  of  sweet-scented  tussilago 
(tussilago  fro  grans) ;  since  the  one  cheers 
our  dwellings  at  this  season  by  its  chirrup, 
whilst  the  other  regales  the  early  month  by 
its  fragrance. 

February  has  a  wreath  of  snowdrops 
(galanthus  nivalis)  surrounding  a  pair  of 
goldfinches;  that  being  the  month  in  which 
those  flowers  appear,  and  on  which,  also, 
the  birds  begin  to  couple. 

March  is  distinguished  by  the  hierogly- 
phics of  a  bird's  nest  encircled  by  a  branch 
of  the  almond  (amygdalus), 

•  That  blooms  on  the  leafless  bough." 
April.    For  this  month  we  have  a  linnet 
on  his  nest  in  the  midst  of  a  bush  of 
"  The  vernal  furze  with  golden  baskets  hung." 
May.    A  nest  of  young  birds  clamorous 
for  food,  in  a  hawthorn  bush  in  full  flower, 
represents  this  month. 

June  has  a  wreath  of  flowing  grapes,  en- 
compassing a  branch  of  ripe  strawberries ; 
and 

July  a  bunch  of  red  cherries,  en  wreathed 
with  the  fragrant  purple  thyme.     For 

August  is  woven  a  coronal  of  wheat, 
barley,  and  oats,  encircling  ripe  plums. 

September  has  a  cluster  of  purple  grapes, 
with  a  wreath  of  hops — 
"  For  clustering  grapes  are  his  peculiar  care." 
October    is    represented    with  various- 
coloured  China-asters  and  clusters  of  hazel- 
nuts. 

November,  has  a  garland  of  flowing  ivy, 
with  turnips  and  carrots  in  the  centre ;  and 
for 

December  is  woven  a  garland  of  holly, 
with  its  glossy  green  leaves  and  vermilion 
berries,  from  the  centre  of  which  hangs  a 
branch  of  mirth-inspiring  mistletoe. 

EYES  (PltESEltVA TION  OF  THE). 
Mr.  Cooper,  in  his  "  Practical  Remarks  on 
Impaired  Vision,"  gives  some  excellent 
hints  on  the  preservation  of  the  eyes,  which 
will  be  interesting  to  many  of  our  readers. 
Daily  experience  teaches  us  that  the  decay 


A   MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


271 


of  vision  16  hastened  by  many  causes  which 
arc  frequently  overlooked.  Although  it  is 
about  forty  that  the  sight  usually  begins  to 
fail,  yet  we  rind  that  some  persons  attain 
extreme  old  ago  without  needing  glasses  a1 
all.      Other  persons,  on  the  contrary,  re- 

auire  glasses  bv  tbe  age  of  thirty,  and, 
lough  much  depends  upon  constitution, 
much  also  depends  upon  a  person's  habits. 

One  of  the  worst  of  babits  i » that  of  over- 
working the  eves  by  candle-light  at  night. 
Repose  from  labour,  so  necessary  for  the 
restoration. of  tone  and  vigour  to  the  several 
organs  of  the  body,  is  too  sparingly  granted 
to  the  eyes. 

Let  it  be  remembered  that  day-work  is 
preferable  to  night-work  ;  that  while  the 
light  of  a  candle  or  lamp  is  trying  even  to 
astrong  eye,  the  moderate  light  of  the  sun 
is  strengthening  to  it  Those  whom  cir- 
cumstances compel  to  study  in  the  evening 
should  select  that  kind  of  work  which  is 
least  distressing  to  the  eyes;  they  should 
especially  avoid  indistinct  writing  or  small 
print. 

Reading  by  fire-light,  or  simply  gazing  at 
the  tire  when  sitting  alone,  or  in  a  contem- 
plative mood,  is  highly  injurious  to  feeble 
eyes,  and  should  be  avoided  by  all.  It  is 
not  advisable  to  read  by  twilight ;  too  little 
light  is  as  pernicious  as  too  much  light,  yet 
many  persons  will,  evening  after  evening, 
try  their  eyes  in  this  way  rather  than  burn 
a  candle.  It  is  injurious  to  the  eyes  to  be 
long  exposed  to  the  reflection  of  a  strong 
light,  whether  artificial  or  natural,  such  as 
the  reflected  sunshine  from  the  page  of  a 
book.  Too  brilliant  a  light  produces  undue 
excitement  of  the  eyes.  To  preserve  weak 
eyes  as  much  as  possible  from  a  strong 
light,  neutral  tint  spectacles  are  exceedingly 
suitable. 

In  reading  and  writing,  just  that  amount 
and  quality  of  light,  whether  natural  or 
artificial,  should  be  allowed  which,  while 
it  thoroughly  illuminates  the  object,  feels 
grateful  and  pleasant  to  the  eyes.  This 
desideratum  can  never  be  obtained  without 
due  regard  to  the  position  of  the  light.  The 
light  cast  upon  a  book  while  the  candle  is 
in  front  is  by  no  means  pleasant,  and  the 
glare  of  the  flame  is  very  trying  to  weak 
eyes.  It  will  be  found,  that  if  the  candle 
or  lamp  be  placed  behind  the  reader,  a  little 
elevated,  and  slightly  on  one  side,  the 
pleasantest  and  least  injurious  effect  is  pro- 
duced ;  for  the  light  then  reflected  to  the 
eyes  is  less  distressing,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  eyes  are  perfectly  protected  from 
the  heat  and  glare  of  the  flame. 

Sudden  transitions  from  gloom  to  strong 


light  should  bo  avoided.  The  dazzling 
<ll'<rt  produced  when  we  come  suddenly 
from  darkness  into  light  arises  from  the 
pupils  having  been  widely  dilated  to  admit 
the  greatest  possible  number  of  luminous 
rays  whilst  in  the  gloom  ;  and  as  the  pupil 
of  the  eye  requires  time  to  contract,  sudden 
transitions  from  comparative  darkness  to  a 
bright  light  compels  the  eye  to  admit  far 
more  rays  than  is  either  agreeable,  or  than 
it  is  calculated  to  bear  without  injury. 

It  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged  upon  any 
one  about  to  use  spectacles  for  the  fir-t  time, 
that  that  power  which  will  enable  him  to 
read  without  much  exertion  by  candle-light 
is  the  only  power  suitable  for  him.  It  is  by 
candle-light  only  he  should  use  glasses  at 
first,  and  as  soon  as  he  finds  that  he  stands 
in  need  of  glasses  by  day  as  well  as  by 
candle-light,  and  that  the  glasses  he  uses 
no  longer  afford  him  sufficient  assistance  by 
caudle-light,  it  will  be  proper  to  use  the 
next  power  for  the  evening,  but  for  the 
evening  only,  and  to  allow  himself  the  use 
of  the  others— and  their  use  only — during 
the  day.  The  greatest  caution  as  to  in- 
creasing the  power  of  glasses  should  be  ob- 
served, for  persons  who  change  their  glasses, 
unnecessarily  increasing  their  power  each 
time,  are  exhausting  the  resources  of  art 
instead  of  economising  them  as  much  as 
possible.  Optical  aid  can  only  be  extended 
to  a  certain  point,  and  the  steps  to  that 
point  should  be  as  slow  and  as  numerous  as 
possible.  By  exercising  prudent  precautions, 
persons  may  often  attain  great  age,  and  yet 
never  require  the  aid  of  glasses  beyond  a 
very  moderate  power ;  others,  on  the  con- 
trary, who  from  ignorance  frequently  in- 
crease the  power  of  their  glasses,  may  run 
through  the  whole  assortment,  and  leave 
themselves  only  the  most  inconvenient  re- 
sources to  fall  back  upon — viz.  the  very 
highest  powers 

PROFILES  IN  BLACK  (METHOD  OF 
TAKING).  Procure  a  wooden  frame,  about 
a  foot  square  :  divide  each  side  into  six  por- 
tions, and  stretch  across  strings  at  equal 
distances  before  marked,  so  as  to  make  in  all 
thirty-six  squares.  Purchase  some  of  the 
black  paper  used  by  artists  (three  halfpence 
a  sheet),  and  on  the  white  side  rule  thirty- 
six  equal  squares  corresponding  to  tho~e  en 
the  frame.  Then  desire  the  person  to  sit 
about  three  yards  from  vou,  and  in  suiha 
position  that  you  see  "his  profile  through 
the  squares  of  your  frame.  Then  sketch  on 
your  paper  with  the  ruled  lines  the  profile 
as  you  see  it  through  fhe  squares,  ami  draw 
it  o&  yours  correspondingly.  Then  cut  out 
what  you  have  sketched,"  and  stick,  with 


272 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


black  side  up,  on  a  piece  of  card.  This  is  a 
capital  way  for  one  who  has  no  artistic  taste 
to  take  sketches  of  views,  busts,  &c. 

PAN.     The  son  of  Mercury,  chief  of  the 
rural  deities,  and  god  of  shepherds. 


SHIRTS  (TO  FOLD).  Having  spread 
the  shirt  on  a  table  or  on  a  bed,  fold  over 
the  two  sides  lengthways,  so  as  to  lie  one 
over  the  other  upon  the  bosom.  Turn  the 
sleeves  back  halfway  from  the  shoulders 
(doubling  over  the  sleeve-gussets  in  half) 
so  as  to  lie  straight  down  on  the  folded  body. 
Then  take  the  whole  and  give  it  a  cross-fold 
upward,  so  that  the  lower  half  of  the  shirt 
that  is  turned  over  covers  the  upper  part  of 
the  sleeves  and  the  bosom.  False  collars 
are  folded  in  half  only  False  bosom  pieces 
first  in  half  from  the  back,  and  then  another 
fold  is  given,  so  as  to  leave  the  full  part 
upwards. 

EAGLE.  A  bird  of  prey,  of  the  genus 
falco,  of  which  there  are  several  species ;  as 
the  sea  eagle,  known  in  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  which  feeds  on  fish ;  the  golden 
eagle,  three  feet  long,  with  wings  extending 
above   seven    feet,  which  devours  fawns, 


bald  or  white-headed  eagle,  which  preys  on 
flesh  and  fish.  The  talons  and  bills  of  all 
the  species  are  strong  and  terrible,  and  their 
sight  is  keen  and  distant. 

MULE.  An  animal,  the  produce  of  a 
horse  and  an  ass,  and  which  itself  does  not 
propagate.      It   is  much  esteemed  for  its 


lambs,  kids,  &c,  and  lives  to  a  great  age ; 
the  cinereous  eagle,  common  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Europe;  the  crying  or  plaintive 
eagle,  of  Siberia  and  Asia      and  also  the 


hardihood,  strength,  and  sureness  of  foot; 
and  is  therefore  preferred  as  a  beast  of  bur- 
den in  all  mountainous  countries.  If  ill- 
treated  it  displays  proverbial  obstinacy. 

ROCKS  (TRANSITION).  The  lowest,  in 
which  are  found  organised  beings,  but 
these  consist  only  of  zoophytes,  or  equivocal 
animals,  and  shell-fish,  while  the  rocks 
above  these  contain  animals  possessed  of 
sight  and  locomotion,  and  the  still  more 
modern  ones  contain  perfect  animals  ;  all  so 
many  unerring  displays  of  the  slow  and 
gradual  production  of  one  thing  out  of 
another,  in  regular  progressions  of  com- 
plication and  perfection. 

TRUSTEE.  One  invested  with  property 
for  a  special  purpose. 

NET-MAKIN  G.  A  useful  art,  by  which 
fibrous  materials  are  knotted  in  a  regular 
manner,  and  continued  over  a  large  surface. 
The  formation  and  commencement  of  the 


shape  of  the  wooden  needle 
)cess,  is  plainly  represented 


meshes  and  the  shape  of  the  wooden  n< 
used  in  the  process,  is  plainly  rcprese 
in  the  engraving. 


A   MISCELLANY    OF   USEFUL    KNOWLEDGE. 


273 


NOVEMEER,  was  so  called  from  being 
the  ninth  month  of  Romulus' s  year,  which 
began  with  March  ;  but,  according  to  the 
altered  calendar  of  Numa  and  Julius  Cesar, 
it  was  the  eleventh  month  of  the  year,  as  it 
now  stands.  As  the  ninth  month,  it  was 
derived  from  the  Latin  words  novem,  nine, 
and  imber,  a  shower. 

Our  Saxon  ancestors  called  this  month 
Blot  Monath,  or  slaughter  month,  because, 
as  food  for  the  cattle  was  scarce  during  the 
winter  season,  it  was  customary  for  them  to 
kill  and  salt  most  of  their  winter  meat 
during  this  month.  The  name  is  derived 
from  the  Saxon  word  Bhtan,  to  kill  or  slay. 
They  also  call  it  Wint  Monath,  or  wind 
month,  on  account  of  the  tempestuous 
weather  which  prevails  at  this  period  of  the 
year,  when  the  wind  strips  the  trees  of  their 
few  remaining  leaves. 

Synonymes. — In  Latin,  November; 
French,  Novembre;  Italian,  Nuvembre; 
and  Portuguese,  Novembro. 


Symbol  or  Allegory  of  tJie  Month. — A 
young  man,  dressed  in  clothes  the  colour  of 
the  leaves  when  they  begin  to  fall ;  his  head 
was  crowned  with  a  garland  of  olives  with 
the  fruit  \  in  his  hands  he  held  bunches  of 
turnips  and  parsnips,  symbolical  of  the  pro- 
duce of  the  earth  during  this  month ;  and 
behind  him  was  the  sign  of  Sagittarius,  the 
Archer,  in  allusion  to  the  sun  entering  that 
constellation  on  the  22nd  of  the  month. 
(See  our  allegorical  engraving.) 

1st.  All  Saints  is  a  festival  instituted  by 
Boniface  IV.,  when  he  was  allowed  by  the 
Emperor  Phocas  to  convert  the  Pantheon  at 
Rome  into  a  Christian  church.  It  was 
originally  celebrated  en  the  12th  of  May,  in 
honour  of  the  Virgin  Mary  and  all  Martyrs, 
but  was  afterwards  ordered  to  be  kept  upon 
November  1st.  Many  curious  customs  are 
still  practised  in  various  parts  of  Great 
Britain  upon  this  day,  similar  to  the  cere- 
monies of  Hallowe'en. 


In  November,  1808,  the  celebrated  "Orders 
in  Council"  were  Issued  by  tin-  British  gov- 
ernment, which  prohibited  all  trade  with 
France  and  her  allies  ;   and  as  a  retaliatory 

measure,  in  December  following  Bonaparte 
issued  his  "  Milan  Decree.'"  interdicting  all 
trade  with  England  and  her  colonies,  thus 
subjecting  almost  every  American  vessel  on 
the  ocean  to  capture*  In  requital  for  these 
tyrannous  proceedings,  and  that  England  and 
France  might  both  feel  their  injustice,  Con- 
gress decreed  an  embargo  ;  but  as  this  failed 
to  obtain  from  either  power  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  our  rights,  and  was  also  ruinous  to 
our  commerce  with  other  nations,  it  was  re- 
pealed in  March,  1809. 

On  November  30, 1782,  preliminary  articles 
of  peace  were  signed  at  Paris  by  Mr.  Oswald, 
commissioner  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain, 
and  by  John  Adams,  Benjamin  Franklin, 
John  Jay,  and  Henry  Laurens,  on  the  part  of 
the  United  States. 

November  25th,  1783,  New  York  was  evac- 
uated by  the  British  troops. 

In  November,  1810,  all  the  hostile  decrees 
were  revoked,  and  commercial  intercourse 
with  the  United  States  was  resumed  ;  but 
those  of  England  were  not  only  continued, 
but  ships  of  war  were  stationed  near  the 
principal  American  ports,  for  the  purpose  of 
intercepting  our  merchantmen,  which  were 
captured  and  sent  to  British  ports  as  legal 
prizes. 

November  3, 1783.  This  was  the  day  ap- 
pointed for  the  disbanding  of  the  American 
army.  On  the  day  preceding,  Washington 
issued  his  farewell  orders  to  his  troops,  re- 
plete with  friendly  advice  and  affectionate 
wishes  for  their  present  and  future  welfare. 
When  the  army  were  to  be  disbanded  new 
difficulties  arose  concerning  the  payment  of 
their  wages  and  rations.  The  want  of  resources 
to  carry  on  the  war,  and  of  supreme  power  to 
lay  and  collect  taxes,  had  driven  Congress  to 
the  expedient  of  emitting  vast  sums  in  bills  of 
credit,  which  depreciated  so  much  as  to  be 
of  scarcely  any  value  ;  and  owing  to  the  in- 
terruption of  commerce,  and  the  vast  quanti- 
ties of  paper  money  which  had  been  issued, 
gold  and  silver  were,  for  a  time,  almost  whol- 
ly banished  from  circulation,  and  much  agita- 
tion and  alarm  were  excited  among  the  army. 
In  this  state  of  feeling  that  part  of  the  army 
that  was  stationed  at  Newburgh  were  thrown 
into  great  excitement  by  an  address  to  the 
officers,  privately  circulated  among  them,  ap- 
pealing to  their  passions,  and  designed  to  stir 
them  up  to  violent  measures.  At  this  crisis 
the  virtues  of  Washington  shone  forth  with 
peculiar  luster.  He  assembled  the  officers, 
and  his  appeal  to  their  honor  was  weighty 
and  decisive,  resulting  in  the  restoration  of 
confidence  and  tranquillity. 


274 


FACTS  FOE  EVERYBODY; 


30th.  St.  Andrew,  who  was  one  of  the 
apostles,  is  said  to  have  been  martyred  in 
the  year  66,  at  Patra?,  in  Greece,  upon  a 
cross  of  the  form  of  the  letter  X,  which  has 
ever  since  been  called  St.  Andrew's  cross. 
He  is  the  patron  saint  of  Scotland. 

This  month  gave  birth  to  four  names 
renowned  in  history  namely,  John  Milton, 
James  Ferguson,  Martin  Luther  and 
Cardinal  VVolsey. 

James  Ferguson  was  born  at  Keith,  in 
Banffshire,  in  1710.  He  wns  the  son  of  a 
labourer,  but  b\  his  extraordinary  genius 
raised  himself  to  the  highest  pinnacle  of 
mathematical  and  astronomical  fame.  In 
1754  he  published  a  brief  description  of  the 
6olar  system,  but  his  greatest  work  was  his 
•'Astronomy  explained  upon  Sir  Isaac 
Newton's  principles,  and  made  easy  to  those 
who  have  not  studied  Mathematics."  He 
died  on  the  16th  of  November,  1776. 

John  Milton,  the  distinguished  author 
of  "  Paradise  Lost,"  and  of  numerous  other 
poetical  works,  was  the  son  of  a  scrivener  in 
London,  and  born  in  Bread-street,  in  1608. 
During  the  civil  wars  between  Charles  I. 
and  his  Parliament,  he  entered  warmly  into 
the  defence  of  the  latter,  and  was  afterwards 
appointed  Latin  Secretary  to  Cromwell.  He 
wrote  against  the  King's  book,  called  "Icon 
Basilike,"  and  was  also  employed  to  answer 
the  treatise  of  Salmasius,  entitled  "  Defensio 
Ptegia,"  which  he  did  in  a  powerfully  writ- 
ten work,  entitled,  "  Defensio  pro  Populo 
A'nglicano."  He  died  on  the  8th  of  Novem- 
ber, 1674. 

Martin  Luther,  the  great  apostle  of  the 
Re  formation,  was  born  at  Eisleben,  in- 
Lower  Saxony,  on  the  10th  of  November, 
1483.  In  1534  he  published  a  translation  of 
the  whole  Bible,  and  printed,  during  the 
same  year,  a  book  against  the  service  of  the 
mass.  He  died  at  his  native  place  on  the 
18th  of  February,  1546. 

That  eminent  prelate  and  statesman, 
Cardinal  Wolsey,  was  the  son  of  a 
butcher,  and  born  at  Ipswich,  in  1471.  He 
was  at  one  time  in  high  favour  with  Henry 
VIII.,  and  lived  in  princely  state;  but  at 
length  that  capricious  monarch,  in  con- 
sequence of  Wolsey' s  opposition  to  his 
divorce  from  Catherine  of  Arragon,  became 
his  bitterest  enemy.  In  1529  he  was  deprived 
of  the  Seals  of  State  and  impeached,  though 
a  full  pardon  was  afterwards  granted  him. 
He  was,  however,  again  arrested  on  a  charge 
of  high  treason  ;  but  died  at  Leicester,  on 
his  way  to  London,  on  the  28th  of  Novem- 
ber, 1530. 

BANK  OF  ENGLAND  NOTE   (THE). 


The  Bank  of  England  possesses  no  security 
which  may  not  be  known  by  any  person  who 
will  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  fol- 
lowing characteristics  of  the  paper,  the  plate 
printing,  and  the  type  printing  of  the  note. 
The  paper  is  distinguished — 1.  By  its  pecu- 
liar colour,  such  as  is  neither  sold  in  tha 
shops,   nor   used  for    any  other    purpose. 

2.  By  its  thinness  and  transpai-ency — qua- 
lities which  prevent  any  portion  of  the 
printing  on  the  note  being  washed  or 
scratched  out  without  a  hole  being  made. 

3.  By  its  characteristic  feel,  which  consists 
of  a  singular  crispness  and  toughness,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  Bank  paper  is  made  from 
new  linen  and  cotton,  not  from  rags.  4. 
By  the  peculiar  wire  mark  or  water  mark, 
which  can  only  be  produced  when  the  paper 
is  in  a  state  of  pulp;  consequently  the 
forger  must  procure  a  mould,  and  make  his 
own  paper,  both  requiring  the  skill  of  such 
first-rate  artisans  as  are  not  likely  to  be  met 
with  in  the  haunts  of  crime.  5.  By  the 
three  deckle  or  rough  edges  These  edges 
are  produced  when  the  paper  is  in  pulp ; 
two  notes  being  placed  in  the  mould,  and 
divided  lengthways.  The  deckle  is  the  raw 
edge  of  the  paper,  and  cannot  be  imitated 
by  cutting.  6.  By  the  strength  of  the 
paper:  a  bank  note  will  lift  a  hundred- 
weight, if  carefully  adjusted.  The  printing 
is  of  two  kinds,  type  and  plate;  the  paper 
is  moistened  by  water  driven  through  its 
pores  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmospbere; 
30,000  double  notes  are  thus  moistened  in 
the  space  of  an  hour.  The  ink  used  is  made 
at  the  Bank,  from  linseed  oil  and  the  charred 
husks  and  vines  of  llhenish  grapes;  this 
gives  a  peculiar  velvety  black  to  the  mark 
in  the  left-hand  corner  of  the  note.  The 
notes  are  numbered  by  a  machine  which 
cannot  err;  and,  lastly,  are  authorized  by 
the  signature  of  the  clerk.  The  bank  notes 
are  printed  on  the  side  of  the  paper  which 
receives  the  watermark,  so  that,  if  the  paper 
be  split,  the  unprinted  surface  only  retains 
the  slightest  trace  of  that  mark.  (See  Bank 
of  England,  p.  178.) 

PAAVNBBOKERS'  SIGNS.  The  most 
wealthy  of  the  Italian  bankers,  generally 
called  Lombards,  belonged  to  the  princely 
house  of  the  Medici  of  Florence.  They  bore 
pills  on  their  armorial  bearings,  as  indica- 
tive of  the  profession  of  the  family.  At  that 
time  it  was  customary  to  cover  boluses,  &c, 
with  gold  or  silver  leaf,  and  hence  the 
Lombards  adopted  the  sign  of  three  golden 
pills  upon  their  signs.  In  the  course  of 
time,  as  the  great  reputation  of  the  Italian 
bankers  increased,  others  assumed  the  de- 
vice, and  it  has  since  become  general. 


A    IflSCr.LLAXY   OF   USEFUL    KNOWLEDGE. 


275 


CHRISTMAS  CUSTOMS.  Chuistmas- 
Evk  is  celebrated  because  Christmas-day,  in 
the  Primitive  Church,  was  always  observed 

as  the  Sabbath  day,  and,  like  it,  jjreceded 
by  an  eve,  or  vigil. — Brand.  * 

'  It  was  once  believed,  that  if  we  were  to 
go  into  a  cow-house,  at  twelve  o'clock  at 
night,  nil  the  cattle  would  be  found  kneel- 
ing. Many  also  firmly  believed  that  bees 
fang  in  their  hives  on  Christmas- eve,  to 
welcome  the  approaching  day. 
Christmas-Hay  is  bo  called  because  of  its 

derivation  from  Christi  Mis**,  the  mass  Of 
Christ;  and  thence  the  Roman  Catholic 
Liturgy  is  termed  their  Jl/ssal,  or  Mass- 
book.  About  the  year  500,  the  observance 
of  this  day  became  general  in  the  Catholic 
Church. 

Yri.i;  formerly  used  to  signify  Christmas, 
because  of  its  derivation  from  the  word  ol 
(ale),  which  was  much  used  in  the  festivities 
and  merry  meetings  of  this  period;  and  the 
/  in  Inl,  ico?,  in  Cambrian,  as  the  ze  and  zi 
in  zehol,  zeol,  ziol,  Saxon,  are  premised  only 
as  intensives,  to  add  a  little  to  the  signifi- 
cation, and  make  it  more  cmphatical.  01, 
or  Ale,  did  not  only  signify  the  liquor  then 
made  use  of,  but  gave  denomination  to  the 
greatest  festivals,  a3  that  of  zc/iol,  or  yule, 
at  mid-winter  ;  and  as  is  yet  plainly  to  be 
discovered  in  that  custom  of  the  Whitsun 
ale  at  the  other  great  festival. 

Crucifixes.  Certain  initials  are  affixed 
to  crucifixes  because  of  their  signifying  the 
titular  tributes  paid  to  the  Saviour  of  the 
World.  The  letters  I.N.R.I.  are  universally 
agreed  to  be  the  initials  of  the  Latin  words 
Jesus  Nflzetrerms  Rex  Judceorum;  that  is, 
Jous  of  Nazareth,  King  of  the  Jews,  a  title 
which  Pilate  wrote  and  affixed  to  the  cross. 
— See  John,  eh.  xix.  The  initials  I.H.C. 
appended  to  other  crosses  are  said  to  imply 
Jesus  Humanitatis  Consolator  (Jesus  the 
Consoler  of  Mankind) ;  and  I.H..S.  imply 
Jesus  Hominum  Salvator  (Jesus  the  Saviour 
of  Men).  The  first-mentioned  initials  are, 
lipwever,  found  on  the  most  ancient  crosses. 

Carols  are  so  called  because  of  its  de- 
rivation from  cantare,  to  sing,  and  rola,  an 
interjection  of  joy. — Bourne. 

Bishop  Tavlor  observes  that  the  "  Gloria 
in  Excelsis,'5  the  well-known  hymn  sung  by 
the  angels  to  the  shepherds  at  Our  Lord's 
nativity,  was  the  earliest  Christmas  carol. 
Bourne  cites  Durand  to  prove  that  in  the 
earlier  ages  of  the  Churches,  the  bishops 
were  accustomed,  on  Christmas-day,  to  sing 
carols  among  their  clergy.  Fosbroke  says — 
u  It  was  usual,  in  ancient  feasts,  to  single 
out  a  person  and  place  him  in  the  midst,  to 
sing  a  song  to  God." 


The  present  carols  wire  substituted,  by 
the  Puritans,  for  the  original 'aids,  which 
were  festal  ehcmsotu  for  enlivening  the 
merriment  of  the  Christmas  Celebration; 
and  not  such  religious  songs  as  are  current 
at  this  day  with  the  common  people,  under 
the  same  title. 

Dr.  Johnson,  in  a  note  on  Samlet,  tells 
us,  that  the  pious  chansons,  a  kind  of 
Christmas  carol,  containing  some  Scripture 
history  thrown  into  loose  rhymes,  were 
sung  about  the  streets  by  the  common 
people,  when  they  went  at  that  season  to 
beg  alms. — Brand. 

Laurel  is  used  with  other  evergreens  to 
deck  houses  at  Christmas,  because  of  its  use 
among  the  ancient  llomans,  as  the  emblem, 
of  peace,  joy,  and  victory.  In  the  Chris- 
tian sense,  it  may  be  applied  to  the  victory 
gained  over  the  Powers  of  Darkness  by  the 
coming  of  Christ. — Bourne. 

Mistletoe  is  so  called  because  its  seeds 
are  said  to  be  dropped  by  the  mistle-thrush, 
which  feeds  on  its  berries.  The  mistletoe 
was  held  sacred  by  the  Druids  because  they 
had  an  extraordinary  reverence  for  the 
number  three,  and  not  only  the  berries,  but 
the  leaves  of  the  mistletoe  grow  in  clusters 
of  three  united  on  one  stalk.  Its  growing 
upon  the  oak,  their  sacred  tree,  was  doubt- 
less another  cause  of  its  veneration. 

THE  VOICE.  The  human  voice  has  been 
heard  across  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  a  dis- 
tance of  more  than  ten  miles.  ■  This,  however, 
is  quite  uncommon,  and  only  occurs  in  pecu- 
liar states  of  the  weather. 

THUNDER.  The  sound  of  thunder  may 
be  heard  at  the  distance  of  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  miles,  and  by  pressing  the  ear 
to  the  ground,  it  can  be  heard  at  a  much 
greater  distance. 

ET  (AND).  The  figure  "&"  is  some- 
times called  amperzand.  It  really  stands 
for  the  Latin  word  et,  and  arose,  perhaps, 
from  the  habit  of  the  old  manuscript  writers 
of  writing  "et"  in  one  stroke,  beginning 
at  the  bottom  of  the  t,  and  after  forming  an 
upright  stroke,  returning  to  make  the  e  in 
like  manner  from  below  upwards,  finishing 
by  crossing  the  stroke  of  the  t  before  taking 
the  pen  from  the  paper.  The  upstroke  of 
the  t  then  was  omitted  in  quick  writing,  till 
at  last  the  word  et  came  to  be  written  "  &." 

BEES.  Most  of  you  know  that  honey- 
bees live  together  in  a  social  community 
called  a  hive.  In  their  original  condition, 
these  communities  had  their  dwellings  in 
hollow  trees,  or  cavities  of  rocks ;  but  they 
are  rarely  to  be  found  now,  except  in  a 
domesticated  condition — as,  the  property  of 
men  who  have  supplied  them  with  more 


276 


convenient  houses,  and  who  claim  the  honey 
as  the  rent  of  these  habitations.  In  each 
community  there  are  three  kinds  of  bees. 


PACTS  FOB,  EVERYBODY: 


Fig.L 
First,  the  Queen,  or  female  bee  (fig.  1). 
This  lady  can  rarely  be  seen,  for  she  leaves 
the  hive  "only  twice  in  her  lifetime,  and  then 
only  for  a  short  perioc.  At  other  times  she 
is  so  assiduously  attended,  that  the  observer 
has  but  rare  opportunities  of  viewing  her. 
She  is  of  a  dark  brown  colour  ;  the  head  is 
covered  with  yellow  hairs,  except  where  a 
plume  of  black  ones  has  grown  upon  the 
forehead.  The  thorax  is  covered  with  pale 
brown  hairs,  and  the  abdomen  is  nearly 
twice  as  long  as  that  of  the  common  working 
bee  (fig.  2),  and  the  wings  are  smaller  in 


Fig.  a. 
proportion.  The  "Worker  is  rather  darker  in 
colour — indeed,  its  body  is  nearly  black. 
The  abdomen  is  composed  of  six  segments, 
overlying  each  other  like  the  greaves  of  old 
armour.  The  third  kind  of  bee  is  the  Drone, 
or  male  (fig.  3),  whose  name  has  become  a 
reproach  to  all  idlers,  from  the  circumstance 


rig.  3. 

that  this  insect  does  not  take  any  part  in 
those  diligent  labours  of  the  hive  in  which 
the  workei'3  are  constantly  employed.  The 
drone  is  much  larger  than  the  worker,  but 
has  not  so  long  a  body  as  the  queen  bee. 


The  thorax  and  abdomen  (that  is,  the  chest 
and  belly)  are  of  nearly  equal  size,  and  the 
eyes  are  very  large. 

The  scene  presented  by  a  community  of 
bees  is  tie  more  astonishing  the  more  we 
become  acquainted  with  its  details.  Each 
hive  is  a  commonwealth,  of  which  the  queen 
is  nominally  the  head,  receiving  the  greatest 
honour  and  care  from  her  industrious  sub- 
jects. With  a  greater  wisdom  than  can  bo 
claimed  by  men,  these  creatures  allow  no 
disputes  about  the  succession  to  the  throne 
to  induce  them  to  injure  each  other;  but 
they  require  the  parties  themselves  indivi- 
dually to  settle  the  quarrel  between  each 
other,  without  prolonged  interference  with 
the  duties  of  the  hive.  Indeed,  they  may 
be  said  with  truth  to  have  adopted  the  ad- 
vice of  Jeannot — 

"  Let  those  who  make  the  quarrels, 
13e  the  only  ones  to  fight." 
Only  one  queen  is  permitted  to  hold  office 
in  the  community  at  a  time ;  but  while  her 
claims  are  undisputed,  she  is  treated  with 
singular  respect  and  affection.  Indeed,  her 
presence,  and  the  prospect  of  a  future  gene- 
ration, appear  the  chief  motives  of  the 
insects  to  exert  themselves. 

Reaumur  shut  up  a  queen  taken  from  one 
hive  with  some  workers  taken  from  another, 
and  was  curious  to  see  how  those  strangers 
to  each  other  would  conduct  themselves. 
Bees  to  the  number  of  more  than  a  dozen 
surrounded  her,  and  paid  her  every  atten- 
tion. Owing  to  an  accident,  the  lady  bee 
had  become  covered  with  dust ;  to  remove 
this  became  the  anxious  care  of  her  polite 
attendants,  who  licked  her  on  all  sides  with 
the  greatest  assiduity.  No  sooner  was  one 
attendant  weary,  than  a  fresh  insect  took  its 
place,  and  this  "dressing"  continued  for 
more  than  two  hours.  In  the  end,  the  bees 
forgot  their  old  habitation,  and  became  the 
servants  of  the  new  queen.  Even  when  * 
dead  queen  is  placed  among  the  bees,  they 
treat  her  body  with  honour  and  respect. 
On  one  occasion,  a  queen,  benumbed  with 
cold,  was  placed  among  bees  who  had  been 
deprived  of  a  sovereign.  With  their  trunks 
they  licked  her  breast,  head,  and  body; 
and,  by  crowding  beneath,  upon,  and  around 
her,  appeared  to  be  anxious  to  communicate 
that  warmth  which  had  caused  her  tempo- 
rary death.  All  this  while  there  was  a  dead 
silence  in  the  colony,  no  hum  or  buzz  was 
to  be  heard ;  but  presently  one  of  the  royal 
limbs  quivered,  and  there  was  instantly  a 
short  sound  or  cry  among  the  attendants, 
who  became  even  more  diligent  in  their 
attentions.  Anon,  the  motion  of  the  limb 
was  repeated ;  the  attendants  appeared  now 


A   MISCELLANY  OP  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


277 


convinced  that  there  could  be  no  mistake, 
gnd  a  song  of  rejoicing  was  loud,  general, 

and  continuous. 

Having  spoken  of  the 
attention  or  the  bees  to 
their  queen,  we  will 
now  proceed  to  describe 

the  head  of  the  Bumble 

bee-  The  pints  called 
maxillae,  or  iaws,  look 
very  like  the  tusks, 
and  the  tongue  closely 
resembles  the  trunk 
of  the  elephant.  The 
head  of  the  working 
bee  has  much  of  the 
same  character.  We 
have  here  (fig.  4)  his 
proboscis,  very  highly- 
magnified.  To  the 
common  observer,  this 
appears  to  be  a  single 

•  Head  of  the  humble-bee:  a,  antennae;  6,  mandib  es: 
e.  labr  mi;  d,  ••  axillary  palpi:  e,  niaxil!*;  /,  lateral 
lobes  of  ihe  tongue;  g.  Ubud  palpi;  k,  tongue 

tube,  through  which  the  honey  is  conveyed 
by  suction;  but,  if  we  examine  it  (fig.  5), 


Pig.  5. 
▼e  find  it  consists  of  five  distinct  parts,  four 
of  which  form  a  sheath,  and  the  fifth  is  a 
narrow  strap  covered  with  fine  bristles,  and 
this  is  used  as  a  tongue  in  lapping,  or 
sweeping  up  the  honey.  The  parts  around 
the  tongue  (c)  are  furnished  with  numerous 
muscles,  as  is  also  the  tongue  itself;  60  that 
the  tongue  can  be  withdrawn  and  shut  up, 
or  its  ca-e  opened,  and  the  instrument 
darted  into  the  bosom  of  a  flower  instan- 
taneously. The  nectar,  or  honey,  is  thus 
swept  up  into  the  honey-bag;,  which  lies  at 
the  base  of  the  tonjrue,  from  which  it  can  be 
disgorged  at  pleasure,  as  the  food  of  young 
birds  can  be  disgorged  by  the  mother  from 
her  crop,  or  craw 

IS 


11  has  commonly  been  supposed,  from  the 
earliest  times,  that  the  oval  lumps  of  yellow 
substance  on  the  thighs  of  bees  are  composed 
Of  wax;  but  this  is  an  error.  The  little 
pellets  consist  of  the  yellow  pollen  of  flowers, 
which,  when  brought  into  the  hive,  is 
handed  over  to  the  bakers,  who  mix  it  with 
honey,  and  knead  it  into  bee-bread,  or  food 
for  the  young  larva?.  The  gathering  of  the 
pollen  is  a  curious  operation,  which,  how- 
ever, you  may  find  a  hundred  opportunities 
of  observing  during  the  summer  months. 
It  is  gathered  from  the  anthers  of  flowers, 
or  those  6mall  yellow  knobs  at  the  tops  of 
the  stamens.  The  dust  upon  the  anthers  is 
called  pollen,  and  is  necessary  to  fertilize 
the  flower.  In  gathering  this  yellow  dust, 
therefore,  the  bee  performs  an  important 
duty  to  the  flower,  as  well  as  to  the  young 
bees  at  home ;  for  he  becomes  the  agent  by 
which  this  pollen  is  conveyed  from  the 
stamen  to  the  pistil,  and  the  flower  is  thus 
rendered  capable  of  producing  seed. 

But  let  us  turn  to  the  microscope,  and  look 
at  the  wonderful  provision 
made  in  the  formation  of  the 
bee's  leg  for  the  conveyance  of 
the  pollen  homewards.  The 
hinder  leg  of  the  bee  (fig.  6) 
is  thickly  covered  with  fine 
hairs  on  the  upper  part  (b) ; 
but,  upon  the  lower,  you  will 
see  a  number  of  stiff  bristles 
curved  inwards,  and  ranged 
around  a  bare  surface  ;  thus  is 
constructed  a  kind  of  basket, 
and  in  this  the  pollen,  as  col- 
lected, is  packed  and  carried. 
How  wonderful  it  is,  that  thus, 
portion  of  nature,  however  smal 
the  same  complete  adaptation  of  parts  to 
their  particular  purposes! 

The  wax  is  secreted  from  glands  which 
lie  beneath  the  segments  of  the  abdomen 
or  belly,  but  is  only  provided  when  required. 
It  is  not  gathered  from  flowers,  as  was  for- 
merly supposed.  A  certain  portion  of  the 
population  of  the  hive  are  appointed  wax 
manufacturers,  and  these  are  forthwith  sup 
plied  with  food  by  other  labourers.  The 
wax-workers  hang  themselves  in  festoons 
from  the  top  of  the  hive,  taking  hold  of 
each  other's  legs,  and  thus  remain  for  some 
time  in  perfect  repose.  Before  the  building 
of  a  new  comb,  festoons  of  bees  may  be  seen 
hanging  in  the  roof  of  their  dwelling  in  all 
directions.  After  a  while,  the  wax  makes 
its  appearance  as  scales,  which  exude  from 
between  the  segments  of  the  abdomen, 
eight  scales  appearing  on  each  insect.  The 
bee  then  detaches  itself  from  its  fellows,  and 


278 


PACTS  FOR  JTTETtYBODY : 


makes  its  way  tc  the  roof  of  the  hive,  where 
it  commences  to  build  the  comb.  For  this 
purpose  it  detaches,  with  its  hind-leg,  one 
of  the  scales  of  wax  from  its  abdomen,  and 
conveys  it  to  its  mouth,  where  it  is  m.isti- 
cated,  and  mixed  with  saliva,  so  as  to  be 
quite  soft,  and  whiter  than  before.  Each 
■cale  of  wax  is  thus  removed  in  turn,  and 
is  then  kneaded,  and  stuck  in  a  mass  to  the 
roof;  and  the  bee  continues  labouring  till 
all  the  scales  are  removed,  when  it  is  fol- 
lowed by  another,  who  adds  his  quota  of 
wax  to  that  already  accumulated,  so  as  to 
make  a  little  wall.  The  wax  manufacturers 
and  builders  each  retire  as  they  conclude 
their  work,  and  give  way  to  the  smaller 
insects  called  sculptor  bees,  who  forthwith 
commence  excavating  hollows  in  the  wall, 
which  has  been  erected,  with  all  the  regu- 
larity and  precision  of  a  troop  of  sappers  and 
miners.  Ihe  cells  are  horizontal,  and  are 
made  exactly  hexagonal,  or  with  six  equal 
sides.  An  insect  has  thus  solved  the  prob- 
lem, of  "how  the  greatest  strength  may  be 
combined  with  the  least  quantity  of  ma- 
terial." 

DISINFECTING  LIQUID.  In  a  wine 
bottle  of  cold  water  dissolve  two  ounces  of 
acetate  of  lead,  (sugar  of  lead ;)  and  then 
add  two  (fluid)  ounces  of  strong  nitric  acid 
(aquafortis).  Shake  the  mixture,  and  it  will 
be  ready  for  use.  A  very  small  quantity  of 
the  liquid  in  its  strongest  form  should  be 
used  for  cleansing  all  kinds  of  chamber 
utensils.  For  removing  ofFensive  odours, 
clean  cloths  thoroughly  moistened  with  the 
liquid,  diluted  with  eight  or  ten  parts  of 
water,  should  be  suspended  at  various  parts 
of  the  room.  In  this  case  the  offensive  and 
deleterious  gases  are  neutralized  by  chemi- 
cal action.  Fumigation  in  the  usual  way 
is  only  the  substitution  of  one  odour  for 
another.  In  using  the  above  or  any  other 
disinfectant,  let  it  never  be  forgotten  that 
fresh  air,  and  plenty  of  it,  is  cheaper  and 
more  effective  than  any  other  material. 

CLOCKS  AND  WATCHES.  The  ge- 
nius of  the  Germans  appeared  in  the  inven- 
tion and  improvement  of  many  mechanical 
arts,  especially  clock-work.  They  have 
exceeded  all  the  world  in  the  contrivance 
of  variety  of  motions,  to  show,  not  only  the 
course  of  the  hours  and  minutes,  but  even 
of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  ;  wherefore  the 
clocks  at  Strasburg,  Prague,  and  many 
other  places  all  over  Germany,  are  sufficient 
instances.  Clock-makers  were  first  intro- 
duced into  England  in  1368,  when  Edward 
III.  granted  a  licence  for  three  artists  to 
come  over  from  Delft,  in  Holland,  and 
practise  their  occupation  in  this  country    It 


was  in  the  year  1577  that  pocket- watches 
were  first  brought  from  Gennanv.  Tho 
Emperor  Charles  V.  had  a  watch  set  as  tha 
jewel  of  his  ring;  and  in  the  Elv-etor  of 
Saxony's  stables  is  to  be  seen  a  clock  ii:  the 
pommel  of  his  saddle.  Charles  I.  had  a  ring- 
dial,  made  by  Delainaine,  a  mathematician, 
which  that  monarch  valued  so  much,  that, 
on  the  morning  before  he  was  beheaded,  he 
ordered  it  to  be  given  to  the  Duke  of  York, 
with  a  book  showing  its  use.     (See  p.  179.) 

POETICAL  AND  LITERARY  TERMS. 

Epigram.  In  poetry,  a  short  poem  or 
composition  in  verse,  treating  of  one  thing 
only,  and  ending  with  some  point,  or  lively 
ingenious  thought. 

Epitaph.  A  monumental  inscription  in 
honour,  or  memory,  of  a  person  defunct ; 
or  an  inscription  engraven,  or  cut  on  a 
tomb,  to  mark  the  time  of  a  person's  de- 
cease, his  name,  family,  and  usually  some 
eulogy  of  his  virtues,  or  good  qualities. 

Emblem.  A  kind  of  painted  enigma, 
which,  representing  some  obvious  history, 
with  reflections  underneath,  instructs  us  in 
some  moral  truth,  or  other  matter  of  know- 
ledge ;  such  as  that  very  significant  image 
of  Scacvola  holding  his  hand  in  the  flre, 
with  the  words  arjere  etpalifortia  Romanum 
est,  (to  do  and  to  suffer  courageously  is 
Roman.)  An  emblem  is  somewhat  plainer 
than  an  enigma.  Gale  defines  emblem,  an 
ingenious  picture,  representing  one  thing  to 
the  eye,  and  another  to  the  understanding. 
The  emblems  of  Alciatus  have  been  in  as 
much  reputation  among  the  learned  as  those 
of  Quarles  among  the  vulgar. 

Acrostic.  In  poetry,  a  kind  of  ingenious 
composition,  diep  >sed  in  suih  a  manner 
that  the  initial  letters  of  the  verses  form  the 
name  of  some  person,  kingdom,  place, 
motto,  &c.  The  acrostic  is  considered  by 
the  critics  as  a  species  of  false  wit.  Some 
pretend  to  find  acrostics  in  the  psalms,  par- 
ticularly in  those  called  abedarian. 

Eclogue.  In  poetry,  a  kind  of  pastoral 
composition,  wherein  shepherds  are  intro- 
duced as  conversing  together.  Theocritus 
and  Virgil,  among  the  ancients,  have  written 
eclogues.  There  were  certain  prose  com- 
positions termed  eclogues,  as  those  of 
Diodorus,  Polybius.  Ctesias,  Theophrastus, 
Strabo,  &c,  in  which  sense  the  word  signi- 
fies only  extract  or  collection.  M.  Fontenelle 
observes,  that  the  beauty  of  the  eclogue  is 
not  attached  to  what  is  rural,  but  rather  to 
what  is  calm  and  easy  in  the  rural  life. 

Ode,  among  the  ancients,  signified  no 
more  than  song,  or  a  composition  proper  to 
be  sung,  and  composed  for  that  purpose ; 
and  the  singing  was  usually  accompanied 


A   MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


279 


with  pome  musical  instrument,  chiefly  the 
lyre.  The  odes  of  the  ancients,  Yossius 
observes,  had  a  regular  return  of  the  same 
kind  of  verse,  and  the  same  quantity  of 
syllables  in  the  same  place  of  every  similar 
verse  ;  but  in  the  modern  ode  (says  he) 
there  is  nothing  but  confusion  of  quantities. 
The  ancient  odes  are  generally  in  honour  of 
their  gods  ;— the  English  odes  are  generally 
in  praise  of  heroes,  and  great  exploits.  The 
distinguishing  character  of  an  ode  is  sweet- 
ness and  sublimity. 

Epode.  The  third  or  last  part  of  an  ode, 
the  ancient  ode  being  divided  into  strophe, 
antistrophe,  and  epode.  The  epode  was 
Ring  by  the  priest,  standing  still  before  the 
altar,  after  all  the  turns  and  returns  of  the 
strophe  and  antistrophe.  The  word  epode 
then  properly  signified  the  end  of  the  song. 

Stanzas  were  first  introduced  from  the 
Italian  into  the  French  poetry  about  the 
year  1580,  and  thence  transferred  into  the 
English.  Most  of  the  Italian  poems  are 
divided  into  stanzas.  A  stanza  is  a  number 
of  grave  verses,  containing  some  perfect 
sense,  terminating  in  a  pause.  There  are 
stanzas  of  four,  six,  eight,  ten,  or  twelve 
verses.  The  word  is  Italian,  and  signifies  a 
stand,  or  station. 

Prologue.  In  dramatic  poetry,  a  dis- 
course addressed  to  the  audience  before  the 
drama  or  the  play  begins.  The  original  in- 
tention of  the  prologue  was  to  advertise 
the  audience  of  the  subject  of  the  piece,  and 
to  prepare  them  to  enter  more  easily  into 
the  action,  and  sometimes  to  make  an 
apology  for  the  poet.  This  last  article 
seems  to  have  almist  excluded  the  two 
former  in  the  English  drama,  and  to  be  in 
sole  possession  of  the  prologue.  The  pro- 
logue is  of  a  more  ancient  standing  than 
the  epilogue.  Among  the  ancients  the  pro- 
logue was  a  part  of  the  piece,  not  indeed  an 
essential,  but  an  accessory  part ;  with  us  it 
is  no  part  at  all ;  with  them  the  drama  was 
opened  with  the  appearance  of  the  prologue, 
but  with  us  it  is  not  opened  till  after  the 
prologue  is  delivered. 

Epilogue.  The  last  part  of  a  discourse, 
or  treatise,  containing  ordinarily  a  recapitu- 
lation of  the  principal  matter*;  delivered. 
Epilogue,  in  the  drama,  is  a  poetical  com- 
position addressed  to  the  audience,  when  the 
play  is  over,  by  one  of  .the  principal  per- 
sons or  aetors  therein  ;  containing  usually 
some  reflections  on  certain  incidents  in  the 
play,  particularly  those  of  the  part  of  the 
person  that  speaks  it. 

Epitome.  An  abridgment,  or  a  reduction 
of  the  principal  matters  of  a  large  book  into 
a  little  compass. 


Madrigal  is  a  little  poetic  piece,  gene- 
rally amatory,  not  confined  either  to  the 
scrupulous  regularity  of  a  sonnet,  or  the 
subtilty  of  an  epigram,  but  consisting  of 
some  tender,  delicate,  yet  simple  thoughts, 
suitably  expressed.  An  epigram  is  nutid 
for  its  pointed  wit ;  but  thu  rather  for  its 
tenderness  and  beautiful  simplicity.  The 
Italian  and  French  songs  and  airs  are  often 
of  the  madrigal  kind. 

Pindaric.  In  poetry,  an  ode  formed  ia 
imitation  of  the  manner  of  Pindar.  Pindar, 
whence  the  manner  takes  its  name,  was  of 
Thebes;  he  flourished  about  four  hundred 
and  seventy-eight  years  before  Christ,  and 
was  contemporary  with  JEschylus;  what  we 
have  remaining  of  his,  is  a  book  of  odes,  all 
in  praise  of  the  victors  in  the  Olympian, 
Pythian,  Nemsean,  and  Isthmian  "games; 
whence  the  first  is  entitled  the  Ohmptans, 
the  second  the  Pythians,  the  third  Nenurans, 
and  the  fourth  Isthmians.  Pindar  is  full  of 
force  and  fire ;  his  thoughts  sententious, 
his  style  impetuous  ;  his  sallies  daring,  and 
frequently  running  as  it  were  at  random ; 
he  effects  a  beautiful  disorder,  which  is  said 
to  be  the  effect  of  the  greatest  art.  The 
supposed  irregularity  of  his  numbers  has 
made  several  of  his  imitators  imagine  them- 
selves Pindaric  poets  by  the  mere  wildness 
and  irregularity  of  their  verses.  Noi  e  of 
our  writers  seem  to  have  succeeded  in  the 
Pindaric  character  better  than  Cowley; 
though  some  may  prefer  reading 
"  Our  mod<  rn  Pindar,  who,  wilh  artful  story, 

Took  wicked  pnins  to  tarnish  kinply  plory." 

Apophthegm  is  a  short,  sententious,  and 
instructive  remark,  pronounced  by  a  person 
of  distinguished  character  ;  as  that  of 
Augustus— festina  let/te. 

Aphorism  is  a  maxim,  or  precept,  or  the 
principle  of  a  science,  or  a  sentence  which 
comprehends  a  gre^it  deal  in  a  few  words. 
The  term  is  chiefly  used  in  medicine  and 
law.  We  6ay  the  aphorisms  of  Hippocrates, 
Boerhaave,  &c. ;  aphorisms  of  the  civil 
law ;  &c. 

Epic  Poem.  An  heroic  poem ;  or  -a  poem 
reciting  some  great  and  signal  transaction 
of  a  hero;  called  also  epopoeia,  or  epopee. 
Such  are  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  of  Homer, 
the  JEneid  of  Virgil,  the  Gierusalemme  of 
Tasso,  and  the  Paradise  Lost  of  Milton, 
which  are  the  principal  poems  of  the  epic, 
kind. 

Belles  Lettres,  (or  Polite  Literature,  as 
it  is  properly  denominated  in  English.)  em- 
braces grammar,  1>  gic,  rhetoric,  poetry, 
music,  mathematics,  and  the  learned  lan- 
guages ;  these  are  usiially  called  the  seven 
Liberal  aits.    Belles  Lettres  and  Criticism, 


280 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY 


says  Dr.  Blair,  chiefly  consider  man  as  being 
endowed  with  those  powers  of  taste  and 
imagination  which  were  intended  to  em- 
bellish his  mind,  and  supply  him  with 
rational  and  useful  entertainment.  They 
open  a  field  of  investigation  peculiar  to 
themselves.  All  that  relates  to  beauty,  har- 
mony, grandeur,  and  elegance,  all  that  can 
soothe  the  mind,  gratify  the  fancy,  or  move 
the  affections,  belong  to  their  province. 

DRAWING  (PRACTICAL  LESSONS 
IN).  First  Lesson.  The  necessary  mate- 
rials for  commencing  pencil  drawing  will  be 
a  sharp  penknife ;  three  black-lead  pencils, 
marked  HB,  F,  andB;  and  some  drawing 
paper,  or  cartridge  paper,  or  a  drawing 
paper  book.  We  advise  students  to  use 
cartridge  paper  to  begin  with,  and  to  have 
it  cut  into  sheets,  which  should  be  numbered 
J)1]!:  ||  at  the  upper  right- 
hand  corner,  and  when 
II  finished  deposited  in  a 
box  or  strong  portfolio. 
To  cut  your  Tencil 
properly.  —  As  you 
cannot  draw  until  your 
pencils  are  cut,  we 
must  request  you  to 
cut  them,  not  like  b 
in  fig.  1,  which  is 
hacked;  but  cut  it  to 
Fig.  1.  a  point,   like  a,  fig  1. 

In  cutting  it  properly  you  must  not  remove 
too  much  of  the  wood,  but  only  sufficient  to 
expose  a  small  part  of  the  lead ;  if  too  much 
of  the  lead  is  exposed  it  will  break. 

Position  during  drawing. — It  is  of  great 
importance  that  the  student  should  sit  to 
draw  in  a  proper  position.  Do  not  have  a 
low  table,  which  obliges  you  to  poke  your 
nose  almost  upon  the  paper,  and  press 
your  chest  against  the  edge  of  the  draw- 
ing desk ;  but  sit  in  an  easy,  upright 
position,  with  your  fee*t  straight  before 
you,  the  left  hand  resting  upon  the  edge  of 
your  paper  so  as  to  keep  it  steady  ;  the  copy 
before  you  and  nearly  upright,  and  the  sheet 
of  paper. upon  which  you  are  to  draw  slightly 
elevated. 

The  proper  position  to  hold  your  pencil 
should  be  that  the  ends  of  the  fingers  are 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  from  the  point ; 
and  the  pencil  should  not  be  held  too  tight, 
the  elbow  being  kept  well  in  towards  the 
side,  but  not  too  stiff;  by  this  means  you 
will  have  perfect  freedom  of  the  hand,  and 
complete  command  of  the  pencil. 

Second  Lesson.  As  you  are  now  pre- 
pared to  commence  your  drawing,  please 
seat  yourself  properly  at  the  table,  and 
make  an  effort  to  form  straight  horizontal 


lines,  like  a  (fig  2),  and  observe  that  they 
are  to  be  parallel,  and  at  equal  distances 
from  one  another.  When  you  have  suc- 
ceeded in  drawing  a  dozen  of  these  lines 
the  size  of  the  copy,  you  should  then  try 
to  form  some  twice  the  length,  and  then 
go  on,  increasing  the  length  of  them,  until 
you  are  able  to  draw  lines  a  yard  in  length 
with  a  piece  of  chalk  upon  a  black  board. 

To  draw  horizontal  straight  lines. — First 
make  a  dot  upon  the  paper  where  you  are 
to  commence,  and  another  where  the  line 
is  to  terminate  (as  c,  fig  2.)  then  draw  a 


led'  •       f 

Fig.  a. 
line,  between  the  two,  from  left  to  right, 
the  same  as  between  these  two  points. 

Continue  to  do  this  until  you  are  able  to 
draw  the  lines  straight  and  horizontal; 
then  practise  making  perpendicular  lines. 

To  draw  perpendicular  straight  lines. 
proceed  the  same  as  it  drawing  horizontal 
lines;  that  is,  by  making  dots  or  points 
first,  and  commence  with  short  lines,  like 
the  upper  one  of  b  (fig  2).  Then  increase 
the  length,  until  they  double  and  quad- 
ruple the  original  ones. 

When  you  have  succeeded  in  drawing 
either  horizontal  or  perpendicular  straight 
lines,  repeat  the  exercises  with  the  dif- 
ferent pencils,  so  as  to  give  greater  breadth 
to  some  lines  than  to  others;  and  some- 
times draw  the  lines  very  close  together,  at 
other  times  very  wide  apart,  and  afterwards 
fill  up  the  intervening  spaces  with  lines. 
By  this  means  you  will  acquire,  a  correct  eye 
and  idea  of  the  rudiments  of  form  anJ 
proportion.  N 

To  draw  oblique  lines,  you  should  place 
the    dots    upon    the   paper  as  usual,  and 


A   MISCELLANY   01    USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


281 


practise  forming  lines  from  right  to  left 
(as  dy  fig.  2),  and  afterwards  from  left  to 
right  (as  /,  tig.  2).  When  ycu  have  ac- 
quired Buficcienl  command  of  your  pencil  to 
form  the  various  lines  correctly,  quickly, 
and  freely,  join  two  of  them  together,  so  as 
to  appear  like  e  (fig  2). 

Draw  ttie  lines  whether  they  be  oblique 
or  slanting,  perpendicular  or  upright,  and 
herizontal,  or  in  a  line  with  the  tlooc,  in 
every  kind  of  manner,  sometimes  beginning 
at  the  right  hand  side  and  sometimes  at  the 
left  ;  at  one  time  at  the  top  of  the  line,  at 
another  at  the  bottom  of  it.  Do  this,  prac- 
tise often,  strive  to  overcome  all  obstacles, 
and  depend  upon  it  you  will  accomplish 
wonders. 

As  you  have  learned  to  draw  straight  lines 
parallel  to  one  another,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  make  you  connect  them  in  some  way,  so 
as  to  form  the  outline  of  an  object. 

Draw  two  straight  lines  parallel  to  one 
another  (like  a,  in  fig.  3) ;  then  connect  the 


Fig  3.  • 
ends  of  them  by  a  small  curved  line,  and 
from  that  draw  a  short  perpendicular  and  a 
short  horizontal  line  (as  b,  in  tig.  3)  ;  re- 
peat, until  the  outline  of  a  set  of  steps  is 
complete. 

Draw  a  horizontal  straight  line,  and  from 
either  extremity  of  it  draw  two  perpendi- 
cular straight  lines  (as  in  <?,  fig.  3). 

Draw  two  oblique  lines,  so  that  their  lower 
extremities  shall  meet  (as  in  a,  fig.  4).  Then 
draw  two  parallel  straight  lines,  so  that  the 
beginning  of  the  upper  one  shall  be  almost 
immediately  over  the  end  of  the  lower  one, 
and  join  the  ends  of  these  lines  with  oblique 
lines  (as  b,  in  fife.  4). 


Fig.  4. 
Draw  a  perpendicular  straight  line,  and 
from  the  upper  end  of  it,  an  oblique  line  from 


right  to  left ,  then  unite  the  end  of  the  obliquo 
line  to  another  oblique  line  (as  in  r,  fig.  4). 
Draw  a  perpendicular  line,  and  from  tha 
lower  part  pf  it  draw  a  horizontal  line  from 
right  to  left,  (as  i,  in  fig.  5). 


*v  I 


% 


Fig.  6. 

Draw  four  horizontal  lines,  and  then  join 
their  extremities  by  four  perpendicular  lines 
fas  in  a,  fig.  5).  This  will  represent  a  block  of 
wood  (called  a  cube  in  geometry),  having  six 
faces,  and  eight  corners  or  angles,  like  a  die. 

Here  is  another  geometrical  figure  which 
you  are  requested  to  copy.  To  do  so  cor- 
rectly, begin  by  making  two  dots  and  then 
forming  tbe  upper  line;  then  calculate  that 
the  distance  of  the  second  line  is  twice  the 
depth  of  the  fore  part  of  the  stone  (which  is 
represented  in  fig.  6),  and  draw  a  very  faint 


Fig.  6. 
short  stroke  to  fix  the  distance.  You  must 
now  fix  the  place  to  commence  the  second 
line,  and  you  therefore  place  a  dot  at  about 
the  same  depth  as  the  forepart  of  the  stone 
towards  the  right  and  another  dot  at  about 
one  and  a  half  of  the  depth  from  the  right 
of  the  end  of  the  upper  line ;  then  draw  a 
line  between  the  two  dots.  Join  the  ends 
of  these  two  lines  by  oblique  lines,  as  repre- 
sented in  the  figure  above,  and  proceeding 
in  the  same  manner  to  place  dots  upon  the 
paper  for  the  other  parts,  draw  the  short 
perpendicular  lines  and  the  oblique  and 
horizontal  lines  The  figure  is  now  com- 
plete in  outline,  and  you  must  therefore 
finish  it  by  the  addition  of  a  few  strokes 
and  dots,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 

To  form  the  outline  of  the  figure,  use  a  F 
pencil,  and  a  HB  to  fill  in  the  other  strokes. 

Here  is  another  figure  that  you  must 
practise  frequently,  because  it  will  give  you 
a  fair  knowledge  of  the  combination  of  form 


2S2 


PiCTS  FOR  EVERYBODY 


and  proportion,  and  will  school  your  eyes  to 
the  perspective  of  solids.  In  this,  as  in  all 
cases,  proceed  by  making  dots  before  you 
commence  drawing  your  lines ;  and  we 
merely  repeat  this  again  because  we  wish 
our  pupils  to  understand  most  distinctly  that 
no  line  should  be  drawn  until  the  length  of 
it  has  been  marked  upon  the  paper  by  dots. 
"When  you  have  drawn  the  upper  horizontal 
line  (of  a7  in  fig.  7),  draw.a  perpendicular 


a**- 


Fig.  7. 

line  from  each  end  of  it,  and  let  each  of 
these  lines  be  one  and  a  half  the  length  of 
the  horizontal  line;  then  unite  the  two 
lower  ends  of  the  perpendicular  lines.  Now 
draw  a  faint  horizontal  line  along  the  base 
of  o,  and  at  about  half  the  height  of  the  ob- 
long a  place  a  dot  on  the  faint  horizontal 
line,  and  another  dot  at  rather  more  than  a 
third  of  the  length  of  the  dot  just  placed 
upon  the  line  from  the  left  lower  angle  of 
the  oblong.  You  must  then  place  a  dot  at 
about  half  the  length  of  the  above  distance 
above  the  horizontal  line  and  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  second  dot  as  the  width  of 
the  base  a.  From  these  several  dots,  draw 
oblique  lines,  {as  in  b,  tig.  7),  and  join  them 
by  other  lines,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  You 
must  now  draw  other  short  lines  from  the 
oblique  ones  to  the  face  of  the  oblong,  and 
finish  the  figure  by  a  few  short  strokes  at 
the  base,  as  shewn  in  the  above  figure. 

It  is  required  to  represent  the  two  sides  of 
a  pyramid.  Draw  two  faint  horizontal  lines 
b  c,  and  another  one  «,  perpendicular  to 
them,  then  draw  a  line  from  c  to  b,  com- 
mencing at  the  place  where  a  cuts  c :  then 
draw  another  line  from  c  to  b  one  third  longer 
than  the  line  on  the  right  of  a,  commencing 
at  the  point  of  junction  between  a  and  c. 
Place  a  dot  on  the  left  of  the  perpendicular 
a  at  nearly  the  same  distance  from  it,  as  the 
space  between  the  lines  b  and  c  and  twice  the 
length  of  the  oblique  line  on  the  right  of  its 
base,  between  the  lines  b  c.  From  this  point 
©r  dot,  draw  lines  to  meet  those  drawn  be- 
fore, and  the  figure  will  be  complete. 


Fig.  8. 
Draw  a  horizontal  line,  a  J,  and  then 
draw  a  perpendicular  line,  c  d,  across  it  (a 
in  fig.  9). 


4 

Fig.  9. 

You  will  have  formed  four  right  angles 
a  e  c,  c  e  b,  b  e  d,  d e  a;  but  we  are  not 
going  to  study  aiigles  now  ;  that  is  not  our 
object.  We  wish  you  to  notice  our  remarks 
and  practise  the  figure  ;  then  when  vou  can 
draw  this  well,  you  ehould  draw  the  lines 
in  different  directions  so  near  that  c  may  be 
brought  nearer  to  b,  and  d  to  a;  by  this 
means  you  will  form  various  kinds  of  angles. 

Third  Lesson.  You  must  now  turn  your 
attention  to  the  drawing  of  curved  lines. 
Unless  you  can  draw  a  curved  line  accu- 
rately, in  any  direction,  you  can  never 
hope  to  delineate  the  human  figure  or  ani- 
mals in  a  proper  manner ;  for  the  outlines  of 
both  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms  are 
made  up  of  curved  lines  of  every  variety.  It 
is  needless  to  give  a  long  list  of  examples; 
the  student  will  easily  observe  them  in  the 
objects  around  him,  from  the  horse  to  the 
cat  or  diminutive  mouse ;  or  from  the  gay 
butterfly  that  soars  above  him,  to  the  gnat, 
from  which  it  has  been  transformed ;  or  from 
the  lofty  oak  to  the  humbld  acorn. 

Commence  practising  the  formation  of 
curved  lines,  by  drawing  several  like  (a  fig. 
10,)  and  then,  when  you  are  able  to  do  so 
accurately  and  easily,  draw  parallel  lines 
with  a  greater  curve,  as  (J>  fig.  10).    When 


k   MISCELLANY  OP  TSEFTJL  KNOWLEDGE. 


283 


Fig.  10. 
you  can  enlarge  these  copies  upon  a  black 
board,  with  a  piece  of  chalk,  or  reduce  them 
with  a  pencil  upon  paper,  then  you   may 
venture  to  draw  a  circle  like  (c  tig.  10). 

To  draw  a  Circle. — Perhaps  one  of  the 
most  difficult  tasks  for  the  beginner  is  to 
draw  a  circle;  but  like  everything  else,  it  is 
easily  done  when  you  know  how  to  set  about 
it.  "Commence  the  task  by  making  a  faint 
dot  upon  the  paper  to  mark  the  centre  ;  then 
place  another  dot  on  either  side  of  it  and  at 
equal  distances,  and  continue  placing  dots 
at  equal  distances  all  around  the  central 
one,  until  a  circle  of  dots  is  formed ;  you 
must  then  join  all  the  dots  with  a  steady 
and  slow  sweep  of  the  hand,  beginning  at 
the  top  of  the  circle,  and  drawing  from  left 
to  right,  and  right  round  from  the  point  at 
which  you  started.  Practise  this  several 
times  as  it  will  give  you  precision,  and 
enable  you  to  observe  the  relative  distance 
of  the  outer  part  of  the  circle  from  the 
centre.  Do  not  attempt  to  use  compass*  s 
to  draw  a  circle.  They  will  not  ass;st  you  ; 
on  the  contrarx ,  when  you  are  without  them, 
you  will  be  at  a  loss,  and  unable  to  ac<  om- 
plish  your  object  Persevere,  and  practise 
continually,  and  your  labours  will  be 
rewarded. 

When    eu  have  drawn  a  few  dozen  circles 


by  the  aid  of  the  dots,  draw  some  without 
making  any  marks  upon  the  paper  or  board; 
sometimes  drawing  from  left  to  right,  and 
at  other  times,  from  right  to  kit. 

Draw  one  circle  within  anotfcer,  so  that 
their  margin!  shall  be  parallel,  as  in  the 
portion  of  one  shown  in  b  fig.  10. 

Draw  a  semicircle,  (as  /  in  fig.  10),  and 
then  practise  forming  d  and  e  in  the  same 
figure,  until  you  cannot;*  lines  neatly,  some- 
times commencing  from  the  lower  part  of 
the  figures,  and  at  other  times,  from  the 
upper  part. 

Divide  circles  into  sections,  so  as  to 
exhibit  the  half,  a  quarter,  a  third,  or  other 
divisions  of  a  circle. 

Draw  squares,  polygons,  and  triangles 
within  circles,  and  then  construct  a  circle 
within  a  square. 

Copy  the  following  figure,  and  then  pro- 


Pig.  11. 
ceed  to  draw  the  throe  following  outlines, 
which  you  will  no  doubt  do  correctly  and 
readily,  from  the  practice  you  have  already 
had  in  the  curved    lines.      Be  careful    in 


Fig.  12. 
copying  a  and  c,  to  make  the  left  hand  lines 
darker  than  those  to  the  right,  while  b  has 
lines  of  each  breadth.  It  is  well  to  use  the 
pencil  marked  II  It  for  this  purpose,  the  dif- 
ferent thickness  of  the  tinea  being  produced 
by  the  degree  of  pressure  employed. 

Foikth  Lf..s.sox.  In  drawing  lines,  the 
hand  should  rest  upon  the  two  last  fingers, 
— if  the  lines  are  short  the  motioD  of  the 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


284 


hand  should  not  extend  beyond  the  wrist- 
joint  ;  but  if  the  lines  are  long,  then  the 
band  will  glide  over  the  paper  easily,  if  it  is 
carefully  balanced  and  rests  upon  these 
fingers,  while  the  motion  of  the  hand  pro- 
ceeds from  the  elbow  or  from  the  shoulder. 

As  you  have  already  practised  curved  lines 
and  circles,  you  will  no  doubt  be  able  to  copy 


Fig.  13. 
this  example,  which  is  the  outline  of  the 
volute  of  an  Ionic  capital  from  the  Eric- 
theuin,  at  Athens.  It  is  needless  to  de- 
scribe how  it  should  be  drawn,  because  if 
you  have  attended  to  the  rules  already 
given,  you  will  be  able  to  know  how  to  pro- 
ceed at  once.  Copy  this  example  over  and 
over  again,  enlarging  and  diminishing  the 
copy,  until  your  eye 
has  become  familiar 
with  the  figure;  then 
endeavour  to  form  its 
outline  without  having 
the  example  before  you. 
When  you  have  accom- 
plished your  task,  you 
will  be  better  prepared 
to  copy  the  next  ex- 
ample. 

This  drawing  is  a 
combination  of  curbed 
and  straight  lines  so 
arranged  that  they 
form  the  outline  of  the 
base  of  a  column,  and 
by  copying  *lhis  ex- 
ample frequently,  you 
will  aoquire  a  very 
good  idea  of  proportion. 
If  you  had  not  exer- 
cised yourself  in  draw- 
ing straight  and  curved 
(lines,  you  could  not 
have  drawn  this  figure. 
You  may,  therefore, 
look  upon  straight  and 
curved  lines  as  the 
letters  or  alphabet  of 
Fig.  14.  drawing. 


Here  is  another  example,  composed  of 
straight  and  curved  lines,  but  differently 
arranged.  In  drawing  this,  commence  by 
making  a  faint  horizontal  line  upon  the 
paper ;  then  place  a  dot  at  a  proper 
distance  above,  for  the  centre  part  of 
the  arch ;  from  this  dot  draw  the  right 
hand  curved  line  until  it  meets  the  horizon- 
tal one,  then  place  another  dct  a  little 
above  the  horizontal  line,  at  nearly  the 
same  distance  as  the  height  of  the  arch  from 
it,  and  draw  two  parallel  curved  lines  close 
together,  from  the  top  of  the  first  curved 
line  to  the  dot  you  have  just  placed  on  the 
paper.  You  have  now  formed  the  outline 
of  the  arch.  Draw  a  horizontal  line  from 
each  side  of  the  top  of  the  arch,  and  at  the 
respective  distances  draw  other  lines  paral- 
lel to  it;  then  draw  perpendicular  lines 
between  the  horizontal  ones,  and  you  will 
now  have  formed  the  masonry.  Sketch  in 
the  lines  of  the  two  banks,  commencing  with 
the  left  one,  and  afterwards  sketch  in  the 
stones  on  the  right  of  the  base  of  the  arch. 
At  rather  more  than  half  the  length  of  the 


Fig.  15. 

left-hand  curved  lines  place  a  dot,  and 
another,  at  about  two-thirds  the  distance 
from  the  base  of  the  right-hand  curved  line; 
connect  these  two  dots  by  a  curved  line,  and 
then  sketch  in  the  masonry  of  the  archway, 
as  in  the  example ;  all  that  now  remains  for 
you  to  do  is  to  fill  in  the  shading,  which  is 
done  by  making  short  parallel  strokes  at 
equal  distances  from  each  other,  as  in  the 
example  before  you. 

The  next  object  that  you  are  required  to 
copy,  is  a  pyramid,  and  you  observe  that  the 
first  example  is  sketched  only  in  outline,  in 
order  that  you  may  clearly  understand  how 
it  is  done. 

When  you  have  drawn  the  outline  cor* 
reetly  several  times,  you  may  commence  the 


A   MISCELLANY  OF  TJSEFT7L   KNOWLEDGE. 


286 


next  example  (fig.  17)  which  you  observe, 
id  carefully  shaded  by  drawing  tine  perpen- 
dicular parallel  lines  between  the  transverse 
lmea,  aud  all  of  tbem  at  equal  distances. 


Fig.  16. 
The  shading  at  the  base  is  drawn  in  a  simi- 
lar manner ;  the  only  difference  being  that 
the  lines  are  horizontal,  instead  of  perpen- 
dicular. 


Fig.  17. 
The  next  examnle  is  the  outline  of  a 
pillar  with  a  millstone  resting  against  it 
(fig.  18) ;  and  when  you  have  sketched  this, 
it  must  be  filled  in,  the  same  as  the  other 
example  (fig.  19),  which  shows  the  same 
objects  shaded,  according  to  the  method  we 
13* 


have  already  pointed  out.  The  weeds  and 
grass  require  a  few  extra  touches  with  Ml 
1115  pencil,  and  the  outline  should  be 
strengthened  in  the  dark  parts. 


Fig.  18. 
Practise  these  examples  frequently,  par- 
ticularly the  weeds  at  the  top  of  the' pillar, 
and  the  shading. 


Fig.  19. 

When  you  are  able  to  draw  these  ex- 
amples as  they  are  represented  here,  draw 
them  backwards ;  in  other  words,  plare  the 
millstone  on  the  right  instead  of  the  left  of 
the  pillar. 

Draw  examples  17  and  19,  and  shade 
them  as  if  the  ligM  was  on  the  left. 

FIFTH  LkSSON.  Before  submitting  the 
examples  we  have  prepared  for  this  lesson. 
it  will  be  necessary  to  make  a  few  observa- 
tions upon  copying. 

We  will  suppose  that  you  have  to  copy  a 


FACTS  FOR  ETEETBODY: 


drawing, — perhaps  an  architectural  one. 
How  would  you  commence  ?  Most  probably 
differently  to  your  neighbour,  who  would 
also  commence  differently  to  his  neighbour, 
and  so  on,  unless  guided  by  correct  princi- 
ples. Do  not  imagine  that  what  we  state  is 
without  foundation,  it  is  perfectly  true;  for, 
not  long  since,  we  placed  two  drawings  of 
the  sanJe  subject  before  four  pupils,  and  re- 
quested them  to  copy  them,  and  each  one 
or  iumenced  differently.  One  of  them  began 
at  the  right-hand  side,  the  other  at  the  left, 
another  at  the  top,  and  the  fourth  in  the 
centre  of  the  drawing.  What  could  illustrate 
more  forcibly  than  these  blunders,  that 
attention  to  the  rules  of  the  art  is  absolutely 
necessary  ? 

You  ask,  "  how  am  I  to  commence  ?"  and 
to  this  question  we  will  at  once  reply.  First, 
enclose  a  certain  space,  by  means  of  four 
lines,  if  for  a  landscape  ;  or  by  an  oval  or 
circular  line,  if  for  a  portrait,  &c.  .  this  is 
called  the  boundary  line  of  the  draiviny,  and 
is  used  to  confine  a  certain  portion  of  a  land- 
scape or  other  subject.  The  importance  of 
attendi  g  to  this  rule  will  be  obvious  to 
every  person  ;  and  when  we  treat  hereafter 
of  sketching  from  Nature,  you  will  then 
find  ho*v  essential  it  is  to  adopt  this  method. 
When  the  boundary-line  is  formed,  your 
next  care  should  be  to  determine  the  rela- 
tive positions  of  the  principal  objects,  points, 
or  features,  &c. ;  and  if  you  have  attended 
to  the  instructions  given  in  the  former 
lessons,  you  will  not  have  much  difficulty 
in  doing  so  by  faint  lines  and  dots.  In  a 
landscape  you  will  have  to  fix  the  height  of 
the  horizon,  which  should  be  done  by  first 

{ (lacing  a  dot  at  each  side  of  the  boundary- 
ine,  and  then,  if  you  have  judged  the  dis- 
tance correctly,  uniting  the  two  by  a  faint 
line  drawn  through  the  picture;  this  is 
called  the  horizontal  line.  When  th.it  has 
been  done  determine  the  nearest  conspicuous 
object  to  the  boundary  line,  its  height,  width, 
and  relative  position  to  the  horizontal  line, 
and  other  objects ;  then  fix  the  position  of 
the  trees,  distance,  and  foreground,  by 
means  of  faint  outlines,  or  dots,  or  both, 
taking  care  to  observe  their  relative  situa- 
tions, inclinations,  and  measurements  are 
regulated  by  their  proximity  to  the 
boundary,  horizontal,  and  base  lines  of  the 
picture  ;  the  last-mentioned  line,  being  the 
bottom  or  lower  boundary  line  of  the 
drawing. . 

In  fig.  8,  you  were  directed  to  draw  a  line 
perpendicular  to  the  horizontal  ones,  this 
was  done  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  you  to 
judge  the  relative  distances  of  the  several 
angles  of  the  pyramid  from  each  other,  and  | 


you  will  find  it  very  useful  to  draw  a  line 
through  the  centre  of  any  object  that  you 
have  to  copy,  because  it  serves  as  a  guide  to 
the  proper  disposition  of  Jie  several  other 
parts.  Of  course,  as  you  become  more  and 
more  proficient  in  the  art,  this  will  not  be 
always  necessary. 

We  will  now  commence  some  practical 
illustrations  of  the  preceding  remarks.  You 
are  required  to  draw  tig.  20,  which  is  a 


Fig.  20, 
cenlre-piece  for  a  border,  or  an  ornamental 
panel.  Fig.  21,  is  a  diagram  illustrating 
the  method  of  doing  so,  which  is  thus: 
First  draw  three  horizontal  lines,  a  b,  c  dt 
e  f}  and  bisect  them  with  the  perpendicular 

1? 


Kg.  21, 


A.  MISCELLANY   OT  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


287 


line  g  h.  You  hava  only  to  determine  the 
relative-  distances  of  each  point  by  meSM  of 
dot-,  and  to  draw  the  curved  and  straight 
lines  faintly,  M  shown  m  fig.  21,  and  aftcr- 
warda  to  rub  out  the  superfluous  lines,  and 
Strengthen  the  outline  by  broad  touches 
With  an  IL  15  pencil. 

We  have  found  it  an  excellent  plan  to  cut 
the  Indian-rubber,  used  for  ruboing  out 
architectural  and  tine  drawings,  in  I  triangu- 
lar shape,  because  the  angles  enable  us  to 
remove  very  small  lines,  or  dots.  The 
Indian-rubber  should  not  be  more  than 
l-4th  to  3-7ths  of  an  inch  thick. 

Our  next  example  is  of  a  different  cha- 
racter, being  the  outline  of  an  antique  vase 
(tig.  22).    In  drawing  this  figure,  a  circle 


A  simple  perfect  outline  is  more  valuable 
that  an  imperfect  one,  worked  up  with  all 
the  skill  of  a  Vandyke,  Wilkie,  or  Landsccr. 


Fig.  22.  Fig.  23. 

is  first  of  all  drawn,  and  then  it  is  divided 
by  two  perpendicular  lines,  (as  shown  in 
fig.  23),  and  a  horizontal  line  drawn  above 
the  circle.  These  lines  are  sufficient  to 
enable  the  pupil  to  construct  the  figure  with 
ease. 

Our  next  exercises  are  taken  from  antique 
vases,  and  given  without  any  diagramatic 
illustrations  to  enable  the  pupil  to  construct 


Fig.  25. 

Many  persons  assert  that  the  shading  and 
filling  up  will  hide  some  of  the  defects  in  a 
bad  outline ;  but  be  assured  that  such  ad- 
vice is  not  only  wrong,  but  highly  inju- 
rious to  tyros  in  the  art  of  drawing ;  for 
opinions  such  as  this  are  apt  to  undermine 
its  right  principles,  and  make  beginners 
careless. 

Outline  signifies  the  contour,  or  the  line 
by  which  any  figure  is  defined,  being,  in 
fact,  the  extreme  or  boundary  line  of  an 


Fi?.  24. 
them  ;  because,  having  already  given  ample 
directions,  we  wish  pupils  to  think  for  them- 
selves, 60  as  to  be  able  to  act  at  times  with- 
out the  aid  of  an  instructor. 

Sixth  Lesson.  We  have  now  to  con- 
sider the  subject  of  "  Outline,"  a  most 
important  one  to  a  draughtsman.  j 


Fig.  26.     The  Quoit -thrower, 


288 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


object.  It  is  the  line  that  determines  form. 
For  example — the  outline  of  an  apple  would 
not,  if  correct,  convey  an  impression  to 
your  mind  that  it  was  intended  for  an  orange 


Fig.  27.  Alexander, 

or  a  pear ;  and  if  you  look  at  figs.  22,  24, 
and  25,  you  could  not  imagine  that  they 
were  like  the  ordinary  jugs  in  use. 

Outline  may  be  said  to  be  the  skeleton 
or  anatomy  of  objects ;  at  least  it  bears  the 
same  relations  to  them. 

<  Outline  cannot  be  formed  without  the 
aid  of  curved  and  straight  lines  (see  Less  >n 
III.,)  and  in  illustration  of  this,  we  beg  to 
call  the  attention  of  our  pupils  particularly 
to  figs.  26  and  27.  The  former  represents 
the  statute  of  the  quoit-thrower  of  Myron, 
and  the  latter  the  statue  of  Alexander,  by 


Gabius,  after  that  of  Lysippus,  in  the  Louvre , 
They  are  both  admirable  studies  for  outline, 
particularly  the  latter,  wbich  exhibits 
gracefulness,  courage,  and  strength,  the 
muscles  being  admirably  expressed  without 
the  aid  of  shading. 

_  Of  course,  as  you  are  now  able  to  form 
lines  of  all  kinds,  in  any  direction,  and  of 
any  reasonable  length,  you  are  already  in 
possession  of  the  alphabet  of  outline,  and 
the  rest  depends  upon  yourself— for  without 


Fig.  28.  Pysche. 

constant  application  and  attention  you  can 
never  succeed. 

Never  be  absurd  enough  to  detude  yourself y 
while  you  think  that  you  are  deceiving  your 
relations  or  friends,  by  tracing  outlines  against 
a  xoindow.  The  practice  cannot  be  too 
highly  condemned,  because  it  is  contrary 
to  art,  honour,  and  good  sense;  and  so 
long  as  you  continue  the  system,  it  will  be 
impossible  for  you  to  depend  upon  yourself. 

All  marks  or  lines,  that  assist  in  express- 
ing the  character  of  the  design,  may  be 
considered  as  belonging  to  outline. 

There  are  many  methods  of  producing 
effects  by  means  of  outline,  besides  adhering 
to  the  variations  of  form  in  the  figures.  For 
example — the  lines  used  to  express  drapery 
should  be  flowing,  continuous,  and  gene- 
rally of  variable  breadth;  those  used  for 
the  flesh  or  for  some  kinds  of  fruit  should 
partake  of  the  same  character;  hard  sub- 
stances, such  as  armour,  statuarv,  &c, 
should  be  expressed  by  uniform  lines  of  a 
fine  character;  and  foliage  should  be  drawn 
boldy,  with  occasional  dark  touches,  and 
with  a  tremulous    lateral    motion  of  the 


A  MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


289 


hand.    The  figure  of  Pysche,  will  assist  the 

Supil  in  comprehending  our  remarks  upon 
raptry  and  tiesh. 

Never  jag  your  lines  by  making  thorn  by 
fits  and  starts:  let  the  motion  of  your  hand 
be  free  and  uninterrupted,  so  as  to  form  a 
continuous  line  ;  for  if  the  pencil  is  removed 
from  the  paper,  a  line  like  a  saw  will  be  the 
result. 

We  need  not  remind  our  pupils  that  there 
are  extremes  of  outline  as  in  other  things  ; 
the  one  is  too  great  a  uniformity  of  line, 
the  other  too  great  a  variation  of  breadth 
of  line.  If  the  subject  is  intended  to  be  fin- 
ished in  outline,  the  pupil  should  strengthen 
one  side  more  than  the  other ;  and  we  recom- 
mend that  the  outline  etchings  issued  by 
the  "Art  Union  of  London,"  which  are  ex- 
cellent compositions,  should  be  carefully 
studied  and  copied. 

If  the  subject  is  to  be  shaded,  the  outline 
Bhould  be  light ly,  and  not  too  firmly,  drawn. 

We  must  remind  the  student  in  drawing, 
that  to  give  a  correct  delineation  of  the 
human  figure  it  is  indispensable  to  have 
some  knowledge  of  muscular  action.  It  is 
necessary  that  all  the  muscles,  their  purposes 
and  functions,  should  be  well  understood ; 
nor  must  osteology,  or  the  bones  of  the 
skeleton,  be  neglected. 

Seventh  Lesson.  As  you  are  now  able 
to  draw  outlines  correctly,  it  wiil  be  neces- 
sary to  study  light,  shade  and  reflection, 
which  will  give  the  appearance  of  substance 
to  the  objects  you  wish  to  delineate. 

If  we  consider  light  as  applied  to  draw- 
ing, we  must  do  so  under  four  distinct 
heads, — 1st,  as  natural  light,  or  that  ema- 
nating from  the  sun  when  it  rises, — 

"At  morning,  flinging:  wide 
Its  curtain-clouds  of  purple  and  vermilion, 
Dispensing;  life  and  liyht  on  every  side ;" 

2nd,  as  artificial  light,  or  that  derived 
from  combustible  bodies ;  3rd,  as  direct  light, 
or  that  light  which  reaches  an  object 
directly,  without  passing  through  or  being 
reflected  from  one  object  upon  another  ;  and 
4th,  reflected  light,  or  that  light  which, 
when  it  is  received  by  one  object,  is  thrown 
off  or  reflected  upon  another,  as  from  glass 
or  water. 

However,  we  must  request  our  pupils  to 
try  some  simple  experiments  for  themselves 
with  regard  to  light  before  they  enter  upon 
their  drawing-lesson  of  light  and  shade, 

Place  a  cork  upon  the  table  in  front  of 
your  window,  and  let  its  end  rest  upon  a 
sheet  of  paper.  You  will  observe  a  pyra- 
midical  dark  shadow,  the  base  of  which 
commences  at  the  cork,  and  also  a  pyra- 
midical/aiYj*  shadow,  the  apex  or  point  of 


which  corresponds  with  the  base  of  the 
dark  shadow;  and  you  will  also  ob-<i  ve 
that  a  portion  of  the  cork  \m  faintly,  another 
portion  duply,  and  another  portion  Mm* 
shadowed, 

Place  the  cork  upon  its  side,  and  you 
will  obtain  nearly  the  same  results;  but 
with  this  difference,  that  the  shadows  are 
broader,  and  the  eflect  produced  less  striking. 

Substitute  a  billiard-ball,  a  marble,  or  a 
bullet  for  the  cork,  and  the  effect  is  nearly 
the  same,  only  that  the  shadow  is  elliptical, 
or  somewhat  oval,  instead  of  pyramidical. 

Roll  up  a  piece  of  paper  so  as  to  form  a 
cone,  gum  down  one  of  the  corners,  and  cut 
off  the  base,  so  as  to  be  even  ;  then  set  this 
upon  a  piece  of  paper,  and  you  will  obtain 
the  same  shadows  as  when  you  employed 
the  cork,  which  may  be  easily  proved by 
placing  them  side  by  side. 

Many  similar  and  simple  objects  will 
readily  suggest  themselves  to  the  pupil,  and 
should  be  used  as  familiar  examples  to 
practise  light  and  shade. 

From  what  you  have  seen,  it  will  be 
evident  that  all  opaque  or  non-transparent 
objects,  upon  which  light  happens  to  fall, 
must  be  partially  in  shadow,  whether  the 
light  falling  upon  them  be  reflected,  natu- 
ral or  artificial ;  while  other  parts  will  be 
illuminated,  and  therefore  placed  in  strong 
contrast  with  those  parts  of  the  object  that 
are  in  shadow. 

Shading  is  intended  to  impart  the  appear- 
ance of  solidity  to  objects,  so  that  the 
amount  of  depth  of  shading  in  a  drawing 
conveys  theidjea  to  the  mind  of  the  beholder 
— 1st,  that  the  object  delineated  is  in  relief,or 
projects  from  those  surrounding  it ;  2nd,  as 
regards  the  relative  position  of  one  object 
with  regard  to  another ;  and  3rd,  the  dis- 
tinctive distances  of  objects  from  the  person 
viewing  them. 

Shadows  are  either  natural  or  accidental. 
Natural  shadows  are  those  ihat  the  lover  of 
nature  beholds  as  he  rambles  through  the 
lone  copse,  the  tangled  wood,  or  river's 
margin,  where 

"The  barks  at  anchor  cast  their  lengthened  shadet 
On  the  gray  bastioned  walls." 

Those  who  aspire  to  be  artists — nay,  even 

the  timid  amateur,  content  to  toil  over  the 

I  well-beaten  path  that  thousands  havs  jour- 

I  neyed.  over  before — must  ever  be  on  the 

alert  to  gather  studies  from  nature,  as 

"The  shades  of  evening  softly  creep" 

over  the  gentle  slopes  where  innocent 
lambs  feed,  or  frisking  kids  nip  the  tender 
giass;   nor  must  they  despise  the  lesson* 


290 


PACTS  for  everybody: 


furnished  by  manv  a  quickset  hedge    or 
ruined  wall,  over  which 

"  Some  trees 

Whose  massy  outline  of  reposing  shade" 
Beera  placed  to  tempt  the  artist  to  linger  on 
his  journey  and  take  a  sketch.  We  have 
several  lovely  sketches  of  what  artists  term 
"bits,"  snatched  in  haste  from  many  a 
bright  spot  where  we  have  rested  in  our 
rambles,  even  as  the 

"  Shadows,  nursed  by  Night,  retire," 
or  the  sun's  bright  beams  were  first  wel- 
comed by  returning  morn.  These  each 
convey  lessons — pleasing  lessons — not  only 
of  artistic  but  of  religious  instruction,  which 
gushes  forth  as  we  view  their  beauties.  To 
enjoy  such  thoughts,  to  sketch  such  views, 
and  to  treasure  up  their  lessons,  we  must 
leave  the  busy  haunts  of  men,  and  freed 
from  care,  and  toil,  and  noise,  seat  ourselves 
beneath  the  umbrageous  arms  of  some 
ancient  tree,  and  gaze  upon 
"  A  surface  dappled  o'er  with  shadows,  flung 

From  many  a  brooding  cloud." 
If  a  ball  is  placed  upon  the  table,  and  a 
ray  of  light  is  allowed  to  fall  upon  it,  the  side 
near  to  the  light  will  appear  different  from 
the  other  part  upon  which  the  light  does 
not  fall,  as  may  be  seen  in  fig  29,  in  which 


Fig.  29. 
A  represents  the  point  from  which  the  ray 
of  light  proceeds  until  it  falls  upon  part  of 
the  ball,  d  e,  which  thus  receives  direct 
light,  while  the  other  part  (c)  is  in  natural 
shadow  or  shade.  You  will  also  observe 
that  there  is  a  long  pyramidical  shadow 
thrown  upon  the  table,  the  result  of  the 
non-transparency  of  the  ball. 

Having  directed  your  attention  to  the 
preliminary  and  important  points  connected 
with  light  and  shade,  it  now  becomes  neces- 
sary to  make  some  observations  upon 
shading. 

In  shading  there  are  three  kinds  of 
manipulation  requisite — 1st,  waving;  2nd, 
stippling;  and  3rd,  cross-hatching.  There 
are  certain  rules  connected  with  shading 
which  must  be  generally  observed ;  for  it 
will  be  found  that  much  of  the  appearance 
of  objects  depends  upon  the  shading  em- 
ployed; for  it  is  by  means  of  the  kind  of 
tines  used  that  the  projection  of  bodies  from, 


one  another,  and  the  appearance  of  the 
materials  of  which  they  are  constructed, 
are  conveyed  to  those  who  only  possess  the 
opportunity  of  viewing  the  ske'tch.  Colour 
is  at  all  times  better  adapted  to  depict  the 
skies,  portraits,  &c,  than  drawings  of 
uniform  tint,  however  well  the  latter  may 
be  executed- 

The  strokes  used  in  shading  may  be  of 
uniform   thickness  or  not,   and  they  may 


«"  b 

Fig.  30. 
also  be  placed  at  regular  or  irregular  dis- 
tances. If  of  uniform  thickness  (as  a, 
fig.  30),  they  give  the  same  tone  to  a 
drawing  that  one  colour  would,  if  it  were 
placed  upon  the  paper;  but  if  the  same 
strokes  are  drawn  closer  together  in  one 
part  of  the  drawing  than  in  the  other  (as  a, 
fig.  30),  then  that  part  will  have  a  deeper 
tone.  The  same  result  holds  good  with 
respect  to  oblique  lines  (as  in  b,  fig.  30). 
If  the  lines  become  darker  or  broader,  and 
nearer  to  each  other  as  they  recede  from  the 
light,  then  they  will  convey  the  impression 
of  an  increased  depth  of  tone  (as  in  c,  fig. 
30),  whether  the  lines  be  oblique,  per- 
pendicular, or  horizontal.  All  lines  used 
in  shading  do  not  take  the  same  direction, 
as,  in  addition  to  those  mentioned  above 
some  are  semi-circular. 
Here  is  a  figure  (fig.  31)  that  combines 


Tig.  81. 


A   MISCELLANY  OP  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


291 


outline  and  shading:,  and  forms  an  excellent 
study  for  the  beginner  in  both,  as  in  the 
former  lesson,  it  serves  to  illustrate  the 
beauty  and  grace  of  curved  lines,  and  in  the 
latter,  of  uniformity  of  shading. 

Waving  shading  is  produced  by  a  succes- 
sion of  strokes  close  together,  by  using  a 
soft  pencil  (F  or  li)  with  a  worn  point.  If 
these  lines  are  made 
with  a  fine- pointed  pen- 
cil, there  is  not  a  uni- 
formity of  tint  pro- 
duced, and  therefore  the 
lines  should  not  over- 
lap one  another,  but  be  drawn  as  in  fig.  32. 
Foregrounds,  and  deeply-cast  shadows, 
broken  earth,  &c,  require  this  kind  of 
shading. 

Stippling  consists  of  a  series  of  dots,  which 
impart  a  depth  or  lightness  of  shade,  just 
as  they  are  made  large  or  small,  or  closer 
or  farther  apart ;  the  general  rule  being  to 
make  the  large  and  close  together  in  the 
depth  of  the  shade,  and  gradually  small  and 
wider  apart  as  the  light  is  approached. 

Cross-hatching  is  produced  by  drawing  a 
number  of  lines  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
cross  one  another  at  right  angles.  They 
should  alwaj's  be  commenced  from  the  out- 
line as  in  fig.  33,  and  one 
direction  of  lines  finished 
before  the  other  cross  the  in  ; 
otherwise  unevennees  of 
tone  Mill  be  produced. 
They  should  always  be 
thinner  as  they  approach 
the  light,  and  also  wider 
apart.  In  curved  objects 
it  is  necessary  to  observe 
the  relative  convexity  and 
concavity  of  the  surfaces,  and  to  represent 
them  by  lines  exhibiting  a  greater  or  lesser 
curvature,  taking  care  to  increase  their 
breadth  in  certain  parts,  and  diminish  them 
in  other*,  as  may 
be  seen  in  the 
most  common  en- 
gravings of  con- 
cave or  convex 
objects. 

The  general 
rule  for  shading 
is,  that  flat  sur- 
faces must  be 
represented  by 
straight        lines;  f.     g. 

convex    and    con-  ** 

cave  surfaces  by  curved  lines,  as  in  fig.  34, 
which  represents  a  ball,  and  shows  the 
manner  of  increasing  the  depth  of  tone  by 
drawing  the  lines  closer  to  each  other  ;  and 


Fig.  33. 


all  surfaces  of  a  mixed  appearance  must  be 
dealt  with  according  to  circumstances; 
some  parts  requiring  curved  and  other 
straight  lines,  while  others  again  will  re- 
quire cross-hatched  lines  both  curved  and 
straight. 

Remember  that  much  of  the  perfection  of 
shading  consists  in  the  knowledge  of  how 
much  you  can  do,  and  no  more,  and  how 
much  your  pencil  will  do.  In  order  to 
attain  perfection  or  even  mediocrity  in  this 
department  of  drawing,  you  should  practise 
strokes  of  every  description,  with  each  kind 
of  pencil,  upon  sheets  of  paper,  marked  at 
the  top  thus— H:  II. H;  1I.H.II:  &«., 
and  practise  with  fine-pointed  and  worn- 
pointed  pencils  sometimes  plain,  at  other 
times  curved,  and  also  cross-hatched  strokes. 
By  this  means  you  will  ascertain  the  power 
oi  your  hand,  and  the  tone  of  your  pencil. 

It  is  contrary  to  our  practice  to  recommend 
any  person's  wares,  and  therefore  we  refrain 
upon  the  present  occasion.  However,  we 
would  advise  our  pupils  always  to  purchase 
the  best  drawing  materials.  They  are  the 
cheapest  in  the  long  run,  and  will  always 
reflect  credit  upon  the  draughtsman.  Bad 
tools  often  make  bungling  workmen. 

PHOTOGRAPHY.  The  Daguerreotype 
process  consists  in  exposing  a  silvered  copper 
plate  to  vapour  of  iodine,  whereby  a  film  of 
iodide  of  silver  is  formed  on  the  surface; 
then  placing  it  in  the  camera,  so  that  the 
light  may  act  upon  it  in  certain  parts,  and 
reduce  the  iodide  of  silver  to  the  metallic 
state  ;  and  afterwards  exposing  it  to  vapour 
of  mercury.  The  mercury  adheres  in 
minute  globules  to  those  parts  on  which  the 
silver  has  been  reduced.  Lastly,  the  plate 
is  washed  with  a  solution  of  hyposulphite  of 
sodium,  to  remove  the  iodide  of  silver,  not 
decomposed  by  the  light.  In  the  Calotype 
process,  the  picture  is  taken  upon  paper. 
The  paper  is  prepared  by  immersion  first  in 
a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  then,  after 
drying,  in  a  weak  solution  of  iodide  of  potas- 
sium ;  after  which  it  is  soaked  in  water  for 
a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  then  dried,  first 
with  blotting  paper,  and  afterwards  before 
the  fire.  The  paper  thus  prepared  is  called 
iodized  paper ;  it  is  not  sensitive  to  light. 
When  required  for  use,  it  is  washed  with  a 
liquid  prepared  by  dissolving  100  grains  of 
crystallized  nitrate  of  silver  in  two  ounces 
ofdistilled  water,  adding  to  the  solution  its 
own  volume  of  strong  acetic  acid,  and  mix- 
ing the  solution  thus  formed  with  from  one 
to  twenty  volumes  of  a  saturated  solution  of 
crystallized  gallic  acid  in  cold  distilled 
water.  „  These  operations  must  be  performed 
in  the  dark.     Ihe  paper  thus  prepared  is 


292 


PACTS   FOR  EVERYBODY 


highly  sensitive,  and  is  fit  for  taking  pic- 
tures in  the  camera.  The  picture  thus  ob- 
tained is  a  negative  one,  being  darkest  in 
the  parts  where  the  strongest  light  has  acted 
on  it.  When  first  produced  it  is  generally 
invisible,  but  may  be  brought  out  by  again 
washing  the  paper  with  a  mixture  of  one 
part  of  the  silver  solution  with  three  parts 
of  the  saturated  solution  of  gallic  acid.  It 
is  then  to  be  fixed  by  washing  it  with  water, 
lightly  drying  between  blotting-paper,  and 
washing  with  a  solution  of  bromide  of  potas- 
sium. From  the  negative  picture  thus 
produced,  positive  copies  may  be  obtained 
by  placing  it  with  its  face  against  a  piece  of 
ordinary  photographic  paper  (prepared  by 
washing  good  writing-paper  with  a  solution 
of  common  salt,  then  wiping  it  dry,  and 
washing  it  with  nitrate  of  silver),  pressing 
it  into  close  contact  by  a  board  above  and 
below,  and  exposing  it  for  a  short  time  to 
sunshine.  Finally,  it  is  to  be  fixed  by  im- 
mersion in  a  hot  solution  of  hyposulphite  of 
sodium.  Such  are  the  general  principles  of 
these  processes. 

INVISIBLE  INK.  The  most  curious  of 
all  kinds  of  sympathetic  ink,  is  that  from 
cobalt.  It  is  a  very  singular  phenomenon, 
that  the  characters  or  figures  traced  out 
with  this  ink  may  be  made  to  disappear 
and  re-appear  at  pleasure.  This  property 
is  peculiar  to  ink  obtained  from  cobalt,  for 
all  the  other  kinds  are  at  first  invisible, 
until  some  substance  has  been  applied  to 
make  them  appear;  but  when  once  they 
have  appeared  they  remain.  To  prepare 
this  ink,  take  zaffre,  and  dissolve  it  in 
nitro-muriatic  acid,  till  the  acid  extracts 
from  it  the  metallic  part  of  the  cobalt, 
which  communicates  to  the  zaffre  its  blue 
colour ;  then  dilute  the  solution,  which  is 
very  acrid,  with  common  water.  If  you 
write  with  this  liquor  on  paper,  the  cha- 
racters will  be  invisible  ;  but  when  exposed 
to  a  sufficient  degree  of  heat  they  will  be- 
come preen.  When  the  paper  has  cooled 
they  will  disappear.  Observe,  if  the  paper 
be  too  much  heated,  they  will  not  disappear 
at  all. 

STEAM  NAVIGATION.  In  December, 
1736,  a  patent  for  a  steam -boat  was  taken 
out  by  Jonathan  Hull,  and  a  drawing  and 
description  of  the  same  was  published  in  the 
following  year.  From  want  of  encourage- 
ment to  the  inventor  the  boat  was  never 
constructed.  About  twenty  years  later,  two 
Americans,  and  Thomas  Payne,  each  claimed 
the  honour  of  inventing  steam-boats,  but 
none  of  the  plans  were  brought  into  prac- 
tice. It  is  believed  that  the  first  steam- 
boat ever  known  to  succeed,  was  the  joint 


invention  of  Mr.  Miller,  a  Scotchman,  and 
his  family  tutor,  Mr.  James  Taylor.  In 
1788  they  constructed  a  boat  with  paddles, 
moved  by  steam-power,  which  was  tried  on 
the  lake  of  Dalswinton,  Dumfriesshire,  and 
found  to  realize  the  expectations  of  the  in- 
ventors. In  the  following  year  a  larger 
vessel  was  constructed,  by  Air.  Miller,  at 
the  Carron  Foundry ;  it  was  tried  on  the 
Forth  and  Clyde  Canal,  in  November,  1789, 
and  was  found  to  travel  at  the  rate  of  seven 
miles  an  hour.  A  misunderstanding  having 
occurred  between  Messrs.  Miller  and  Taylor, 
Mr.  Symington,  the  maker  of  the  engines 
in  their  boats,  took  up  the  project,  and  built 
another  experimental  steam -vessel,  which 
was  tried  with  success  on  the  Forth  and 
Clyde  Canal,  but  was  interdicted  by  the 
Canal  Company,  on  account  of  its  motion 
destroying  the'banks.  This  vessel,  while  it 
lay  at  Lock  16,  was  inspected  by  Mr.  Fulton, 
accompanied  by  Mr.  H.  Bell,  of  Glasgow. 
In  1807,  Mr.  Fulton  launched  a  steam- 
vessel  on  the  Hudson ;  and  in  1812,  Mr. 
Bell  launched  another  on  the  Clyde.  These 
were  the  first  vessels  used  for  the  service  of 
the  pubbc.  Fulton's  first  vessel  was  ill- 
constructed,  but  he  afterwards  built  vessels 
with  various  improvements,  and  every  effort 
added  to  their  utility  and  fame.  In  a  few 
years  afterwards  steam-boats  were  general- 
ly inlroduced.  when  "  every  feasible  method 
that  ingenuity  could  suggest  towards  their 
improvement  was  called  into  action;  till  at 
length  the  inexhaustible  resources  of  na- 
tional art  and  science  produced  those  ocean 
steamers  which  float  across  the  Atlantic — 
the  triumph  of  art,  and  the  admiration  of 
the  world." 

AQUEOUS.  Water  is  required  not  only 
as  the  medium  of  conveying  the  other  sub- 
stances into  the  body,  but  it  forms  a  promi- 
nent constituent  of  the  body  itself.  Blood 
contains  790  parts  of  water  to  210  of  solid 
matter  in  every  1000.  Muscles  contain  770 
parts  of  water  to  230  solid  ingredients.  The 
brain  and  nerves  contain  about  800  parts  of 
water  in  1000.  If  food  does  not  contain 
water  naturally,  it  is  taken  into  the  system 
in  the  form  of  tea,  coffee,  beer,  and  also  in 
its  pure  state.  The  quantity  of  water  taken 
with  the  food  should  be  about  in  the  pro- 
portion of  four  to  one,  as  we  find  it  in  milk. 
We  cannot,  however,  judge  of  the  quantity 
contained  in  solid  food  till  we  know  its 
composition.  Thus  many  substances  which 
appear  solid  contain  large  quantities  of 
water.  In  potatoes,  for  instance,  there  are 
75  parts  of  water  in  every  100  parts. 

OLEAGINOUS.  The*butter  of  the  milk 
represents  oily  and  fatty  matters  in  general, 


▲  MISCELLANY  OP  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


21)3 


which  seem  to  enter  into  the  composition  of 
all  healthy  food  They  are  taken  by  the 
inhabitant's  of  tropical  countries  in  the  seed 
of  the  cocoa-nut,  as  well  as  by  those  of  the 
polar  region!  from  the  fat  of  "the  seal,  and 
many  kinds  of  flan.  They  nre  obtained 
from  both  the  animal  and  vegetable  king- 
doms, being  known  by  the  name  of  suets, 
fats,  and  lards,  from  the  former  source; 
and  oils  and  butter  from  the  latter. 

SACCHARINE.  The  sugar  of  the  milk 
represents  several  substances  obtained  from 
plants  and  used  as  food.  Sugar  itself  varies 
in  its  composition  according  to  its  sources ; 
hence  we  have  cane-sugar,  grape-sugar, 
maple-sugar,  <fcc.  Sugar  has  also  a  compo- 
sition nearly  approaching  that  of  starch, 
and  this  substance  is  very  generally  found 
in  the  vegetable  diet  of  man ;  pure  in  the 
form  of  arrow-root,  tapioca,  and  sago ; 
combined  in  the  dour  of  wheat,  and  other 
cereal  grasses.  Of  ail  the  animal  products 
used  as  food,  sugar  is«  found  alone  in  milk. 

PKOTEINACEOUS:  The  casein  of  the 
milk — which  when  separated,  is  known  by 
tbe  name  of  cheese — lias,  in  common  with 
two  other  vegetable  and  animal  substances, 
called  ftbrine  and  albumen,  a  principle  for 
their  basis  named  protein.  These  sub- 
stances form  the  chief  part  of  the  fabric  of 
the  body,  and  in  their  capacity  of  food,  per- 
form a  very  different  function  in  the  body  to 
the  butter  and  sugar  before  mentioned. 

INORGANIC,  The  salts  of  milk  are  the 
saline  substances,  which  entering  into  the 
composition  of  various  parts  of  the  human 
bodv,  are  necessary  to  its  integrity  and 
health.  The  importance  of  the  presence  of 
these  substances  is  frequently  overlooked  in 
food,  and  many  diseases  of  the  human 
frame  arise  from  their  absence.  They  are 
conveyed  into  the  svstem  in  both  animal 
and  vegetable  food  ;  but  in  common  salt  we 
have  an  instance  of  a  substance  belonging 
to  this  class,  taken  directly  from  the  mineral 
kingdom,  as  food,  without  the  intervention 
of  an  organic  bodv. 

POKES  OF  THE  HUMAN  BODY.  The 
skin  of  the  human  body  is  a  very  curious 
object  for  the  microsco'pe.  By  cutting  a 
thin  piece  with  a  very  sharp  pen -knife  or 
razor,  and  applying  it  to  a  good  microscope, 
a  multitude  of  small  pores  will  be  seen, 
through  which  the  perspirable  matter  is 
supposed  to  be  perpetually  transmitted. 
These  are  best  seen  in  the  under  or  second 
skin.  There  are  said  to  be  1,000  pores  in 
the  length  of  an  inch ;  and  of  course,  in 
a  surface  an  inch  square,  there  will  be 
1,000,000,  through  which,  either  the  sensible 
or   insensible    perspiration   is   continually 


issuing.  If  there  are  1,00G,000  pores  in 
every  square^inch,  the  following  calculation 
is  made  of  the  number  contained  in  the 
whole  body : — 

The  surface  of  the  body  of  a  middle-sized 
person  is  reckoned  to  contain  14  feet;  and, 
as  each  foot  contains  144  inches,  the 
number    of     pores    will    be    estimated    at 

1,000,000+144+14=2,016,000,000,  or  two 
thousand  and  sixteen  millions. 

GOLD  AND  SILVER.*  The  consumption 
of  gold  and  silver  for  coinage  and  household 

purposes  is  enormous,  its  application  having 
increased  rapidly  since  the  discoveries  of  gold 
in  California  and  Australia.  The  amount  of 
gold  and  silver  annually  taken  from  the  mines 
of  Europe  is  valued  at  $25,000,000.  In  Amer- 
ica the  yield  is  computed  to  be  $146,000,000, 
and  Asia  produces  $25,Q»H),000.  Africa  has 
no  silver  mines,  but  produces  gold  to  the 
amount  of  nearly  $3,000,000.  Australia  is 
also  without  silver,  but  produces  gold  to  the 
large  amount  of  $200,000,000.  The  whole 
smn  extracted  since  the  earliest  time  is  worth 
some  $25,530,000,000.  The  increase  in  the 
production  of  gold  and  silver  is  enormous, 
and  we  shall,  at  the  present  rate,  gain  more 
in  this  respect,  in  fifty  years,  than  our  ances- 
tors did  in  fifty  centuries. 

CURIOUS  CALENDAR.  By  counting  the 
knuckles  on  the  hand,  with  tbe  spaces  be- 
tween them,  all  the  months  with  thirty-one 
days  will  fall  on  the  knuckles,  and  those  con- 
taining thirty  days  or  less  will  come  in  the 
spaces.  Forinstance:  January,  first  knuckle, 
February,  first  space  ;  March, second  knuckle, 
April,  second  space  ;  May,  third  knuckle, 
June,  third  space ;  July,  fourth  knuckle, 
August,  first  knuckle,  September,  first  space  ; 
October,  second  knuckle,  November,  second 
space  ;  December  third  knuckle.  In  going 
from  one  hand  to  the  other  count  no  space. 

NATIONAL  DEBT.  The  national  debt 
is  the  amount  of  sums  owing  by  a  state  to 
persons  who  have  lent  money  to  it,  to  enable 
it  to  carry  on  wars  and  other  operations. 
A  stipulated  interest  is  paid  to  the  national 
creditors  or  fundholders.  The  custom  of 
borrowing  money,  and  thus  anticipating  the 
available  revenue  for  war  purposes,  was  in- 
troduced in  the  reign  of  William  III.  Thus 
posterity  is  taxed,  for  wars  of  which  perhaps 
it  will  disapprove.  The  total  amount  of  the 
national  debt  of  Great  Britain  is  now  up- 
wards of  eight  hundred  millions. 

TAPE-WORMS.  #  The  tape-worm  is 
found  in  the  human  intestines,  and  attains 
the  length  of  three  or  four  yards ;  occa- 
sionally even  more  than  this.  Now,  one 
curious  fact  about  it  is,  that  the  very  same 
species  that  infests  the  natives  of  Great 
|  Britain,  infests  also  the  Dutch  and  German*. 


294 


FACTS  FOIL  EVERYBODY: 


Another  species,  Hotriocephalus  laius,  is  ' 
peculiar  to  the  Swiss  and  Russians ;  while  I 
the  inhabitants  of  the  French  provinces  | 
adjoining  Switzerland  possess  the  unenviable  j 
distinction  of  being  infested  with  both.     It 


ung 

is  strange  that  these  creatures  should  thus 
be  restricted  to  certain  countries,  as  they 
are,  by  their  mode  of  life,  exempt  from  all 
44  the  skyey  influences."  Perhaps  some  of 
my  readers  may  be  inclined  to  speculate  on 
this  very  singular  fact,  and  infer  that  honest 
John  Bull  must  have  something  about  him 
akin  to  "  the  stuff"  that  Dutch  and  Germans 
are  made  of,  when  parasites  of  the  same 
epcies  attack  them  in  common,  and  avoid 
the  Russians  and  Swiss.  But  this  were  to 
"  reason  too  curiously ;"  for  an  Englishman 
might  be  infested  with  the  Tape-worm  of 
Russia,  if  he  became  for  a  long  enough  time 
resident  in  that  country. 


The  head  of  the  Tape- worm  is  furnished 
with  suckers  and  recurved  hooks,  so  that  it 
can  retain  a  firm  hold.  Like  the  root  of  a 
plant,  it  imbibes  the  nutritive  juices  re- 
quired for  the  support  of  the  entire  struc- 
ture. Each  of  its  numerous  joints  possesses 
within  itself  the  means  of  producing  thou- 
sands of  fertile  ova.  These  joints  break  off, 
btj/itratiug  from  the  stem,  as  branches  heavy 
wit'i  ripe  fruits  from  a  richly-laden  tree. 
But  a  strange  mode  of  reproducing  them  is 
provided.  The  joint  next  the  head  divides 
into  two  joints ;  each  of  these  expands  and 
then  divides  in  like  manner:  so  that  the 
egg-produeing  segments  resume  in  Hire  their 


former  proportions,  and  thus  one  head  may 
outlive  successive  generations  of  the  other 
parts.  "  Is  there  any  one,"  says  Professor 
Eseright,  "who,  upon  the  contemplation  of 
this  wonderful  apparatus,  and  the  extraor- 
dinary results  of  its  agency,  can  for  a  mo- 
ment imagine  that  it  is  without  an  object  or 
an  end  ?"  The  Tape-worm  is  not  produced 
by  chance  :  no  atoms  of  matter  shaped  them- 
selves into  the  living  animal,  according  to 
the  hypothesis  of  equivocal  generation.  In 
all  its  wonderful  detail*?,  the  humble  worm 
declares  its  Great  Artificer;  and  Science 
stands — as  true  Science  ever  will  stand — 
the  handmaid  of  Religion. 

HORSE.  An  animal,  whose  generic  cha- 
racter is  six  front  teeth  in  each  jaw,  with 
canine  teeth  on  each  side,  remote  from  the 
rest,  with  undivided  hoofs.  There  are  six 
species,  among  which,  besides  the  common 
horse,  is  a  native  of  the  middle  regions  of 
Asia,  wild,  and  uncommonly  swift.  The 
other  species  are  the  ass,  the  zebra,  the 
quagga,  and  the  cloven-footed  horse  of 
South  America.  In  England,  we  have 
many  breeds,  and  the  best  in  the  world ; 
out  Arabian  and  Barbary  horses  are  de- 
servedly esteemed  for  their  beauty  and 
swiftness.  English  race-horses  run  two 
miles  in  three  minutes;  hunters  are  another 
class,  combining  strength  with  swiftness. 
Several  counties  have  their  breeds  of 
draught  horses,  and  the  black  Bakewell 
breed  will  draw  three  tons,  or  double  the 
regular  draught.  The  age  of  a  horse  is  de- 
termined by  the  corner  front  leeth,  adjoin- 
ing the  tushes;  at  four  and  a-half  years 
these  teeth  are  just  visible  above  the  gum  ; 
at  five,  the  remaining  colts'  teeth  are  shed, 
and  the  tushes  appear ;  at  six,  the  tushes 
are  up,  white,  and  sharp,  with  a  small 
circle  of  young  growing  tiesh,  the  mouth 
being  then  complete. 

BILLION.  This  is  a  million  times  a 
million,  wbi<  a  no  one  is  able  to  count,  how- 
ever easy  it  mey  be  to  write  it.  You  can 
count  160  or  170  a  minute,  but  let  us  even 
suppose  that  you  go  so  far  as  200  in  a 
minute,  then  an  hour  will  produce  12,000  ; 
a  day,  288,000 ;  and  a  year,  or  305  days 
(for  every  four  years  you  may  rest  a  day 
from  counting,  during  leap  year), 
105,120,000.  Supposing  that  Adam,  at  the 
beginning  of  his  existence,  had  begun  to 
count,  had  continued  to  do  so,  and  was 
counting  still,  he  would  not,  even  now,  ac- 
cording to  the  usually  supposed  age  of  our 
glebe,  have  counted  nearly  enough  For, 
to  count  a  billion,  he  would  require  9,512 
years,  34  days,  5  hours,  and  20  minutes, 
according  to  the  above  rule. 


A    MISCELLANY   OF  rSEETJL  KNOWLEDGE. 


20f 


GLASS.  The  art  of  making  glass  was 
Introduced  into  England  from  France,  in 
the  v<mi-  (>74:,  for  the  use  of  eharehet  ami 
Monasteries.    Benedict  Bisoop.  who  in  that 

wn  Bounded  ■  monastery,  ana  attached  to 
it  an  elegant,  church  of  stone,  alter  the 
ItomaW  manner,  prevailed  on  some  ^lass- 
makers  in  1-  ranee  to  come  over  and  glaze 
the  windows.  These  artificers  not  only 
performed  the  work  assigned  to  them,  but 
also  taught  the  English  how  to  make  win- 
dows, lamps,  and  drinking-vessels.  Before 
that  period,  the  windows  of  houses  and 
churches  were  filled  either  with  linen, 
cloth,  or  lattices  of  wood  ;  and  even  in  the 
twelfth  century,  glass  windows  in  private 
houses  were  very  rare. 

Discovery  of  Plate-Glass.  Blancourt 
relates,  as  the  mode  in  which  the  casting  of 
plate-glass  was  discovered,  that  a  person 
who  was  melting  some  of  this  material  in  a 
crucible,  accidentally  spilt  it,  while  fluid, 
upon  the  ground.  The  metal  ran  under 
one  of  the  large  flag-stones  wherewith  the 
place  was  paved,  which  obliged  the  work- 
mau  to  take  up  the  stone  in  order  to  recover 
the  glass.  He  then  found  it  in  the  form  of 
a  plate,  such  as  could  not  be  produced  by 
the  ordinary  process  of  blowing.  The 
man's  attention  being  roused  by  this  fact, 
he  was  unable  to  sleep,  and  conceiving  at 
once  the  superiority  of  this  method  for 
forming  mirrors,  he  immediately  commenced 
experimenting,  and  before  the  day  had  ap- 
peared, had  proved  the  practicability  of  the 
improvement  which  the  purest  chance  had 
thus  placed  within  the  sphere  of  his  observa- 
tion. 

SHORTHAND.  Among  all  the  systems 
of  shorthand,  or  stenography,  we  know  of 
none  less  complicated  than  that  of  Taylor, 
improved  by  Harding.  First,  we  give  the 
alphabet : — 

*  *>    o    a  e  I   ^  li  j 
£  l.m   a 


O    C[     p      -p        s 

*    P  ^  7/    - 


i     ^    \    <r  <_  *s   -* 

The  vowels,  it  will  be  seen,  are  repre- 
sented by  points ;  the  period  representing 
«,  e,  »',  the  comma  doing  the  same  for  o  and 
u;  each  being  further  distinguishable  by 
the  position  of  the  point.    From  the  conso- 


nants, e  and  z  are  dismissed  as  needless; 
where  the  former  has  a  hard  sound,  /.•  is 
u^eil  ;  where  a  soft  one,  s.  One  character 
^unices  for  /and  v,  for  g  and  j,  and  for  k 
and  q.  Thus  the  consonants  are  reduced 
without  diilieulty  or  contusion  to  sixteen. 
l'he  double  consonants,  ch,  xh,  th,  &.<:.,  are 
marked  by  distinct  characters.  Again, 
single  "vowels  are  allowed  to  stand  for 
words,  as  a  for  an.  The  and  oxd  are  noted 
by  commas,  differently  placed  \b  stands  for 
be,  by,  and  been,  and  so  on.  It  is  considered 
a  good  practical  rule  in  learning,  to  test 
progress  and  eflicitncj  by  trying  how 
rapidly  the  student  can  write  the  entire 
alphabet ;  to  do  it  correctly  four  times  in  a 
minute,  is  good.  The  next  source  of  gain 
is  abbreviation,  as  by  the  use  of  single 
letters  to  mark  the  first  and  last  syllables  of 
words,  b  standing  for  abs,  in  absorb,  lor  in- 
stance, d  for  dom  in  kingdom.  It  is  known 
that  these  letters  do  not  represent  merely  a 
letter,  by  their  being  slightly  disconnected 
from  the  word  to  which  they  belong,  while 
they  are  still  so  near  that  they  cannot  be 
mistaken  for  independent  words.  But  whole 
words,  of  length,  are  also  expressed  by  a 
letter  or  by  a  mark — these  are  called  arbi- 
trary, and  vary  according  to  the  writer's 
particular  subject  matter.  Students  of  law, 
medicine,  and  divinity,  reporters  for  news- 
papers, can  each  easily  frame  for  themselves 
a  plan  of  writing  rapidly  those  special  words 
which  occur  frequently  to  them,  are  difficult 
to  write  literallv,  auu  are  not  liable  to  be 
mistaken. 

HEISREW  ALPHABET.  The  Hebrew 
alphabet  contains  tuenty-tivo  letters  Their 
names  may  be  found  in  regular  order  iu  the 
119th  Psalm. 

ICEBERGS.  Are  immense  bodies  of  ice, 
extending  occasionally  two  miles  long  by 
one  broad,  and  some  hundreds  of  feet  high, 
which  are  found  floating  in  the  polar  seas, 
and  are  formed  in  two  ways— in  the  6ea 
itself,  by  the  accumulation  of  snow  and  ice, 
or  on  precipitous  shores,  in  glaciers,  which 
are  ultimately  broken  off'  by  their  own 
weight,  and  often  carry  with  them  enormous 
pieces  of  rock.  These,  as  the  icebergs  melt, 
when  floated  into  warmer  regions,  are 
dropped,  with  all  their  lesser  earthy  con- 
tents of  gravel,  &c,  to  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean,  and  so  help  to  raise  its  bed.  The 
erratic  masses  of  stone  called  boulders,  found 
scattered  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  on 
the  surface,  without  any  apparent  connexion 
with  the  rocks  in  the  cru>t  beneath,  are 
supposed  to  have  been  thus  deposited  in 
some  remote  time,  when  the  locality  was 
covered  with  the  deep  waters. 


296 


PACTS  FOE  everybody: 


SIGNIFICATION   OP   CHRISTIAN 

NAMES. 
Aaron,  Hebrew,  a  mountain. 
Abel,  Heb.  vanity. 
Abraham,  Heb.  the  father  of  many. 
Absalom,  Heb.  the  father's  peace. 
Achilles,  Greek,  a  freer  from  pain. 
Adam,  Heb.  red  earth. 
Adolphus,  Saxon,  happiness  and  help. 
Adrian,  Latin,  a  helper. 
Alfege,  Sax.  always  merry. 
Alan,  British,  swift  like  a  greyhound. 
Albert,  Sax.  all  bright. 
Aldred,  Sax.  the  dread  of  all. 
Alexander,  Gr.  a  helper  of  men. 
Alfred,  Sax.  all  peace. 
Alfric,  German,  all  rich. 
Alphonso,  Gothic,  our  help. 
Alwin,  Sax.  winning  all. 
Ambrose,  Gr.  immortal. 
Amos,  Heb.  a  burden. 
Andrew,  Gr.  courageous. 
Andronicus,  Gr.  a  conqueror  of  men. 
Anselm,  Ger.  a  defender. 
Anthony,  Lat.  nourishing. 
Apelles,  Gr.  not  black  at  all. 
Archibald,  Ger.  a  bold  observer. 
Arnold,  Ger.  a  maintainer  of  honour. 
Arthur,  Brit,  a  strong  man. 

iaSuS;}^-™-  "•.«»»«■ 

Baldwin,  Ger.  a  bold  winner. 
Bardulph,  Ger.  a  famous  helper. 
Barnaby,  Heb.  a  prophet's  son. 
Bartholomew,  Heb.  the  son  of  him  who 

made  the  waters  to  rise. 
Basil,  Gr.  kindly. 
Beaumont,  F,  enchy  a  pretty  mount. 
Bede,  Sax.  prayer. 
Bevis,  Fr.  fair  "to  look  upon. 
Benjamin,  Heb.  the  son  of  a  right  hand. 
Bennet,  Lat.  blessed. 
Bernard,  Ger.  bear's  heart. 
Bertram,  Ger.  fair,  illustrious. 
Blaise,  Gr.  sprouting  forth. 
Buonaventure,  Italian,  good  adventure. 
Boniface,  Lat.  a  well-doer. 
Brian,  Fr.  having  a  thundering  voice. 
Cadwallader,  Brit,  valiant  in  war. 
Caesar,  Lat  adorned  with  hair. 
Caleb,  Heb.  a  dog. 
Cecil,  Lat.  dim-sighted. 
Charles,  Ger.  noble-spirited. 
Christopher,  Gr.  bearing  Christ. 
Clement,  Lat.  mild-tempered. 
Conrad,  Ger.  able  counsel. 
Constantine,  Lat.  resolute. 
Crispin,  Lat.  having  curled  lockg. 
Cuthbert,  Sax.  known  famously, 
Daniel,  Heb.  God  is  judge. 
David,  Heb.  well-beloved. 


Demetrius,  Gr.  sprung  from  the  earth. 

Denis,  Gr.  belonging  to  the  god  of  wine. 

Dunstan,  Sax.  most  high. 

jvigar,  Sax.  happy  honour. 

Edmund,  Sax.  happy  peace. 

Edward,  Sax.  happy  keeper. 

Edwin.  Sax.  happy  conqueror. 

Egbert,  Sax.  ever  bright. 

Eleazar.  Heb.  the  God  of  help. 

ELired,  Sax.  terrible. 

Elijah,  Heb.  God,  the  Lord. 

Eiisha,  Heb.  the  salvation  of  God. 

Emmanuel,  Heb.  God  with  us. 

Enoch,  Heb.  instructed  or  dedicated. 

Ephraim,  Heb.  fruitful. 

Erasmus,  Gr.  lovely,  worthy  to  he  loved. 

Ernest,  Gr.  earnest,  serious. 

Esau,  Heb.  completed. 

Ethelbald,  Sax.  nobly  bold. 

Ethelbert,  Sax.  nobly  bright. 

Ethel fred,  Sax.  noble  peace. 

Ethelfred,  Sax.  noble  in  counsel. 

Ethelstan,  Sax.  a  noble  jewel. 

Ethel wald,  Sax.  a  noble  keeper. 

Ethelwold,  Sax.  a  noble  governor. 

Evan,  or  I  von,  Brit,  the  same  as  John. 

Everard,  Ger.  well  reported. 

Eugene,  Gr.  nobly  descended. 

Eusebius,  Gr.  religious. 

Eustace,  Gr.  standing  firm. 

Ezekiel,  Heb.  the  strength  of  God. 

Ezra,  Heb.  a  helper. 

Felix,  Lat.  happy. 

Ferdinand,  Ger.  pure  peace. 

Fortunatus,  Lat.  happy. 

Francis,  Ger.  free. 

Frederic,  Ger.  rich  peace. 

Gabriel,  Heb.  the  strength  of  God. 

Geoffrey,  Ger.  joyful. 

George,  Gr.  a  husbandman. 

Gerard,  Sax.  all  towardliness. 

German,  Lat.  a  near  kinsman. 

Gervase,  Ger.  all  sure. 

Gideon,  Heb.  a  breaker. 

Gilbert,  Sax.  bright  as  gold. 

Giles,  Gr.  a  little  goat. 

Goddard,  Ger.  a  godly  disposition. 

Godfrey,  Ger.  God's  peace. 

Godwin,  Ger.  victorious  in  God. 

Griffith,  Brit,  having  great  faith. 

Guy,  Fr.  the  misletoe  shrub. 

Hannibal,  Funic,  a  gracious  lord. 

Harold,  Sax.  a  champion. 

Hector,  Gr.  a  stout  defender. 

Henry,  Ger.  a  rich  lord. 

Herbert,  Ger.  a  bright  lord. 

Hercules,  Gr.  the  glory  of  Hera  or  June, 

Hezekiah,  Heb.  cleaving  to  the  Lord. 

Hilary,  Lat.  merry,  cheerful. 

Horatio,  Ital.  worthy  to  be  beheld, 

Howel,  Brit,  sound,  or  whole. 


A   MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


297 


Hubert,  Ger.  a  bright  colour. 

Hugh,  Dutch,  high,  lofty. 

Humphrey,  Ger.  domestic  peace. 

Jacob,  Heb.  u  mpplanter 

James,  or  Jacques,  beguiling. 

Ingram,  Ger.  of  angelic  purity. 

Joab,  Heb.  fatherhood. 

Job,  Heb.  sorrowing. 

Joel,  Htb.  acquiescing. 

John,  Heb.  the  grace  of  the  Lord. 

Jonah,  Heb.  a  dove. 

Jonathan,  Heb.  the  gift  of  the  Lord. 

JoSeelin,  Ger.  just. 

Joseph,  Heb.  addition. 

Josias,  Htb.  the  lire  of  the  Lord. 

Joshua.  Heb.  a  Saviour, 

Isaac,  Heb.  laughter. 

Israel,  Heb.  prevailing  with  God. 

Judah,  Heb.  confession. 

Kenard,  Sax.  of  a  kind  nature. 

Kenelm,  Sax.  a  defence  of  his  kindred. 

Lambert,  '"ax.  a  fair  lamb. 

Lancelot,  Span,  a  little  lance. 

Laurence,  Lat.  crowned  with  laurels. 

Lazarus,  Heb.  destitute  of  help. 

Leonard,  Ger.  like  a  lion. 

Leopold,  Ger.  defending  the  people. 

Lewellin,  Brit  like  a  lion. 

Lewis,  Fr.  the  defender  of  the  people. 

Lionel,  Lat.  a  little  lion. 

Lodowic,  Sax.  the  defence  of  the  people 

Lucius,  Lat.  shining. 

Luke,  Gr.  a  wood  or  grove. 

Malachi,  Heb.  my  messenger. 

Mark,  Lat.  a  hammer. 

Marmaduke,  Ger.  a  mighty  duke  or  lord. 

Martin,  Lat.  martial 

Matthew,  Heb.  a  gift  or  present. 

Maurice,  Lat.  sprung  of  a  Moor. 

Mereditb,  Brit,  the  roaring  of  the  sea. 

Michael,  Heb.  who  is  like  God. 

Morgan,  Brit,  a  mariner. 

Moses.  Heb.  drawn  out. 

Narcissus.  Gr.  a  daffodil. 

Nathaniel,  Heb.  the  gift  of  God. 

Neal.  Fr.  somewhat  black. 

Nicolas,  Gr.  victorious  over  the  people. 

Noel,  Fr.  belonging  to  one'b  nativity. 

Norman,  Fr.  one  born  in  Normandy. 

Obadiah,  Heb.  the  servant  of  the  Lord. 

Oliver,  Lat.  an  olive. 

Orlando,  Ital.  counsel  for  the  land. 

Osmund,  Sax.  house  peace. 

Oswald,  Sax.  ruler  of  a  house. 

Owen,  Brit,  well  descended. 

Patrick,  Lat.  a  nobleman. 

Paul,  Lat.  small,  little. 

Percival,  Fr.  a  place  in  Franc©. 

Peregrine,  Lat.  outlandish. 

Peter,  Gr.  a  rock  or  stone. 

Philemon,  Gr.  saluting. 


Philip,  Gr.  a  lover  of  horses. 
Phineas,  lhh.  of  bold  countenance. 

Ptolemy,  Or.  nighty  in  war. 

Quintio,  Lat.  belonging  to  five. 

Ralph, contracted  from  Radolph,  or 

Randal,  or  Ramlph,  Sax.  pure  help. 

Raymond,  Ger.  quiet  peace. 

Reuben.  Heb.  the  son  of  vision. 

Reynold,  Ger.  a  lover  of  purity. 

Richard,  Sax  powerful. 

Robert,  Ger.  famous  in  counsel. 

Roger,  Ger.  strong  counsel. 

Roa  l.md,  Ger.  counsel  for  the  land* 

Rufus,  Lat.  reddish. 

Solomon,  Heb.  peaceable. 

Samson,  lhb.  a  little  son. 

Samuel,  Htb.  heard  by  God. 

Saul,  Heb.  desired. 

Sebastian,  Gr.  to  be  reverenced. 

Simeon,  Heb.  hearing. 

Simon,  Heb.  obedient. 

Stephen,  Gr.  a  crown  or  garland. 

Swiihin,  Sax.  very  high. 

Thaddeus,  Syriac,  a  breast. 

Theobald,  Sax  bold  over  the  people. 

Theodore,  Gr.  the  gift  of  God. 

Theodosius,  Gr.  given  of  God. 

Theophilus,  Gr.  a  lover  of  God. 

Thomas,  Heb.  a  twin. 

Thurstan,  Ger.  faithful. 

Timothy,  Gr.  a  fearer  of  God. 

Toby  or  Tobias,  Heb.  the  goodness  of  the 

Lord. 
Tristram,  Lat.  sorrowful. 
Valentine,  Lat  powerful. 
Vincent,  Lat.  conquering, 
Vivian,  Lat.  living. 
Urban,  Lat.  courteous. 
Walter,  Ger.  a  wood-master. 
Walwin,  Ger.  a  conqueror. 
"William,  Ger.  defending  many. 
Zaccheus,  Syriac,  innocent. 
Zaehary,  Heb.  remembering  the  Lord. 
Zebedee,  Syriac,  having  an  inheritance. 
Zedekiah,  Heb.  the  justice  of  the  Lord. 

Abigail,  Heb.  the  father's  joy, 

Ade  ine,  Ger.  a  princess. 

Agatha,  Gr.  good. 

Agnes,  Ger.  chaste. 

Alethea,  Gr.  the  truth. 

Althea,  Gr.  hunting. 

Alice,  Alicia,  Ger.  noble. 

Amy,  Amelia,  Fr.  a  beloved. 

Anna,  Anne,  or  Hannah,  Heb.  gracioufc, 

Arabella,  Lat.  a  fair  altar. 

Aureola,  Lat.  like  jrold 

Barbara,  Lat.  foreign  or  strange. 

Beatrice,  Lat.  making  happy. 

Benedicta,  Lat.  blessed. 

Bernice,  Gr.  bringing  victory* 


FACTS  FOB.   ETEETBODY: 


Bertha,  Gr.  bright  or  famous.  . 

Blanche.  Fr.  fair. 

Bona,  Lat.  good. 

Bridget,  Irish,  shining  bright. 

Cassandra,  Gr.  a  reformer  of  men 

Catharine,  Gr.  pure  or  clean. 

Charity,  Gr.  love,  bounty. 

Charlotte,  Fr.  all  noble. 

Caroline,  feminine  of  Carolus,  the  Latin 

of  Charles,  noble-spirited. 
Chloe,  Gr.  a  green  herb. 
Christiana,  Gr.  belonging  to  Christ. 
Cecilia,  Lat.  from  Cecil. 
Cicely,  a  corruption  of  Ceciha. 
Clara,  Lat.  clear  or  bright. 
Constance,  Lat.  constant. 
Damaris,  Gr.  a  lirtle  wife. 
Deborah,  Heb.  a  bee 
Diana,  Gr.  Jupiter's  daughter, 
Dorcas,  Gr.  a  wild  rce. 
Dorothy,  Gr.  the  gift  of  God. 
Drnsilla.  Gr.  dewy  eyes. 
Dulsabella,  Lat  sweet  and  fair. 
Edith,  Sax.  happiness. 
Eleanor,  Sax.  all  fruitful. 
Eliza.  Elizabeth,  Heb.  the  oath  of  God. 
Emily,  corrupted  from  Amelia. 
Emma,  Ger.  a  nurse. 
Esther,  Hestber,  Heb.  secret. 
Eve,  Heb.  causing  life. 
Eunice,  Gr.  fair  victory. 
Eudoia,  Gr.  prospering*  in  the  way. 
Frances,  Ger.  free. 
Gertrude,  Ger.  all  truth. 
Grace,  Lat.  favour. 
Hagar,  Heb.  a  stranger. 
Heleua,  Gr.  alluring. 
Jane,  softened  from  Joan  ;  ort 
Janne,  the  feminine  of  John. 
Janet,  Jeannette,  little  Jane. 
Joyce,  Fr.  pleasant. 
Isabella,  Span,  fair  Eliza. 
Judith,  Heb.  praising. 
Julia.  Juliana,  feminine  of  Julius. 
Eunigunda,  Ger.  the  king's  favour. 
Lettice,  Letitia,  Lat.  joy  or  gladness. 
Lois,  Gr.  better. 

Lucretia,  Lat.  a  chaste  Roman  lady. 
Lucy,  Lat- feminine  of  Lucius. 
Lydia,  Gr.  descended  from  Lud. 
Mabel,  Lat.  lovely. 

Magdalene,  Maudlin,  'Syr.  magnificent. 
Margaret,  Ger.  a  pearl. 
Martha,  Heb.  bitterness. 
Mary,  Heb.  bitter. 

Maud,  Matilda,  Gr.  a  lady  of  honour. 
Millicent.  Fr.  sweet  as  honey. 
Mercy,  Eng.  compassion. 
Mildred,  Sax.  speaking  mild. 
Nest,  Brit,  the  same  as  Aqnes. 
Nicola,  Gr.  feminine  of  Nicolas, 


Olympia,  Gr.  heavenly. 

Orabilis,  Lat.  to  be  entreated. 

Parneli,  or  Petronilla,  little  Pe*er. 

Patience,  Lat.  bearing  patiently. 

Paulina,  Lai.  feminine  of  Pauliuvs 

Penelope, .Or.  a  turkey. 

Persia.  Gr  a  destroying. 

Philadelphia,  Gr.  brotherly  love. 

Philippa,  Gr.  feminine  of  Philip. 

Phoebe,  Gr.  the  light  of  life. 

Phyllis,  Gr.  a  green  bough. 

Priscilla,  Lat.  somewhat  old. 

Prudence,  Lat.  discretion. 

Psyche,  Gr.  the  soul. 

Rachel^  Hrb.  a  lamb. 

Rebecca,  Heb.  fat  or  plump. 

Rhoda,  Gr.  a  rose. 

Rosamond,  Sar.  rose  of  peace. 

Rosa,  Lat.  a  rose. 

Rosecleer,  Eng.  a  fair  rose. 

Rosabella.  Ital.  a  fair  rose. 

Ruth,* Heb.  trembling. 

Sabina,  Lat.  sprung  from  the  Sabines. 

Salome,  Heb.  perfect. 

Sapphira,  Gr.  like  a  sapphire  stone. 

Sarah,  Heb.  a  princess. 

Sybilla,  Gr.  the  counsel  of  God. 

Sophia,  Gr.  wisdom. 

Sophronia,  Gr.  of  a  sound  mind. 

Susan,  Susanna,  Heb.  a  lily. 

Tabitha,  Syr,  a  roe. 

Temperance,  Lat.  moderation. 

Theodosia,  Gr.  given  by  God. 

Tryphosa,  Gr.  delicious. 

Tryphena,  Gr.  delicate. 

Vida,  Erse,  feminine  of  David. 

Ursula,  Lat.  a  female  bear. 

AValhurg,  Sax.  gracious. 

Winifred,  Sax.  winning  peace. 

Zenobia,  Gr.  the  life  of  Jupiter. 

NUMERALS.  The  numerical  figures, 
1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9.  0,  are  upon  good  au- 
thority believed  to  be  of  Indian  origin. 
They  were  n'>t  used  in  Germany  till  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fourth  century,  nor  in  Russia 
until  the  beginning  of  the  last  century. 
Before  the  use  of  these  figures,  the  Roman 
numerals  or  alphabetic  characters  were  used. 
Men  in  the  first  instance  counted  with  their 
fingers  ;  and  hence  four  simple  strokes  stand 
for  four.  Five  was  represented  by  a  rude 
drawing  of  the  left  hand  with  the  back 
towards  the  counter,  viz.  V.  Two  V's 
together  counted  ten,  and  made  the  figure 
X.  The  hundred  was  marked  by  the  letter 
C,  which  stool  for  the  Latin  word  centum. 
The  latter  form  of  numerical  notation  is 
stated  still  to  be  preserved  in  the  accounts 
of  the  English  Exchequer. 

ELEC TROTYPING.  This  is  the  art  of 
depositing    metals,    held    in    solution   by 


A   ITTSfTLLAXY    OF   USEFUL    KNOWLEDGE. 


299 


galvanism,  on  other  metals ;  thus  it  is  a 
perfect  process  ot  gilding.  Impressions  of 
medals,  ooins,  &c,  may  be  copied  by  it  with 
perfect  aecuiacy. 

BOSK    OF    WOOD    SHAVINGS    (TO 
MAKE   A).      Cut  out   14  petals  same  as 


No.  3,  and  18  of  No.  2 ;  then  20  of  the  larger 
size.  Cut  them  on  the  length  of  the  shaving, 
and  curl  them  slightly  at  the  edge  with  the 


Scissors;  then  form  a  loop  of  wire  as  at 
"ho.  6,  and  having  twisted  a  strip  of  sharing 
round  it,  commence'to  tie  on  the  petals  with 


some  strong  thread.  Tie  on  the  14  small 
Ones;  then  the  next  rise,  and  so  on  till  the 

(lower  is  complete.     Cut  the  rose  leaves  gii6 

on  the  Length,  and  vein  them  with  the 
scissors,  holding  the  points  a  little  spurt,  so 

as  to  give  the  vein  ■  rased  look.  Gum 
them  on  the  wire  stalk,  which  form  same  as 
design  No.  7.  Be  careful  to  bind  the  spray 
neatly  to  the  main  branch  with  a  slight 
st  rip  of  the  shaving,  and  fasten  off  by  a  little 
gum  at  the  end. 

FOWLS  (HOW  TO  KEEP).  No  fowls 
can  possibly  thrive  well,  or  bo  profitable 
to  the  owners,  unless"  they  are  plentifully 
fed,  and  have  a  comfortable  place  to  roost  in 
at  night,  and  for  a  shelter  in  cold  or  wet 
weather.  Their  room  or  hen-house  may  be 
adjoining  to  some  other  out-building.  It  is 
best  to  have  it  facing  the  east  or  the  south, 
and  it  must  be  perfectly  weather-tight.  It 
should  have  a  door  and  windows,  and  be 
very  well  lighted  ;  the  windows  may  either 
be  latticed  with  wood  or  netted  with  iron 
wire.  In  the  evening,  after  the  fowls  have 
gone  to  roost,  let  the  door  be  locked— seeing 
that  it  is  opened  very  early  in  the  morning, 
unless   in   bad    weather.     The  hen-house 


should  be  frequently  cleaned  out  and  occa- 
sionally white-washed;  for,  if  kr>pt  dirty, 
the  fowls  will  be  infested  with  vermin.  If 
this  should  happen,  catch  everv  fowl,  even 
to  the  smallest  chicken,  and  rub  their  skins 
and  feathers  well  with  lard  or  dripping; 
then  have  their  house  thoroughly  cleaned 
and  whitewashed  at  once,  afterwards  fumi- 
gating it  with  burning  brimstone.  Next 
throw  some  sand  or  fresh  earth  on  the  floor. 
If  fowls  are  scantily  supplied  with  water, 
or  if  they  have  access"  only  to  that  which  is 
dirty  or  'puddled,  they  will  contract  a  dis- 
order called  the  pip,  which  is  a  thin  white 
scale  that  grows  on  the  tip  of  the  tongue,  and 
prevents  their  feeding  Catch  them,  pull 
off  the  scale  with  your  fore-finger  nail,  and 
then  rub  the  tongue  with  salt.    "When fowls 


800 


FAOT8  FOB  EVE&TRODY 


have  this,  or  any  other  disease,  they  look 
drooping,  their  eyef  appear  dull,  aud  their 
combs  and  gills  "he(  ome  pale  aud  flabby. 
When  they  are  sick  feed  them  with  bran  that 
has  been  mixed  to  a  paste  with  boiling  water. 

In  wet  weather,  keep  the  fowls  shut  up 
all  day  in  the  hen-house ;  also  when  it  is 
very  cold,  taking  care  that  they  are  properly 
supplied  with  food  and  water.  They  should 
have,  in  their  house,  a  little  manger  or  feed- 
ing-trough, which  ought  never  to  be  empty. 
It  they  have  plenty  of  food  always  by  them, 
they  will  eat  frequently,  but  only  a  little  at 
a  time,  and  it  is  best  for  them  to  do  so. 
"When  their  food  is  given  to  them  scantily 
and  irregularly,  they  injure  themselves  by 
devouring  it  too  fist. 

They  should  have  food  given  to  them 
regularly  three  times  a  day.  When  newlv 
hatched  they  may  have  bread  soaked  in 
milk.  By  way  of  variety,  you  may  give 
your  fowls,  occasionally,  buck- wheat,  barley, 
rice,  and  oats. 

If  always  fed  there,  they  will  stay  chiefly 
in  their  house  during  the  winter,  and  will 
in  consequence  be  more  healthy,  and  in 
every  respect  more  profitable.  They  must 
be  well  supplied  with  plenty  of  clean  water 
in  large  shallow  pans  of  tin  or  earthenware ; 
also  with  brick-dust  and  gravel,  to  assist 
their  digestion.  It  is  well  to  place  in  the 
centre  of  their  large  water-pan  a  small  but 
heavy  one  of  earthenware,  turned  bottom  up- 
wards, on  which  the  fowls  can  stand  to  drink 
•without  wetting  their  feet,  which  often  in 
winter  makes  them  sick.  Recollect  always  that 
dirty  water  gives  them  diseases.  But  a  little 
clean  brick-dust  thrown  occasionally  in  their 
drinking-pans  is  good  for  their  digestion. 

Their  nests  should  be  moveable,  that 
whenever  the  hen  has  done  sitting  they  may 
he  taken  away  and  cleaned  out  before  they 
are  replaced  For  the  nest  you  may  place 
on  the  floor  (not  far  from  the  walls  but  not 
against  them)  old  flat  baskets;  or.  deep 
boxes  set  up  on  the  side ;  the  open  or  en- 
trance part  turned  from  the  light.  Fill 
them  with  clean  dry  straw  or  hay.  Place 
near  the  boxes  lime  for  the  hens  to  form 
their  egg-shells,  Old  rubbish-lime,  or 
plaster  from  old  walls,  is  very  proper  for  their 
purpose,  if  well  broken  up.  If  you  cannot 
procure  this,  mix  lime  and  water  to  a  mor- 
tar :  let  it  dry  then  break  it  up  and  put  it 
into  the  hen-house.  See  that  the  sitting 
hens  have  plenty  of  food  and  water  every 
day,  at  the  time  they  come  off  their  nests. 
If  they  are  not  supplied  at  once,  they  will 
go  back  to  their  nests  without  waiting,  and 
Euffer  much  in  consequence. 

Their  roosts  or  perches  should  be  so  con- 


trived as  not  to  be  exactly  over  each  other, 
and  some  should  be  placed  low  enough  for 
the  young  fowls  to  reach  without  difficulty 
in  flying  up  to  them.  Let  none  of  the  nest- 
boxes  be  placed  under  the  roosis. 

The  hen-house  should  frequently  be 
cleaned  out,  whitewashed,  fumigated  with 
sulphur,  or  by  burning  boughs;  and  then 
strewed  with  sand. 

Wormwood  and  rue,  sown  plentifully 
every  spring  about  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
hen-house,  will  tend  to  keep  away  vermin; 
and  if  strewed  about  the  floor  in  the  vicinity 
of  their  nests,  it  will  keep  off  weasels  and 
other  such  animals  that  come  to  suck  eggs. 

Bantam  fowls  are  less  injurious  to  a  garden 
than  any  others,  as  the  feathers  about  their 
feet  prevent  them  from  scratching  up  the 
seeds.  If  your  garden  fence  has  the  paling 
sharp-pointed  at  the  top,  the  fowls  that  are 
outside  will  find  it  difficult  to  get  over;  as 
after  flying  up  to  the  top,  they  will  have  no 
place  to  rest  their  feet  on  while  preparing 
to  take  their  fliirht  downward. 

EARTHQUAKES.  Form  the  most  terrible 
of  all  natural  phenomena.  They  make  the 
6olid  globe  itself  tremble  and  quiver  beneath 
our  feet,  and  sometimes  to  appear  to  the  eye 
to  undulate  like  the  waves  of  the  sea  when 
agitated  by  the  wind.  They  break  up  the 
crust  of  the  earth,  elevating  it  here  into  hills, 
depressing  it  there  into  valleys;  seaming 
it  with  rents  and  fissures,  from  which  often 
arise  products  never  before  known  in  the 
district ;  altering  the  course  of  rivers  ;  pro- 
ducing new  shores  and  beaches ;  raising  the 
sea  bottom  up  to  become  dry  land,  and  de- 
pressing the  richly  wooded  land  to  become 
henceforth  the  bottom  of  the  sea ;  leaving 
cities  that  overhung  the  ocean  several  miles 
inland,  and  submerging  other  cities  again 
below  the  waters ;  altering  the  distribution 
of  animal  life,  and  occasionally  destroying 
it  to  a  vast  extent.  Let  us  mention  a  case 
or  two  by  way  of  illustration  :—  In  1822,  a 
tract  of  territory  on  the  Chili  coast,  above 
one  hundred  miles  in  extent,  was  raised 
from  two  to  six  feet ;  and  the  sea  bottom, 
thus  laid  bare,  emitted  for  a  long  time  the 
most  intolerable  odour  from  the  decay  of  dead 
fish,  &c.  In  1596,  on  the  other  hand,  several 
Japanese  towns  were  covered  by  the  sea. 

AVALANCHES.  Originate  in  the  higher 
regions  of  mountains,  and  are  formed  of 
gradually  accumulating  masses  of  snow, 
which,  at  last,  become  so  ponderous,  that 
the  inclined  planes  on  which  they  rest  can 
no  longer  support  them,  and  they  are  hurled 
down  into  the  valley  beneath,  often  destroy- 
ing villages,  with  all  their  inhabitants, 
filling  up  rivers  so  as  to  change  their  course 


A  MTSCELLANY   OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


301 


Suddenly,  and  scattering  abroad  the  rocky 
debris  which  they  have  brought  down  win 
them. 

AIR  (CHANGE  OF).  Change  of  air  is 
at  ail  times  one   of   the   Bract   important 

auxiliaries  of  the  medical  tdvimt.  T>  per- 
sons confined  in  close  towns,  accustomed  to 
sedentary  employments,  and  suffering  from 
the  ailment*  incidental  to  such  situations, 
and  modes  of  lite,  a  change  to  some  open 
hillv  district,  or  the  breezy  sea-side,  often 
produces  marvellous  results;  so  with  the 
poor  invalid,  attacked,  perchance  by  con- 
sumption, who  finds  the  fresh  breezes  of  the 
hills  or  the  sea -shore  too  keen  for  the  dis- 
eased lungs  to  breathe,  for  such,  in  some 
sheltered  vale  of  the  Ftorirtat,  and  other 
southern  portions  of  our  ImimI,  relief  and  en- 
joyment may  be  often  found.  In  the  low- 
lying,  thickly-wooded  rural  district*,  the 
air  is  generally  relaxing,  and  frequently 
laden  with  miasma;  persons  who  are  obliged 
to  dwell  there,  should  get  out  upon  the  open 
hills  as  often  as  possible,  and  let  the  lungs 
play  freely  in  the  bracing  air ;  those  engaged 
m  rural,  occupations,  are  usual!"  enabled 
to  resist  the  enervating  effort*  of  the  bad 
air  which  they  inhale,  although  not  always, 
as  we  see  by  the  prevalence  of  ague,  and 
other  fevers," among  them.  After  all,  how- 
ever, for  purity  of  air,  the  country  is  far  to 
be  preferred  to  the  town,  and  in  most  situ- 
ations, the  rural  population  are  more  health- 
ful than  the  urban. 

As  a  general  rule  it  may  be  noted  that 
dry  air  is  good,  if  not  too  dry ;  in  which 
case  it  is  likely  to  cause  cracks  and  chaps 
in  the  skin,  and  to  be  loaded  with  minute 

f (articles  of  dust  which  are  injurious  to  the 
ungs.  Moist  air  is  not  healthy  tc  breathe, 
especially  if  accompanied  by  cold,  as  it  often 
is  in  this  climate,  hence  the  prevalence  of 
pulmonary  diseases.  The  air  of  the  coast, 
if  not  too  keen,  is  undoubtedly  stimulating 
and  strengthening,  in  a  great  measure 
owing,  probably,  to  its  containing  a  portion 
of  the  marine  constituents;  there  is  a 
healthful  freshness  in  the  very  play  and 
dash  of  the  waves,  and  the  lungs  seem  to 
inhale  larger  quantities  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  to  expand  more  freely,  by  the  margin 
of  the  wide  ocean ;  here  that  indispensable 
conditiou  of  atmospheric  purity,  constant 
motion,  ever  prevails,  as  it  does  usually 
upon  great  elevations,  hili-tops  and  lofty 
table-lands,    around   and    over    which    the 

fales  sweep,   whistling,   and  swaying   the 
oughs   of  the  pines  and  other  mountain- 
trees,  while,  in  the  vale  below,  the  heat  is 
sultry,  and  not  a  leaf  is  stirred.     Great  con- 
trasts are  exhibited  in  the  characters  of  the 
14 


dwellers  in  these  two  different  regions, 
and  this  is  owing  in  a  considerable  degree 
to  the  influence  of  the  air  they  breathe. 

ALCOttOl*  Is  an  Arabic  term  used  by 
ebemistj  to  signify  highly  rectified  or  pure 
spirit,  such  as  Spirits  of  Wine;  the  term  haj 
also  another  meaning,  viz.,  anything  re- 
duced into  an  impalpable  powder  ;  but  it  is 
now  rarely  vised  in  this  sense.  Alcohol  is 
generally  prepared  by  fermenting  saccharine 
substances,  such  as  malt,  and  the  process  of 
converting  the  sugar  into  alcohol  is  called 
vinous  fermentation.  This  process  of  con- 
version may  be  thus  briefly  described.  The 
liquor  containing  the  dissolved  sugar  is  sub- 
jected to  a  heat  of  150°  and  allowed  to  cool 
to  70°,  yeast  is  then  added  ;  very  shortly, 
an  internal  movement  in  the  lluid  takes 
place,  a  thick  scum  forms  on  the  surface, 
and  a  gaseous  matter  escapes,  which  is 
carbonic  acid  gas  j  the  hyarogen  in  the 
fluid  then  unites  with  a  portion  of  the 
carbon,  and  forms  olefiant  gas,  which, 
uniting  with  the  water  (oxygen  and  hy- 
drogen), composes  alcohol,  and  this,  from 
its  superior  lightness,  passes  over  and  is 
condensed,  in  combination  with  watery 
vapour,  in  a  cooled  receiver.  To  deprive 
alcohol  of  its  water,  it  is  passed  through 
dried  Carbonate  of  Potash,  Chloride  of  Cal- 
cium, Lime,  Barytes,  or  Alumina ;  or  it 
may  be  done  by  putting  it  an  open  A'essel 
under  the  exhausted  receiver  of  an  air  pump, 
previouslv  placed  in  a  vessel  containing  lime. 

Pure  alcohol  is  a  transparent,  colourless 
fluid,  of  a  pungent  taste  and  fragrant  odour ; 
it  is  lighter  and  more  volatile  than  water, 
burns  with  a  blue  flame  which  becomes  yel- 
lowish when  the  spirit  is  diluted  with  water, 
when  mixed  with  an  equal  bulk  of  which, 
it  is  termed  Proof  Spirit,  it  then  ha- 
cific  gravity  of  0  917,  and  this  is  not  quite 
so  strong  as  that  used  for  many  tinctures 
and  other  pharmaceutical  purposes,  the 
strength  of  which  is  represented  by  0*930, 
the  gravity  of  pure  alcohol  being,  accord- 
ing to  Low-itz,  079^,  although  the  Leyden 
college  make  it  0815.  The  pure  spirit  of 
commerce  is  seldom  less  than  from  0-830 
to  0835. 

Alcohol  is  the  active  principle  of  all  in- 
toxicating drinks,  the  habitual  use  of  which, 
according  to  Dr.  Paris,  induces  ''more  than 
half  of  all  our  chronic  diseases."  Brandy, 
Rum,  Gin,  Whisky,  &c,  are  but  variously 
flavoured  forms  of  diluted  alcohol;  medi- 
cinally they  are  sometimes  prescribed,  and 
employed  with  good  effect ;  brandy  has 
been  found  especially  useful  to  rouse  the 
system  in  some  cases  of  extreme  debility, 
and  in  the  sinking  stages  of  typhus  fever,  &c. 


302 


PACTS   FOR   ETEHTBODTt 


They  are  scmetimes  recommended  as  nervous 
stimulants  in  cases  of  great  depression,  but 
there  is  always  danger  that  the  taking  of 
them  may  become  a  continued  habit,  which 
will  grow  upon  the  patient,  and  eventually 
make  a  wreck  of  mind  and  body. 

CUCKOO,  or  CUCULUS.  A  genus  of 
birds,  of  which  there  are  46  species ;  the 
common  English  bird  weighing  about  five 
ounces;  the  bill  black,  and  the  feathers  a 


dove-colour.  They  arrive  in  spring,  and 
depart  in  July.  Ihey  lay  their  eggs  in  the 
nests  of  other  birds,  chiefly  in  that  of  the 
hedge-sparrow,  from  which  the  young 
cuckoos  turn  out  the  young  sparrows. 

MOLE.    A  quadruped  about  six  inches 
in  length,  living  in  subterranean  burrows, 


which  it  rapidly  forms  by  its  snout  and  feet, 
being  able  to  withdraw  its  eves  at  pleasure. 
PAPER  INTO  PARCHMENT  (HOW 
TO  MAKE) .  Sulphuric  acid,  which  changes 
cotton  and  other  fibrous  substances  into 
a  fulminating  material,  possesses  also  the 
singular  property  of  transforming  paper 
into  parchment.  To  produce  this  trans- 
formation, take  unsized  paper  and  plunge 
it  into  a  solution  of  two  parts  of  concentrated 
Ljulphuric  acid  combined  with  one  part  of 
water*  withdraw  it  immediately,  and  wash 
it  in  clean  water  and  the  change  is  complete. 
It  is  now  fit  for  writing,  for  the  acid  supplies 
the  want  of  size,  and  it  becomes  so  strong 
that  a  strip,  two  or  three  inches  wide,  will 


bear  from  sixty  to  eighty  pounds  weight ; 
whilst  a  strip  of  parchment  of  the  like  size 
would  onlv  bear  about  twenty -five  pounds. 

MONKEY.  The  genera'  name  of  the 
ape.  baboon,  and  "siinia  tribe,  the  several 
varieties  of  which  are  principally  found  in 


the  tropical  climates.  They  inhabit  forests 
in  prodigious  numbers,  and,  though  mis- 
chievous, their  manr-"  s  are  fantastical  and 
interesting.  They  Lave  hands  like  man, 
and  also,  walk  on  two  legs,  but  they  practise 
no  arts  beyond  what  are  suggested  by  the 
necessities* of  the  hour.  They  are  affection- 
ate to  their  young,  and  often  exhibit  great 
sagacity,  but  their  brain  is  smaller  than 
that  of  man,  and  they  are  without  his 
risible  muscle,  and  less  in  size.  They  throw 
missiles  with  great  dexterity,  and  live  on 
vegetables, 

PAPIER  MACHE?  This  substance  is 
made  from  the  pulp  of  paper,  or  of  old  paper 
ground  up  with  size,  and  moulded  into 
various  forms.  A  mixture  of  sulphate  of 
iron,  quicklime  and  glue,  renders  papier 
mache  to  a  great  extent  water-proof,  and 
the  further  addition  of  phosphate  of  soda 
contributes  to  make  it  fire-proof.  A  concise 
history  of  the  manufacture  has  been  pub- 
lished bv  Mr.  Bielfield. 

VULCAN.  The  god  of  fire  and  work- 
ing metals,  in  the  Greek  mythology;  and 
the  same  as  the  Tubal  Cain  of  the  Hebrews. 


FRIEZE.  In  architecture  the  frieze  is 
the  part  of  the  entablature  between  the 
architecture  and  the  cornice.  It  is  usually 
enriched  with  figures  of  animals,  or  other 
ornaments  of  sculpture. 


A  MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


303 


"WOODS  (FINE  &c).  Some  woods,  such 
as  ebony,  box,  manogany,  ealambo,  cedar, 

&c.  :irc  valued  on  account  of  their  extra* 
ordinary  hardness,  beautiful  polish,  brilliant 
colours,  or  agreeable  smell,  and  are  niado 
into  cabinets,  tables,  comb*,  beads,  &c. 

Eisony.  The  wood  of  the  Amerimnu/nEbe- 
nxs  of  Linnams,  is  brought  from  the  Indies; 
it  U  exceedingly  hard  and  heavy,  capable  of  a  ; 
very  tine  polish  ;  and  on  that  aecount  it  is 
used  in  inlaid  works,  toys,  and  Mosaic. 
(Mosaic  works  are  in  assemblage  of  marble,  ! 
shells,  stones,  glass,  &c,  of  various  colours,  i 
cut  square  and  cemented,  or  inlaid.)  This  ia  \ 
sometimes  done  with  wood,  and  the  ancients 
were  used  to  adorn  their  richest  furniture 
with  a  mosaic  of  ivory,  ebony,  and  the  finest 
woods.  Of  ebony  there  are  several  kinds, 
bla.^lc,  red,  green,  &c,  all  of  which  are 
found  in  Madagascar.  The  island  of  Mau- 
ritius likewise,  furnishes  part  of  the  ebony 
used  in  Europe.  If.  Flacourt,  who  resided 
in  .Madagascar  as.  governor,  assures  us  that 
it  grows  very  high  and  big  ;  its  bark  black, 
and  its  leaves  resembling  thase  of  our 
myrtle,  of  a  deep,  dusky  green  colour. 
Tavefnier  says,  that  the  islanders  take  eare 
to -bury  their  trees,  when  cut  down,  to  make 
them  the  blacker.  Candia,  also,  bears  a 
little  shrub  called  Ehmus  Cretica.  Pliny 
and  Dioscorides  say  the  best  ebony  comes 
from  Ethiopia,  and  the  worst  from  India: 
Theophrastus  prefers  that  of  India.  The 
best  ebony  is  a  jet  black,  free  from  veins 
and  rind,  very  heavy,  and  of  a  sharp  pun- 
gent taste.  Its  rind  was  supposed  good  for 
some  disorders.  Ebony  yields  an  agreeable 
perfume  when  laid  on  the  coals ;  and  even 
when  green  it  readily  takes  fire.  The 
Indians  make  statues  of  their  gods,  and 
sceptres  for  their  princes  of  this  wood. 
Since  the  discovery  of  dyeing  woods,  ebony 
has  been  less  employed  than  formerly. 
Green  ebony  is  produced  by  a  tree,  less  lofty, 
and  more  bushy  than  that  which  yields  the 
black:  it  grows  in  Madagascar,  the  Mauritius, 
the  Antilles,  and  especially  in  Tobago :  this  j 
is  used  in  dyeing,  and  yields  a  tine  green 
tincture.  Of  red  ebony  we  know  but  little. 
Cabinet-makers,  in  layers,  &c,  make  pear 
tree  and  other  wood  spass  for  ebony,  by  wash- 
ing tliL-m  with  a  hot  decoction  of  gall's,  &c. 

Box  is  of  long  duration  Its  wood  is 
extremely  hard  and  smooth,  and  therefore 
well  adapted  to  the  use  of  the  turner. 
Button-moulds,  knife-handles,  combs,  and 
mathematical  instruments  are  made  of  it, 
and  it  may  be  very  properly  uaed  as  a  subs- 
titute for  ebony. 

The  efficacy  of  box-wood,  in  making  the 
hair  grow,  is  thus  stated  in  the  Ephemerides  i 


of  the  curious.  A  young  woman  of  C.unberg, 
in  Lower  Silesia,  having  had  a  malignant 
disease,  which  occasioned  the  falling  off  of 
all  her  hair,  was  advised  by  a  person  sane 
time  after  her  recovery,  to  wash  her  head 
all  over  with  a  decoction  of  box-wood  :  this 
she  readily  did,  without  the  addition  of  any 
other  drug.  Hair  of  a  chestnut  colour  grew" 
on  her  head,  as  she  was  told  it  would  .do ; 
but  having  used  no  precaution  to  secure  her 
neck  and  face,  they  became  covered  with 
red  hair  to  such  a  degree,  that  she  seemed 
little  different  from  an  ape  or  a  monkey. 
This  effect,  however,  has  not  been  expe- 
rienced by  others,  and  the  box-tree  now 
yields  no  medicinal  or  chemical  preparation. 

Logwood,  Campeachy  or  Indian  Wood, 
This  tree  grows  pleiitit'ullv,  and  to  a  con- 
sidcrable  size  in  Jamaica,  Campeachy',  A:e. 
The  wood  is  at  first  red,  but  after  it  has 
been  felled  some  time  it  becomes  black.  It 
is  very  heavy,  and,  in  burning,  gives  a  clear 
lasting  flame.  Logwood  is  principally  used 
in  dyeing,  particularly  black  and  violet.  It 
is  called  also  Jamaica  Wood.  It  has  a  sweet 
astringent  taste,  and  is  administered  as 
medicine  in  cases  of  diarrhoea  and  dysentery. 
It  is  much  used  in  Portugal  to  make  port 
wine,  a  decoction  of  logwood  with  a  little 
Brazil  rum,  and  an  extract  of  rhatlanny 
root,  which  is  brought  from  S.  America, 
being  frequently  sent  to  this  country  as 
genuine  wine. 

Brazil  Wood.  The  Cazsalpina  Bra* 
siliensis  of  Linnaeus;  an  American  wood, 
of  a  red  colour,  and  very  heavy.  It  is  de- 
nominated variously  according  to  the  places 
from  which  it  is  brought :  thus  we  have 
Brazil  of  Pernambuco,  Japan,  and  Lamon. 
Brazilletto  is  the  same  with  Brazil  Wood; 
this  tree  commonly  grows  in  dry  barren 
places,  and  in  the  middle  of  rocks  ;  it  is 
very  thick  and  large;  usually  knotted  and 
crooked  ;  its  flowers,  which  are  of  a  beautiful 
red,  exhale  a  very  agreeable  smell,  which 
is  said  to  strengthen  the  brain.  This  wood 
grows  naturally  in  the  warmest  parts  of 
America,  whence  it  is  imported  for  the 
dyers,  who  make  considerable  use  of  it. 
Though  the  tree  be  naturally  very  thick, 
yet  the  demand  has  been  so  great,  that  none 
of  the  large  trees  are  left  in  any  of  the 
British  plantations.  The  branches  are 
slender,  and  full  of  small  pri<  kles.  The 
colour  produced  from  this  wood  is  greatly 
improved  by  a  solution  of  tin  in  aqn<i  regia. 
It  is  said  that  the  bark  of  the  tree  is  so 
thick,  that  of  a  trunk  which  <vas  as  bi ;  as 
a  man's  body,  when  the  bark  is  removed,  is 
scarcely  left  equal  to  that  of  his  leg.  None 
of  the  kinds  have  any  pith,  except  that  of 


804 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY; 


Japan.  That  or'  Pernambuco  is  esteemed 
the  best.  It  is  mucn  used  in  turned  works, 
and  takes  a  good  polish  :  but  it  is  chiefly 
valuable  for  the  beautiful  prange  a';d  red 
colours  in  various  shades,  wli.  h  it  furnishes. 
It  is  however  a  fugitive  eolour,  yet  a  good 
and  permanent  Turkey  red  can  be  dyed  with 
Brazil  wood  and  verdigris;  the  latter  being 
a  mordant  or  digestive.  Sappan  is  another 
species  of  Brazil  wood,  used  for  the  like  pur- 
poses and  found  in  the  East  Indies. 

Cedak  of  Lebanon.  The  cedar  of  Leba- 
non is  not  found  as  a  native  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world,  so  far  as  has  come  to 
knowledge.  This  tree  is  of  great  beauty,  and 
bears  the  openest  exposure  so  well,  that  it 
is  surprising  it  is  not  more  cultivated  in 
England.  Cedars-thrive  best  in  a  poor  soil, 
and  are  of  quick  growth,  as  it  appears  by 
those  fine  ones  in  the  physic  gardens  at 
Chelsea,  which  were  planted  in  1683,  and 
were  not  then  above  three  feet  high,  and  in 
1762  measured  near  twelve  feet  in  the  girth, 
at  two  feet  abovt  ground.  Cedar  wood  is  re- 
puted almost  incorruptible,  a  prerogative  it 
owes  chiefly  to  its  bitter  taste,  which  the 
worms  cannot  endure.  The  ancients  for 
this  reason  made  use  of  cedar  tables  to  write 
on.  Solomon's-  temple  and  palace  were 
both  of  this  wood.  Historians  tell  us  that 
some  of  this  timber  was  found  in  the  temple 
of  Apollo,  at  Utica,  2,000  years  old.  The 
cedar  is  included  by  Linnaeus  in  the  genus 
Pi  mis  or  firs.  The  red  cedar  brought  from 
Barbadocs  and  Jamaica  is  a  spurious  sort,  of 
so  porous  a  nature,  that  the  wine  will  leak 
through  it.  It  is  a  species  of  juniper. 
Cortes  is  said  to  have  erected  a  palace  at 
Mexico,  in  which  were  seven  thousand 
beams  of  cedar,  most  of  them  120  feet  long, 
and  12  feet  in  circumference,  as  we  are 
informed  by  Herrera. 

Mahogany.  This  is  a  wood  well  known 
to  all  of  us.  The  tree  is  a  native  of  the 
•warmest  parts  of  America,  growing  plen- 
tifully in  the  islands  of  Cuba,  Jamaica,  and 
Hispaniola,  and  also  on  the  Bahama  islands. 
The  excellency  of  its  wood  for  all  domestic 
uses,  is  generally  known,  as  it  has  been 
brought  to  England  for  nearly  a  century,  in 
great  quantities.  It  abounded  formerly  in 
the  low  lands  of  Jamaica,  but  it  is  now 
found  only  on  hills  and  places  difficult  of 
access.  This  tree  grows  tall  and  straight, 
rising  often  sixty  feet  from  the  spur  to 
the  limbs,  and  is  about  four  feet  in  diameter. 
The  foliage  is  a  beautiful  deep  green,  and 
the  appearance  made  by  the  whole  tree  very 
elegant.  Some  trees  have  reached  a  hun- 
dred feet  in  height.  In  felling  these  trees, 
the  most  beautiful  part  is  commonly  left 


behind.  The  negro  workmen  raise  a  scaf- 
folding of  four  or  live  feet  elevation  from  the 
ground,  and  hack  up  the  trunk,  which  they 
cut  into  balks.  The  part  below  extending 
to  the  root,  is  not  only  of  larger  diameter, 
but  of  a  closer  texture  than  the  other  parts, 
most  elegantly  diversified  with  shades  or 
clouds,  or  dotted  like  ermine  with  spots : 
it  takes  the  highest  polish,  with  a  singular 
lustre.  This  part  is  only  to  be  come  at  by 
digging  below  the  spur  to  the  depth  of  two 
or  three  feet,  and  cutting  it  through ;  which 
is  so  laborious  an  operation,  that  few  attempt 
it.  The  Jamaica  wood,  for  beauty  of  colour- 
ing, firmness  and  durability,  is  most  valued. 
Mahogany  has  been  used  in  medicine  with 
the  same  effect  as  Peruvian  bark. 

Sandal  or  Saunders  wood.  Of  this  hard 
odoriferous  wood  there  are  three  species; 
the  Pterocarpus  Draco,  which  is  a  West 
India  tree  thirty  feet  high,  with  a  solid 
white  wood,  and  the  bark,  when  cut  trans- 
versely, yields  a  blood-red  resin,  which  is 
the  dragon's  blood  of  the  shops ;  the  P. 
Marsupium  is  a  native  of  Coromandel,  and 
has  an  orange-coloured  wood;  and  the 
P.  Santalinus,  or  red  saunders  tree  of  India, 
with  a  deep  red,  heavy,  and  very  hard 
wood,  used  for  fans  and  cabinet  work.  The 
white  and  yellow  species  are  more  fragrant 
than  the  red ;  the  latter  is  much  used  for 
colouring  drugs,  spirits  for  thermometers, 
porter,  &c  The  White  Saunders,  or  Sauta- 
lum  Album,  belongs  to  another  class  and 
order,  and  is  recommended  in  medicine  as  a 
good  tonic.  The  same  tree  produces  both 
yellow  and  white  wood,  the  former  being 
the  central  part  of  the  tree  is  the  most 
fragrant,  hard  and  bright  coloured ;  the 
latter  is  soft  next  the  bark,  and  possesses 
little  fragrancy.  The  yellow  wood  is  that 
which  is  most  used,  and  the  older  and 
larger  the  tree,  the  more  fragrant  and 
valuable  the  wood. 

Yew.  This  tree  furnishes  a  reddish 
wood,  full  of  veins,  flexible,  very  hard, 
smooth,  and  almost  incorruptible.  It  is 
proper  for  turners  and  cabinet  makers. 
The  yew  tree  does  not  grow  to  a  great  height, 
but  "its  trunk  often  attains  an  immense 
circumference. 

Gbaiacvm,  Lignum  Vita,  or  Arbor  Vitre, 
There  are  three  species  in  the  genus  Guaia- 
cum,  one  of  which  is  vulgarly  known  by  the 
apellation  of  lignum  vitce,  and  yields  the 
guaiacum  of  the  shops.  It  grows  in  most 
of  the  islands  of  the  West  Ladies,  where  it 
becomes  a  very  large  tree.  The  wood  is 
solid  and  ponderous,  and  so  hard  as  to  break 
the  tools  in  felling  the  trees.  It  is  seldom 
cut  down  f->r  firewood,  being  difficult  tp 


A  MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


305 


burn ;  but  it  is  of  great  use  to  the  sugar 
planters,  for  making  wheels  and  cogi  for 
sugar  mills.  It  Is  also  brought  to  Kurope, 
and  wrought  Into  V-ws,  sheaves  of  ship- 
blocks,  and  other  utensils  ;  but  its  principal 
in  ined'u  inc.  The  bark  and  wo.»d 
ol'  this  tree  are  much  of  the  same  nature. 
f  They  are  used  in  diet  drinks  to  purity  and 
cleanse  the  blood.  Tinctures  of  the  resin 
or  gum-guaiacum,  were  long  considered  as 
specifics  for  the  rheumatism,  and  are  elegant 
sudoriiics.    • 

Aloes  Wood,  Ctlambac,  or  Calambour. 
A  kind  of  wood  brought  from  China,  usually 
sold  under  the  denomination  of  Upturn 
aloes.  Sir  Phillip  Venuitti  makes  calambac 
and  lignum  aloes  synonymous.  Others 
consider  ealambac  wood  to  be  the  best  sort 
of  aloes  wood,  growing  chiefly  in  Malacca 
and  Sumatra,  and  much  used,  in  India  for 
making  beads  and  crucifixes.  There  are 
three  kinds  of  this  wood,  the  calambac  or 
finest  aloe- wood  is  light,  spongy,  very  fra- 
grant, and  varying  from  black  to  yellow, 
and  Often  of  a  variegated  colour.  The  com- 
mon lignum  aloes  is  more  dense,  and  of  a 
brown  colour;  and  the  calambour  is  lighter, 
more  bitter,  of  a  green,  black,  or  brown, 
and  used  bv  cabinet  makers  and  inlavers. 

TIMBER  TRKFS.  Oak.  The  uses  to 
•which  oak  is  applied  are  numerous.  It  will 
endure  all  weathers  and  seasons;  hence  it 
is  used  for  purposes  that  are  liable  to  such 
exposures,  as  posts,  rails,  boards,  pales, 
•wheel  spokes,  hoops,  building,  &c.  For 
water-works  it  is  second  to  none,  or  where 
exposed  to  both  wind  and  water,  as  ship- 
building, &c.  The  bark  and  sawdust  are 
useful  to  the  tanner  and  dyer  ;  and  in  wash- 
ing, the  ashes  or  lees  are  useful. 

Elm  is  of  use  in  water-works  for  pipes, 
pumps,  and  ship  planks.  It  makes  good 
chopping-blorks,  not  being  liable  to  break 
and  fly  in  chips.  It  is  used  for  axletrees  by 
Wheelwrights.  Carvers  use  it  for  foliage 
and  curious  works;  and  it  is  made  into  cof- 
fins, as  being  very  difficult  to  corrupt.  A 
decoction  of  the  inner  bark  of  the  common 
elm  has  been  recommended  in  scorbutic, 
scrofulous,  and  rephnitic  complaints. 

.A sir  is  of  almost  universal  use,  particu- 
larly where  it  may  lie  dry,  though  often 
used  in  other  situations,  It  serves  the 
builder,  carpenter,  cooper,  turner,  wheel- 
wright, &<\,  but  more  especially  the  plough- 
wi  lght ;  and  at  sea  it  is  used  for  oara  and 
handspike*. 

Beech  is  used  among  turners,  joiners,  and 
upholsterers.  For  uses  under  water  it  is 
said  to  outlast  the  oak.  Of  the  bark,  floats 
are  made  for  fishing  nets,  instead  of  cork. 


It  also  serves  for  a  variety  of  domestic  pur- 
poses, and  was  in  great  estimation  among 
the  ancients.  The  leaves  of  tin-  bi  <  cli  con- 
tinue long  sweet,  and  make  go  id  matl 
An  oil  may  be  extracted  from  the  hark.  The 
wood  is  of  a  cle  m  tine  grain,  and  can  be  cut 
so  thin  that  it  makes  bandboxes,  hal  C8X  s, 
and  even  book-covers  and  •tiftbbards  for 
swords. 

Walnut  is  of  general  use  in  France.  It 
is  not  so  proper  for  the  outside  of  buildings, 
but  there  is  no  wood  better  for  the  joiners. 
It  is  less  subject  to  the  worms  than  beech, 
and  is  of  a  more  curious  browd.  The  hickory 
nut,  or  white  Virginian  walnut,  is  very  com- 
mon in  various  paits    of   our  America. 

Cuesnit-Tree  is  very  lasting,  "and  is 
much  sought  after  by  carpenters  and  joiners. 
It  is  esteemed  next  after  the  oak,  but  while 
it  appears  fair  without,  it  will  decay  in- 
wardly. Great  part  of  London  was  anciently 
built  with  chesnut.  Excellent  starch  may 
be  made  from  horse-chesnuts. 

Poplar,  Abele,  and  Aspen,  differ  little 
from  each  other.  The  timber  is  excellent 
for  all  sorts  of  white  wooden  vessels.  It  is 
tougher  and  harder  than  fir,  and  is  fre- 
quently used  instead  of  it.  It  has  some- 
thing of  the  nature  of  cork,  and  is  used  by 
some  countrymen  as  soles  for  shoes. 

Alder  is  used  for  water-pipes  and  sluices; 
anciently  boats  were  made  with  it,  and 
large  vessels.  It  is  useful  for  trays,  tren- 
chers, and  wooden  reels.  The  dyers  make 
the  bark  useful.  Alder  endures  water,  and 
if  always  wet,  it  becomes  hard  like  a  stone; 
though  if  it  be  wet  and  dry  alternately,  it 
rots  presently. 

Birch -Tree.  There  are  four  species  of 
birch.  The  common  birch-tree  may  be  cul- 
tivated upon  barren  land,  where  better  trees 
will  not  thrive;  for  there  is  no  ground  so 
bad,  but  this  tree  will  thrive  in  it.  It  will 
grow  in  moist  springy  land,  or  in  dry  gravel 
or  sand,  where  there  is  little  surface.  So 
that  upon  ground  that  produced  nothing  but 
moss,  these  trees  have  succeeded  so  well,  as 
to  be  fit  to  cut  in  ten  years  .liter  planting, 
when  they  have  been  sold  for  near  ten  pounds 
per  acre,  standing,  and  the  after  produce 
lias  been  consideraUy  increased.  Many 
woods  near  London,  which  were  clmily 
stocked  wih  these  tr.  es,  having  been  of  late 
years  grubbed  up.  the  value  of  these  plm 
tations  has  advanced  in  proportion.  Per- 
sons, therefore,  who  are  possessed  of  poor 
land,  cannot  employ  it  better  than  by  plant- 
ing it  with  these  trees,  especially  as  the 
expense  of  doing  it  is  not  great.  Broom- 
makers  are  constant  customers  for  birch. 
Iloop-benders   are   also  great  purchasers 


30G 


PACTS  foe  everybody: 


The  largest  trees  are  often  bought  by  the 
turners;  and  the  wood  is  used  for  making 
ox-yokes,  and  other  instruments  of  hus- 
bandry. In  some  of  the  northern  parts  of 
Europe,  the  wood  of  this  tree  is  greatly  used 
for  making  wheels  for  carriages,  being  hard, 
and  of  long  duration. 

In  Prance,  it  U  generally  used  for  making 
wooden  shoes,  and  it  is  good  fuel.  In  some 
places,  these  trees  are  tapped  in  the  spring, 
and  the  sap  drawn  to  make  birch  wine, 
which  has  been  recommended  for  the  stone 
and  gravel.  Mr.  Boyle  tells  us,  he  has  seen 
extrordinary  medicinal  effects  of  the  juice 
itself.  He  says  the  j  nice  may  be  easily  pre- 
served, by  pouring  a  little  oil  on  the  top  of 
it,  or  by  distillation,  &c.  The  piercing  and 
bleeding  of  birch  is  performed  thus :  about 
the  beginning  of  March,  cut  a  slit  almost 
as  deep  as  the  pith,  under  some  well-spread- 
ing branch;  cut  it  oblique,  and  not  long- 
ways, and  inert  a  small  stone  or  chip,  to 
keep  the  lips  of  the  wound  a  little  open  ; 
lastly,  to  this  orifice  fasten  a  bottle,  into 
which  will  distil  a  limpid  and  clear  water, 
retaining  an  obscure  smack,  both  of  the 
taste  and  odour  of  the  tree.  The  wonder  is, 
that,  in  the  space  of  twelve  pr  fourteen  days, 
as  much  juice  will  be  gathered,  as  will  out- 
weigh (he  whole  tree,  body  and  roots. 

Larcu-Tree.  Linnaeus  refers  this  to  the 
genus  of  pine.  The  common  larch-tree 
grows  naturally  upon  the  Alps  and  Apen- 
nines, and  has  lately  been  much  propagated 
in  England.  One  kind  of  this  tree  is  a  na- 
tive of  America.  In  many  places  ships  are 
built  of  this  wood,  which  is  said  to  be  du- 
rable ;  and,  therefore,  this  may  be  a  very 
proper  tree  for  planting  upon  the  cold  ban  en 
hills  of  England;  which,  beside  the  profit 
they  would  yield  to  their  proprietors,  would 
also  conduce  to  national  benefit.  The  Ve- 
nice turpentine  is  extracted  from  the  larch- 
tree. 

Pine.  From  the  wild  pine  is  procured 
the  common  turpentine.  The  leaves  and 
tender  tops  of  pine  and  fir  are  used  for  diet- 
drinks.  .Pitch,  tar,  rosin,  and  turpentine, 
are  all  made  from  those  trees  by  very  fami- 
liar methods,  which  have  already  been  de- 
scribed under  their  respective  heads. 

Fir.  Linmcus  makes  the  fir-tree  only  a 
different  species  of  the  pine.  The  silver  fir 
grows  about  S  trash  urgh  and  other  parts  of 
Germany,  whence  the  turpentine  is  brought 
to  England.  The  Norway,  or  spruce  fir  is 
common  to  the  woods  of  Norway,  and  affords 
the  white  deals.  From  the  spruce  firs  is 
made  the  spruce  beer.  A  very  good  method 
of  seasoning  planks  of  deal  and  fir,  is  to 
throw  them  into  salt  water  as  soon  as  sawed, 


and  to  keep  them  there  for  three  or  four 
days.  This  renders  them  much  harder,  if 
dried  afterwards  in  the  air  and  sun. 

Osier  or  Willow  is  of  the  Salix  genus. 
Of  the  willow  there  are  many  species  ;  Lin- 
nsufl  enumerates  seventy.  The  weeping- 
willow  grows  naturally  in  the  Levant,  and 
has  been  for  many  vears  cultivated  in  the 
English  gardens.  The  common  sallow  re- 
quires a  drier  soil  than  the  other  species, 
and  will  thrive  upon  the  higbest  hills, 
whence  it  is  called  mountain  osier.  The 
wood  of  this  is  converted  into  charcoal,  for 
making  gunpowder  and  drawing  pencils. 
The  Laplanders  make  a  sort  of  ieather  of 
the  bark,  which  they  manufacture  into 
gloves.  The  common  willow  loves  a  moist 
and  open  situation,  and  grows  quick.  The 
bark  of  this  tree  has  been  found  a  useful 
medicine  in  agues.  It  must  be  gathered  in 
summer,  when  full  of  sap.  Our  common 
willows  in  the  spring  season,  when  they  are 
in  flower,  produce  a  quantity  of  cottony 
matter.  The  Chinese  are  industrious  enough, 
to  collect  this  cotton  as  it  falls  from  their 
willows:  and  the  women  and  children 
among  the  poorer  people,  card  it,  &c,  and 
render  it  fit  for  many  uses.  The  wood  of 
the  willow,  though  in  itself  very  light  and 
spongy,  is  yet  of  a  nature  to  b  ;ar  the  inju- 
ries of  wet,  better  than  almost  any  other 
kind.  It  is  used  by  the  Chinese  on  all  oc- 
casions, where  the  wood  is  to  stand  under 
water,  and  succeeds  well. 

Holly.  The  common  holly  is  a  beautiful 
tree  in  the  winter  ;  it  grows  naturally  in 
the  English  woods  and  forests,  where  it  rises 
from  20  to  30  feet  high.  The  seeds  of  the 
holly  never  come  up  for  the  first  year,  but 
lie  in  the  ground  as  the  haws  do.  The  ber- 
ries, therefore,  should  be  buried  in  the 
ground  one  year,  and  then  taken  up  and 
sowed  at  Michaelmas,  upon  a  bed  exposed 
only  to  the  morning  sun.  In  this  bed  the 
plants  may  remain  two  years,  and  then  be 
transplanted.  Holly  hedges  are  a  beautiful 
evergreen  and  strong  fence ;  but  they  are 
liable  to  perish  in  hard  winters.  This  is 
supposed  to  be  chiefly  owing  to  the  field- 
mice,  which,  forwantof  other  food,  disbark 
the  roots  of  these  shrubs.  The  berries  of 
holly  are  hot,  dry,  and  carminative,  and 
good  against  the  colic  ;  ten  or  twelve  being 
taken  inwardly,  bring  away  by  stool,  thick 
phlegmatic  humours.  The  timber  of  holly 
is  the  whitest  of  all  hard  wood  ;  it  takes  a 
fine  polish,  and  is,  therefore,  used  by  the 
inlayers.  It  is  also  fit  for  all  strong  uses, 
and  hence  preferred  to  all  others  hjr  the 
mill-wright,  turner,  and  engraver.  It  makes 
the  best  handles  and  stocks  for  tools,  flails. 


L  MISCELLANY  OF  USEFTTL  KNOWLEDGE. 


S07 


cart  whips,  bowls,    shivers,  and   pins  for 
btooks;  and  iaexcellent  for  door-ban,  &c 
COLOU11S  AM)  PAINTS.     The  follow- 
in?  des.  ripthms  of  MUM  of  the  colours  used 

in  painting,  may  m>t  be  unacceptable  to 
those  of  our  readers  engaged  in  drawing. 
They  will  discover  what  are  produced  from 
minerals,  what  from  earths  and  stones,  and 
■what  are  extracted  from  vegetables.  It  will 
shew  them  what  kinds  are  of  an  innocent, 
and  what  of  a  poitonoofl  quality,  and  serve 
as  a  caution  in  the  use  of  them. 

Cinnabar.  Is  a  combination  of  mercury 
■with  sulphur,  and  forms  a  red,  heavy,  and 
brilliant  mineral,  found  chiefly  in  quick- 
silver mines.  Ihe  common  vermilion  is 
nothing  else  but  cinnabar,  ground  up  with 
spirits  of  win.'  and  urine.  Cinnabar  is  either 
fiat  ice  or  factitious.  Native  or  mineral 
cinnabar,  which  is  that  above-mentioned, 
though  found  among  quicksilver,  has  mines 
of  its  own.  Those  in  Spain  are  very  famous. 
Each  pound  of  good  cinnabar  yields  fourteen 
ouiwes  of  mcrcuiy.  The  alchymists  say  it 
is  disp  sed  for  attaining  to  the  transmuta- 
tion of  gold.  Factitious,  or  artificial  cinna- 
bar, is  funned  of  a  mixture  of  mercury  and 
sulphur,  sublimed,  and  thus  reduced  into  a 
kind  of  stone.  The  best  is  of  a  high  colour, 
full  of  fibres.  This  is  used  by  farriers  to 
make  pills,  for  their  horses  ;  and  by  painters 
as  a  colour,  it  being  a  very  vivid  red,  but 
drying  with  some  difficulty.  This  cinnabar 
is  rendered  moie  beautiful  by  grinding  it 
With  gum  water,  and  a  little  saffron  :  those 
two  drugs  preventing  its  growing  black. 

Vermilion.  A  bright,  beautiful  red  co- 
lour, in  great  esteem  among  the  ancients, 
under  the  denomination  of  minium.  The 
artificial  or  fictitious  vermilion  is  made  of 
mineral  cinnabar,  described  above.  The 
natural  is  found  in  some  silver  mines,  in 
the  form  of  a  ruddy  sand,  which  is  prepared 
and  purified  for  use.  We  have  two  kinds  of 
vermilion  from  Holland,  the  one  of  a  deep 
red,  the  other  pale  ;  the  difference  of  colour 
only  proceeding  from  the  cinnabar  being 
more  or  less  ground.  This  is  of  consider- 
able use,  among  the  paint.era  in  oil  and 
miniature;  and  likewise  among  the  ladies, 
as  a  fueus  or  paint,  to  heighten  the  com- 
plexion. Among  the  ancients,  the  images 
of  the  gods  were  painted  with  vermilion  on 
the  feast  days;  and  their  generals  on  the 
days  of  triumph 

Bed  Lead.  Is  an  oxide  of  lead,  calcined 
and  rubified:  used  by  painters,  potters,  and 
physicians.  This  seems  to  be  the  real  minium' 
of  the  ancients,  which  was  a  preparation  of 
lead,  performed  bv  fire. 

White  Lead,  or  iSujier  acetate  of  lead, 


■  used  by  painters,  is  only  thin  plates  of  lead 

dissolved  wiih  vinegar.     Every  ten  days 

[  the  rust  formed  on  the  surface  is  scraped  <>!!', 

|  and  again  steeped,  and  scraped  till  the  whole 

be  quite  consumed.     Of  this  white  had  it  is 

i  that  the  paint,   used  by  the  ladies,  called 

I  Ceruse,  is  made.     White  lead  isapmewhat 

dangerous,  both  in  the  grinding  and  iu  tho 

using,  as  being  a  rank  poison. 

Massicot  is  a  yellow  oxide  of  lead,  nearly 
equalling  Dutch  pink  in  yielding  a  bright 
yellow,  and  surpassing  it  in  durability.^ 

Blue  is  one  of  the  primitive  colours.  Iu 
limning,  miniature,  &c,  the  painters  use 
ultra-marine,  blue  ashes,  and  smalt.  In  oil 
and  miniature  they  use  indigo,  blue  bice, 
blue  verditer,  lapis  Armenius,  smalt,  also  a 
counterfeit  ultramarine.  Dyers'  Blue  is 
one  of  their  simple  or  mother  colours,  used 
in  the  composition  of  others.  It  is  given 
chiefly  with  woad  and  indigo, 

Woad;  called  also  Glastum,  arises  from 
a  seed  sown  annually,  in  the  spring,  which 
produces  a  plant  called  Isatis  Tinctoria.  It 
has  usually  three,  four,  or  five  crops  of  leaves 
every  year,  the  first  of  which  is  best,  and 
the  rest  in  their  order.  When  the  leaves 
are  ripe  they  are  gathered,  let  lie  sometime, 
and  then  put  under  a  wheel  to  bruise  or 
grind  them  ;  after  which  they  are  laid  eight 
or  ten  days  in  piles  or  heaps,  and  at  last 
reduced  into  a  kind  of  balls,  winch  are  ex- 
posed in  "the  shade,  on  hurdles,  to  dry. 
This  done,  they  are  broken  or  ground  to 
powder ;  and  when  ground,  spread  on  a  floor 
and  watered.  Here  the  woad  is  allowed  to 
smoke  and  heat,  till  by  torrifying  it  every 
day  it  becomes  quite  dry,  which  is  called 
silvering.  A  week,  or  more,  after  which,  it 
is  in  a  condition  to  be  used  for  dyeing.  The 
ancient  Britons  used  to  dye  their  bodies  with 
it,  and  some  hold  that  it  was  from  this  plant, 
called  glastum,  that  glass  took  its  denomi- 
nation ;  though  others  derive  both  glass  and 
glastum  from  the  British  glass,  which  signi- 
fies a  blue  colour.  A  woad  blue  is  a  very 
deep  blue,  almost  black  ;  and  is  the  base  of 
so  many  sorts  of  colours,  that  the  dyers  have 
a  scale,  whereby  they  compose  the  different 
casts,  or  degrees  of  woad,  from  the  brightest 
to  the  deepest. 

Indigo  is  a  deep  blue,  brought  from  the 
West  Indies.  It  is  drawn  from  the  leaves 
of  a  plant  which  the  Spaniards  call  anil,  and 
we  nil,  Indian  wood,  and  indigo.  When 
the  plant  has  arrived  at  a  certain  height, 
and  its  leaves  are  in  a  good  condition,  they 
are  cut  down,  thrown  into  a  vat,  and 
covered  with  water ;  at  the  top  swims  a 
scum,  with  all  the  different  colours  of  the 
rainbow.    Then  the  water  is  let  off  into 


TACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY 


another  vessel,  -where  it  is  agitated  with 
five  or  six  long  polos,  fitted  together  for  that 
purpose.  This  is  continued  till  the  water 
appears  of  a  deep  green,  and  till  the  grain, 
as  it  is  called,  forms  itself,  which  is  dis- 
covered by  taking  a  little  of  it  into  another 
vessel,  and  spitting  in  it,  when,  if  a  bluish 
dreg  be  perceived  subsiding,  the  violent 
agitation  is  discontinued.  The  matter  then 
precipitates  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  after 
which  the  water  is  poured  off.     It  is  then 

Sut into  little  linen  bags  to  drain,  and  when 
ry,  it  is  cut  into  slices  and  hardened  in  the 
sun.  There  are  several  kinds  of  indigo. 
That  is  thought  to  be  the  best,  which  is  in 
flat  pieces,  of  a  moderate  thickness,  pretty 
hard,  clean,  light  enough  to  swim  in  water, 
inflammable,  of  a  fine  blue  colour,  marked  a 
little  on  the  side  with  silver  streaks,  and 
appearing  reddish  when  rubbed  on  the  nail. 
Indigo  is  used  among  painters,  who  grind  it 
and  mix  it  with  white  to  make  a  blue  colour, 
for  without  that  mixture  it  would  paint 
blackish.  It  is  mixed  with  yellow  to  make 
a  green  colour.  It  is  also  used  in  dyeing, 
and  may  be  considered  as  the  best  basis  of 
all  black,  blue,  and  green  colours.  With 
indigo,  laundresses  give  a  bluish  cast  to  their 
linen. 

Smalt.  A  metallic  oxide,  prepared,  puri- 
fied, and  sold,  sometimes  in  the  state  of  a 
blue  powder,  and  sometimes  in  cakes;  chiefly 
used  ahmg  with  starch  to  give  liuens  a  finer 
and  cleaner  cast ;  and  best  known  by  the 
name  of  stone  or  powder-blue. 

Blue  Verditeb,  is  a  bright  blue.  It 
works  easy  with  water.  It  is  somewhat  in- 
clining to  a  green,  and  it  is  the  blue  which 
is  most  of  all  mixed  with  yellow  berries. 
Vevditer  is  the  precipitate  obtained  from 
nitrates  of  copper  by  lime,  powdered  with 
the  addition  of  from  5  to  10  parts  of  lime 
in  100. 

Next  to  ultramarine,  Blue  Bice  (a  pre- 
paration of  lapis  Armenius)  is  the  most  ex- 
cellent, and  is  often  made  to  serve  instead 
of  it.    It  works  much  better  than  smalt. 

Ultramarine.  A  beautiful  blue  colour, 
used  by  the  painters,  prepared  from  lapis 
lazuli.  This  is  a  sort  of  precious  stone, 
called  also  azure  stone.  It  is  found  in 
mines  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  as  also  in 
pits  of  marble,  which  last  is  that  generally 
m  use.  It  is  composed  of  silex,  sulphate  of 
lime,  blue  fluor  spar,  and  iron.  The  Arme- 
nian stone  bears  a  near  resemblance  to  lapis 
luzuli.     It  is  a  blue  f liable  copper  ore. 

Bed  is  one  of  the  five  simple  or  primitive 
oolcurs. 

Madder.  A  red,  bitter  astringent  root,  of 
a  plant  called  Bubia  Tinctorum;  much  used 


by  dyers,  to  give  a  strong,  rich,  red  colour. 
It  is  useful  in  medicine,  being  found  of  ser« 
vice  in  obstructions,  and  in  an  ill  state  of 
the  humours  of  the  body.  It  is  generally 
made  up  in  form  of  decoctions,  diet  drinks, 
and  medicated  ales. 

Cochineal,  la  an  animal  substance,  us^d 
by  dyers,  for  giving  red  colours,  especially 
crimsons  and  scarlets.  Cochineal  belongs  to 
a  genus  of  insects,  called  Coccus,  of  which 
there  are  about  fifty  species,  extremely  fer- 
tile and  troublesome  in  hot-houses  and 
green  houses.  Of  these  the  most  important 
Species  is  the  Coccus  cacti,  or  cochineal  coccus 
celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  the  colour  it 
yields,  when  properly  prepared.  It  is  a  na- 
tive of  South  America.  The  female,  or 
officinal  cochineal  insect,  in  its  full  grown  or 
torpid  state,  swells  or  grows  to  such  a  size, 
in  proportion  to  that  of  its  first  or  creeping 
state,  that  the  legs,  &c.  are  so  smali  as 
hardly  to  be  discovered  ;  so  that  on  a  gene- 
ral view  it  bears  as  great  a  resemblance  to  a 
seed  or  berry,  as  to  an  animal.  When  the 
female  cochineal  insect  is  arrived  at  its 
full  size,  it  fixes  to  the  surface  of  the  leaf, 
and  envelopes  itself  in  a  white  cottony 
matter,  which  it  is  supposed  to  spin  or  draw 
through  its  proboscis,  in  a  continued  double 
filament.  The  male  is  a  small  and  rather 
tender  fly,  about  the  size  of  a  flea,  the  wings 
large  in  proportion  to  its  body,  which  is  of 
a  red  colour,  with  two  long  filaments  pro- 
ceeding from  the  tail.  It  is  an  active,  lively 
insect,  and  is  dispersed  in  small  numbers 
among  the  females,  in  proportion  of  one 
male  to  150  females.  When  the  female  has 
discharged  all  its  eggs,  it  becames  a  mere 
husk  and  dies;  so  that  great  care  is  taken 
to  kill  the  insects  before  that  time  to  pre- 
vent the  young  from  escaping,  and  thus  dis- 
appointing the  proprietor  of  their  beautiful 
colour.  The  insects,  when  picked  or  brushed 
off  the  plants,  are  killed  by  the  fumes  of 
heated  vinegar,  or  by  smoke,  and  then 
dried,  in  which  state  they  are  imported  into 
Europe.  It  is  said  that  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment has  been  annually  more  enriched  by 
the  profit  of  the  cochineal  trade,  than  by  the 
produce  of  all  its  gold  mines.  Cochineal  is 
extensively  used  by  dyers,  and  it  yields  the 
fine  colour  so  much  esteemed  in  painting, 
known  by  the  name  of  carmine.  When 
properly  mixed  with  hair  powder,  it  is  what 
ladies  use  as  rouge. 

Carmine.  Is  a  bright  red  or  crimson 
colour,  bordering  on  purple,  used  by  pa'nt- 
ers  in  miniature.  It  is  rarely  used  in  oil, 
on  account  of  its  price.  Carmine  is  the 
mfist  valuable  product  of  the  cochineal 
mestiquc,  which  is  a  sediment  at  the  bottom 


▲   MISCELLANY   Of    USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


of  the  water,  wherein  is  steeped  cochineal, 
fcouan,  and  autour  ;  some  add  rocou,  or 
nnnatto,  but  this  gives  the  carmine  too 
much  of  the  orange  east.  To  be  good  it 
must  be  almost  an  impalpable  powder  ; 
that  is,  a  powder  scarcely  perceptible  by 
the*  touch.  Some  prepare  a  ca.mine  with 
brazil  weed,  fernambouc,  and  gold  leaf, 
beat  in  I  mortar,  and  steeped  in  white  wine 
•vinegar ;  the  scum  arising  from  this  mix- 
ture on  boiling,  when  dried,  makes  car- 
mine; but  this  kind  is  much  inferior  to  the 
former. 

Lake,  or  Lacca.  The  red  that  is  called 
artificial  is  made  of  Brazil  wood,  boiled  in  ley 
mule  of  the  branches  of  the  vine  ;  or,  as  it  is 
otherwise  expressed,  Brazil  wood  boiled  in  a 
lixivium  of  the  branches  of  the  vine,  adding 
ft  little  cochineal,  terra-merita,  calcined 
alum,  with  the  bones  of  the  cuttle-fish 
pulverized,  and  made  up  into  little  cakes 
and  dried.  If  to  make  it  very  red,  the  juice 
of  citron  is  added,  and  if  brown,  oil  of 
tartar.  Artificial  Lake  is  also  a  name  given 
to  a  coloured  substance,  drawn  from  several 
flowers ;  as  the  yellow  from  the  flower  of 
the  juniper,  the  red  from  the  poppy,  &c, 
the  blue  from  the  iris  or  violet. 

Rose  Pink,  or  Rose  Lake.  Is  pre- 
pared from  chalk,  and  an  extract  of  Brazil 
or  Cam  peachy  wood.  It  is  the  most  common 
paint  used  by  stage-players,  and  is  useful 
to  house-painters  and  paper-stainers,  where 
it  can  be  secured  fom  the  air  by  a  varnish. 

Red  Chalk,  or  Red  Crayon.  Is  an 
iron  ore  used  for  sketch i ng  figures ;  and  also 
forms  a  good  li^ht  red,  either  in  oil  or 
water. 

Lac  (gum).  Is  a  very  singular  compound, 
prepared  by  the  female  of  a  very  minute 
insect,  the  Coccus  lacca,  found  on  some 
trees  in  the  Last  Indies,  particularly  the 
banyan  fig.  The  insect  is  nourished  by 
the  tree,  fixing  itself  upon  the  twigs  and 
extremities  of  the  succulent  branches,  where 
it  deposits  its  eggs,  which  it  glues  to  the 
branch  by  a  red  liquid,  the  outside  of  which 
hardens  by  the  air,  and  serves  as  a  cell  to 
the  parent  insect.  This  increases  in  size, 
and  the  young  insects  at  first  feed  upon  the 
enclosed  liquid,  and  after  this  is  expended, 
they  eat  through  the  coat,  leaving  a  hollow 
red*  resinous  bag,  which  is  stick  lac.  The 
best  lac  is  procured  from  the  province  of 
Acham  (or  Assam),  but  it  is  obtained  in 
great  plenty  on  the  uncultivated  mountains 
on  each  side  of  the  Ganges.  There  are 
three  kinds  of  lac — viz.,  stick  lac,  which  i3 
lac  in  its  natural  state,  without  any  prepa- 
ration ;  seed  lac,  which  is  stick  lac  broken 
into  small  lumps  and  granulated ;  and  shell 
U* 


lac,  which  is  a  preparation  of  the  stick  lae. 
By  a  number  M  very  accurate  e\p>  nin<  n.s 
made  by  Mr.  Ilatchett,  it  is  found  that  lac 
consists  of  a  colouring  extract  of  resin, 
gluten,  and  wax,  all  of  them  in  intimate 
combination.  Lac  is  employed  for  a  vari<  ty 
of  purposes  in  the  arts  ;  the  finer  specimens 
are  cut  into  beads  far  necklaces.  If  enters 
largely  into  the  composition  of  selling  wax, 
and  hard  japans  or  varni-las,  and  it  is  much 
used  in  dyeing. 

Kkkmks.  A  kind  of  husk,  or  excrescence, 
resembling  a  berry,  growing  on  an  ever- 
green of  the  oak  kind,  Qncrrn.1  Cocril'era, 
of  considerable  use  both  in  physic  and  dye- 
ing. That  which  is  sometimes  called  by 
the  French  Vermillion,  or  grain  de  gall,  or 
vermeil,  is  a  kind  of  nest  of  an  insect,  about 
the  size  of  a  juniper-berry,  round,  smooth, 
and  glossy  *,  of  a  beautiful  red  colour,  and 
full  of  a  juice  of  the  same  dye,  found  stick- 
ing to  the  bark,  on  the  stein  and  branches 
of  a  sort  of  scarlet  oak,  growing  in  Spain, 
Languedoc,  and  other  hot  countries.  The 
kermes-berry  is  of  a  v'nous  smell,  a  bitter 
though  agreeable  taste,  and  its  pulp,  or  juice, 
full  of  numerous  minute  ova  of  animalcules. 
1  he  origin  of  the  kennes  is  supposed  to  be 
owing  to  a  little  maggot,  which,  pricking  the 
cocci/era  to  deposit  its  eggs,  raises  a  little 
tumour  or  blister,  which  fills  with  juice, 
and  as  it  ripens  becomes  red.  Henc  ■,  u  hen 
kennes  is  dried,  there  comes  out  of  it  an  in- 
finite number  of  little  insects  and  flies,  so 
small  that  they  are  scarcely  sensible,  inso- 
much that  the  whole  substance  seems  con- 
verted into  them.  To  prevent  this  incon- 
venience it  is  usual  to  steep  the  kennes  in 
vinegar  before  it  is  dry.  The  juice  or  pulp 
is  extracted  from  the  kermes  by  founding  it 
in  a  mortar,  and  straining  it  through  a 
sieve.  Of  this  a  syrup  is  made  by  adding  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  sugar.  The  kermes- 
grain  has  been  considered  as  nn  astringent 
and  tonic,  &c.  There  is  a  celebrated  con- 
fection called  Al-kermcs.  It  is,  however, 
of  greater  use  in  dyeing  scarlet.  According 
to  M.  Marfigli's  experiments  made  at 
Montpelier,  the  kennes  berry  has  the  effect 
of  galls,  when  mixed  with  vitriol  making 
ink,  and  mixed  with  lime  water,  it  makes  a 
crimson. 

Yellow.  Is  one  of  the  five  simple 
and  primitive  colours. 

TURMERIC  Is  a  medicinal  root,  used 
likewise  by  the  dyers,  to  give  a  yellow 
colour.  It  is  not  unlike  ginger,  either  in 
figure  or  size.  It  is  yellow  both  externally 
and  internally,  and  very  hard.  Mad. 
yields  it ;  it  is  also  brought  from  the  East 
and   West  Indies.    Choose  that  which  ia 


310 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


resinous,  new,  hard  to  briak,  heavy  and 
big.  The  yellow  root,  as  it  grows  old, 
turns  brown,  and  for  want  of  attending  to 
t'nis,  some  have  supposed  that  the  red  and 
brown  were  of  different  kinds.  It  is  mueh 
used  by  the  glovers  to  dye  their  gloves.  The 
Indians  use  it  to  dye  their  rice,  and  other 
foods,  of  a  yellow  colour ;  whence  some  call 
it  Indian  saffron.  Our  dyers  do  not  find 
that  it  gives  so  steady  a  yellow  as  the 
luteola  or  weld ;  but  it  is  admirable  to 
brighten  and  heighten  the  red  colours  dyed 
with  cochineal  or  vermilion,  as  scarlet,  &c. 
Turmeric  is  used  in  medicine  by  way  of 
decoction,  infusion,  powder,  &c.  It  is  held 
a  sort  of  specific  in  the  jaundice  and 
dropsy. 

Sumac.  Of  commerce,  is  the  pulverized 
leaves  and  branches  of  a  bushy  tree,  the 
Rhus.Cnriaria,  or  elm-leaved  sumach,  which 
rises  about  ten  feet  high,  is  cultivated  in 
Spain,  Portugal,  Sicily,  and  Palestine,  for 
dyeing  and  tanning.  The  Spanish  sumac 
is  imported  in  skins,  that  from  Sicily  in 
bags  ;  it  is  esteemed  good  when  its  odour  is 
strong,  of  a  lively  green  colour,  free  from 
stems,  and  well  ground.  It  is  cultivated 
■with  great  care  by  the  Portuguese  and 
Spaniards ;  its  shoots  are  cut  down  every 
year  close  to  the  root,  and  after  being  dried 
and  powdered  in  a  mill,  are  ready  for  tan- 
ning or  dyeing.  Another  species  of  this 
genus  of  plants,  the  Rhus  Cotimts,  is  used  by 
the  Spaniards  for  dyeing  and  tanning  their 
yellow  leather,  which  is  both  brilliant  and 
durable.  Preparations  of  this  plant  are 
used  by  the  French  dyers  under  the  name 
of  f unlet  and  redoul.  The  green  berries  of 
the  plants  producing  sumac  are  poisonous, 
and  hence  some  caution  should  be  taken  by 
dyers  in  using  this  dye.  It  is  apprehended 
that  a  considerable  Quantity  of  the  latter 
kind  of  sumac  or  fustet  is  sold  in  this 
country  for 

Fustic.  "Which  is '  a  yellow  wood 
brought  from  Cuba,  Tobago,  Brazil,  and  the 
West  Indies.  The  real  fustic  tree  is  a 
species  of  mulberry,  Morns  Tincloria,  and 
grows  to  a  considerable  size  ;  its  wood 
ground  to  powder,  and  the 

Quehcitron  Bakk..  Which  is  pro- 
duced by  a  large  American  tree,  called 
yellow  oak,  are  now  the  principal  substances 
which  yield  all  the  yellow  dies  in  our  manu- 
factories. 

"Weld.  The  Reseda  Luteolaoi  Linnaeus  is  a 
plant  used  by  dyers  to  give  a  yellow  colour. 
It  is  much  cultivated  in  Kent  for  the  use  of 
the  London  dyers.  With  the  help  of 
potash  it  yields  a  deep  lemon  colour.  It 
serves  to  die  all  colours,  between  white  and 


a  deep  yellow  ;  and  its  dye  will  hold  well. 
For  the  finest  yellows,  dyers  first,  boil  thfc 
cloth  or  stuff  in  alum  or  potasn,  and  then 
give  the  colour  with  weld  or  woad. 

Annotto,  Annatto,  or  Aknatto.  Is  a 
kind  of  orange  dye,  brought,  from  the  "West 
Indies.  It  is  procured  from  the  pulp  of  the 
seed-corpuscules,  of  a  shrub  called  aehiotte, 
the  Bixa  Orellana,  Linmeus,  which  grows 
seven  or  eight  feet  high,  and  produces  pods, 
each  containing  thirty  or  forty  seeds,  enve- 
loped in  a  pulp  of  a  bright  red  colour.  After 
the  pulp  and  seeds  are  repeatedly  pounded, 
boiled,  strained,  and  dried,  it  is  tit  for  sale. 
Annotto  ha*  been  of  late  prepared  only  by 
the  Spaniards.  Much  of  our  cheese  is 
coloured  with  this  dye,  and  not  with  mari- 
golds. Some  of  the  Dutch  farmers  use  it  to 
give  a  rich  colour  to  their  butter.  The  poor 
people  use  it  instead  of  saffron,  and  it  was 
formerly  often  mixed  in  the  grinding  of  the 
cocoa,  as  an  ingredient  in  chocolate,  in  the 
quantity  of  about  two  drachms  to  the  pound, 
in  order  to  give  it  a  reddish  colour.  It  is 
useful  as  an  ingredient  in  varnishes  and 
lacquers.  The  liquid  sold  under  the  name 
of  "Scott's  Nankeen  Dye"  seems  to  be 
nothing  but  annatto  dissolved  in  an  alka- 
line ley. 

Saffron.  A  plant  which  produces  a 
flower  of  the  same  name ;  whence  also  a 
drug  called  saffron  or  crocus  is  gathered. 
The  root,  which  produces  the  saffron  is  a 
kind  of  bulb,  or  onion,  covered  with  several 
bulbous  cartilages  :  its  leaves  are  long. 
From  the  middle  of  the  flower  arise  three 
long  flame- coloured  filaments,  and  these  are 
properly  the  saffron  ;  the  rest  of  the  flower 
being  of  no  use.  Five  pounds  of  fresh 
filaments  make  one  pound  of  dry  safl-on. 
The  best  saffron  in  Europe  is  that  of  Eng- 
land;  that  brought  from  Spain  is  injured 
by  the  oil  which  is  mixed  with  it  to  make 
it  keep.  Saffron  is  used  both  in  food  and 
medicine,  to  cheer,  fortify,  and  resolve.  It 
was  the  greatest  cordial  in  medicine.  It  is 
also  used  by  illumers,  to  make  a  golden 
yellow  colour. 

Gamboge.    Is  a  concrete  vegetable  juice, 

of  a  gummy  nature.     It  is  chiefly  brought 

to  us  in  large  cakes  or  rolls,  from  Gamboja 

in  the  East  Indies.     The  best  sort  is  of  a 

deep  yellow  or  orange  colour,  breaks  shining 

and  free  from  dross  :  it  has  no  smell,  and 

very  little  taste,  unless  kept  in  the  mouth 

for  some  time,  when  it  impresses  a  slight 

]  sense  of  acrimony.      It  immediately  cora- 

j  municates  to  spirits  of  wine  a  bright  golden 

I  colour,  and  entirely  dissolves  in   it  or   in 

I  water.     It  makes  a  beautiful  yellow,  and  is 

I  much  used  by  painters.     Dr    Lewis  6ays> 


A.  MISCELLAmr  OP  rSEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


Ill 


thflt  it  leaves  ti  beautiful  and  durable  citron 
yellow  stain  upon  marble,  when  rubbed  in 
substance  upon  the  hot  stone.  With  lime 
water  it  yields  a  blood  red  colour.  As  ■ 
medicine,  gamboge  evacuates  powerfully, 
both  upwards  and  downwards.  Geoffroy 
says  he  has  given  from  four  to  eight  grains, 
without  violence.  He  reeommends  it  to  be 
taken  with  an  equal  quantity  of  vegetable 

alkali  for  the  tape-worm. 

Ochue.  Is  a  kind  of  yellow  or  red  earth, 
Use  i  by  painters.  It  is  an  oxide  of  iron, 
Under  which  head  it  has  been  described. 

Spanish  Brown.  Is  an  iron  ore.  dugout 
of  the  ground.  Among  painters  it  is  used 
as  the  tir.>t  and  priming  colour.  It  works 
well  if  ground  fine.  In  choosing  good,  that 
which  is  freest  from  stones,  and  of  the 
deepest  hue,  is  the  most  esteemed.  For 
many  purposes  it  requires  to  be  burnt. 

Ruddle,  Red  Hematites,  or  Blood- 
stone. Is  a  sort  of  dusky  red  chalk,  or 
earth,  found  in  several  parts  of  England, 
chiefly  in  iron  mines.  It  was  called  by  the 
ancients  hu-matitcs.  Pliny  reckons  five 
kinds.  That  commonly  used  by  painters  is 
factitious,  being  made  of  Armenian  bole, 
and  other  drugs.  The  native  or  fossil  kind 
comes  from  Egypt,  Bohemia,  &c.  The 
gilders  use  it  for  burnishers  to  polish  their 
gold  with. 

Black.  Something  opaque  and  porous 
that  imbibes  all  the  light  falling  thereon, 
reflects  nme,  and  therefore  exhibits  no 
colour.  There  are  various  kinds  of  blacks. 
The  dyers  when  they  are  to  dye  cloths,  &c, 
black,  first  dye  it  blue,  with  woad  and 
indigo,  and  the  black  is  given  afterwards 
with  logwood,  or  galte,  copperas,  and 
sumac. 

There  is  what  is  called  Jesuit's  black, 
which  dyes  black  without  first  dyeing  blue. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  the 
Jesuits,  and  was  practised  in  their  houses. 
There  is  a  German  black  made  with  ivory 
and  burnt  peach  stones,  mixed  and  ground 
with  burnt  lees  of  wine. 

Ivory  Black.  Is  made  of  ivory  burnt  be- 
tween two  crucihles  well  luted  ;  which  being 
thus  rendered  perfectly  black,  is  ground  in 
water,  and  made  into  little  cakes.  A  crucible 
is  a  chemical  vessel  made  of  very  different 
materials,  as  clays,  plumbago,  platina,  or 
manganese,  and  so  tempered  and  baked  as 
to  endure  the  greatest  fire. 

Lamp-Black.  Is  the  sooty  fumes  of  rosin, 
prepared  by  melting  and  purifying  the  rosin 
in  iron  vessels,  then  setting  tire  to  it  under 
a  chimney,  or  other  place,  lined  with  sheep 
skins,  or  thick  linen  cloth  to  receive  the 
vapour  or  smoke,  which  is  the  black.    It  is 


sometimes  prepared  from  the  resinous  parti 

of  woods,   burnt  under  a  kind  of  tent  which 

receives  it.  Of  this  kind  we  have  niiuh 
from  Sweden  and  Norway.  This  black  takes 
tire  very  readily, 

Spanish  Black.  Is  so  called,  because 
first  invented  by  the  Spaniards,  and  most  of 
it  brought  from  Spain.  It  is  no  other  than 
burnt  cork,  and  used  in  various  works,  par- 
ticularly among  painters. 

There  are  several  colours  that  require 
burning,  as  first,  Lamp-Black,  which  is  of 
so  greasy  a  nature,  that,  except  it  be  burnt, 
it  will  require  a  long  time  to  dry.  The 
method  of  burning,  or  rather  drying,  lamp- 
black, is  as  follows  . — Put  it  into  a  crucible, 
over  a  dear  tire,  letting  it  remain  until  it  be 
red  hot,  or  so  near  it  that  there  is  no  manner 
of  smoke  arising  from  it. 

Secondly,  Umber.,  which,  if  it  be  intended 
to  be  a  shadow  for  gold,  &c,,  then  burning 
suits.  In  order  to  burn  umber,  you  must 
put  it  into  the  naked  fire  ill  large  lumps, 
and  not  take  it  out  till  it  be  thoroughly  red 
hot ;  or,  if  you  wish  to  be  more  curious,  put 
it  into  a  crucible,  and  make  it  red  hot. 
Umber,  or  martial  clay,  consists  principally 
of  particles  of  decayed  wood  mixed  with 
bitumen. 

Ivory  also  must  be  burnt  to  make  black, 
thus,  fill  two  crucibles  with  shavings  of 
ivory,  then  clap  their  two  mouths  together, 
and  bind  them  fast  with  an  iron  wire,  and 
lute  the  joints  close  with  clay,  salt,  and 
horse-dung,  well  beaten  together;  then  set 
it  over  the  fire,  covering  it  all  over  with 
coala ;  let  it  remain  on  the  fire,  till  you  are 
sure  that  the  matter  enclosed  is  thoroughly 
red  hot ;  then  take  it  out  of  the  fire,  but  do 
not  open  the  crucibles  till  they  are  perfectly 
cold  ;  for,  were  they  opened  while  hot,  the 
matter  would  turn  to  ashes,  and  so  it  will  if 
the  joints  are  not  luted  close. 

Bister,  or  Bistre.  Is  made  of  chimney 
soot  boiled,  and  afterwards  diluted  with 
water ;  serving  painters  to  wash  their 
designs. 

Black  Chalk.  Is  used  for  designing,  and 
is  esteemed  preferable  to  black  lead.  It  is 
nothing  more  than  argillaceous  slate,  cut 
into  long  slips,  fit  to  be  held  in  the  port- 
crayon. There  are  two  kinds,  the  one 
French,  and  the  other  Italian ;  the  former  is 
6oft,  and  the  latter  hard. 

India  Ink,  or  Chinese  ink.  Is  an  admi- 
rable composition,  in  vain  attempted  to  be 
imitated  in  Europe.  It  is  not  tluid  like  our 
writing  ink;  but  solid  like  our  mineral 
colours,  though  much  lighter.  They  make 
it  of  all  figures,  but  the  most  usual  is  the 
i  rectangular,    about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 


312 


PACTS  FOE,  EVERYBODY 


thick.  Some  of  the  sticks  are  gilt,  with 
figures  of  dragons,  birds,  dowers,  &c.  In 
order  to  do  this,  they  have  little  wooden 
moulds,  so  curiously  wrought,  that  we  could 
hardly  equal  them  in  metal.  The  Chinese 
make  this  ink  with  smoke-black  of  various 
kinds ;  but  the  best  is  said  to  be  made  of  a 
liquor  procured  from  a  species  of  the  sepia 
or  cuttie-fish,  or  the  smoke  of  fat  pork,  burnt 
at  a  lamp.  They  mix  a  kind  of  oil  with  it 
to  make  it  more  smooth,  and  add  other 
odorous  ingredients,  to  take  away  the  rank* 
nessof  the  smell.  After  they  have  mixed  it 
into  a  paste  of  the  proper  consistence,  they 
put  it  into  a  mould  to  figure  it. 

We  shall  close  this  head  of  paints  and 
colours  with  a  short  description  of  India 
rubber,  that  most  generally  useful  substance 
among  learners  in  drawing. 

India  Kudber,  or  Elastic  resin.  Is  a 
substance  produced  from  the  syringe-tree  of 
Cayenne  and  other  parts  of  South  America, 
and  possessed  of  the  most  singular  properties. 
No  substance  is  yet  known  which  is  so 
pliable,  and  at  the  same  time  so  elastic  ;  and 
it  is  farther  a  matter  of  curiosity,  as  being 
capable  of  resisting  the  action  of  very  power- 
ful menstrua.  M.  de  la  Condamine  says  it 
oozes  out,  under  the  form  of  a  vegetable  milk, 
from  incision*  made  in  the  tree ;  that  it  is 
gathered  chiefly  in  time  of  rain,  because  it 
flows  then  most  abundantly.  The  means 
employed  to  inspissate  and  indurate  it,  are 
kept  secret.  By  inspissate  is  meant  to 
thicken,  and  by  indurate  to  harden,  which 
M.  Bom  are  says  it  does  gradually,  by  being 
exposed  to  the  air.  The  Indians  make  boots 
of  it,  which  water  cannot  penetrate,  and 
which,  when  smoked,  have  the  appearance 
of  real  leather.  Bottles  are  also  made  of  it, 
the  necks  of  which  are  fastened  to  hollow 
reeds,  so  that  the  liquor  contained  in  them 
may  be  forced  through  the  reed  or  pipes  by 
pressure.  One  of  these  filled  with  water  is 
always  presented  to  the  guests  at  their  en- 
tertainments, who  never  fail  to  make  use  of 
it  before  eating.  Flambeaux,  an  inch  and 
a-half  in  diameter,  and  two  feet  long,  are 
likewise  made  of  this  resin,  which  give  a 
beautiful  light,  have  no  bad  smell,  and  burn 
twelve  hours.  A  kind  of  cloth  is  also  pre- 
pared from  it,  which  the  inhabitants  of 
Quito  apply  to  the  same  purposes  as  our  oil- 
cloth and  sail-cloth^  It  is  formed,  by'means 
of  moulds,  into  a  variety  of  figures  for  use 
and  ornament.  The  process  is  said  to  be 
thus: — The  juice,  which  is  obtained  by  in- 
cision, is  spread  over  pieces  of  clay  formed 
into  the  desired  ornamental  shape,  and  as 
fast  as  one  layer  is  dry,  another  is  added,  till 
the  whole  be  of  a  proper  thickness.    It  is 


then  held  over  a  strong  smoko  of  v  getablea 
on  fire,  whereby  it  hardens  into  the  texture 
and  appearance  of  leather,  and  before  the 
finishing,  while  yet  soft,  is  capable  of  re- 
ceiving any  impression  on  the  outside,  which 
remains  ever  after.  Many  attempt*  have 
been  made  to  dissolve  it  sb  as  to  make  it 
assume  different  figures,  with  equal  case  as 
when  it  was  in  its  original  state,  running 
from  the  tree.  Mr.  Macquer  tried  oils,  tur- 
pentines, spirits  of  wine,  the  milky  juice  of 
other  vegetables,  heat,  &c,  but  none  of 
these  was  capable  of  dissolving  it.  At  last 
he  tried  ether,  which  perfectly  dissolved  it, 
without  any  other  heat  than  that  of  the 
atmosphere.  It  was  then  transparent,  and 
of  an  amber  colour. 

A  resin,  similar  to  this,  was  discovered 
some  years  ago  by  Mr.  I'oivre,  in  the  isle  of 
France.  Some  kinds  of  this  gum  have  been 
dissolved  by  other  methods. 

GEMS  AND  PKECIOTTS  STONES. 
Gem  is  a  common  name  for  all  precious 
stones  or  jewels. 

The  Diamond  was  by  the  ancients  called 
Adamant.  It  is  a  precious  stone,  the  first 
in  rank,  value,  hardness,  and  lustre,  of  all 
gems.  The  goodness  of  diamonds  consists 
in  their  water,  or  colour,  lustre,  and  weight. 
The  most  perfect  colour  is  the  white.  Their 
defects  are  veins,  flaws,  specks,  &c.  In 
Europe,  the  lapidaries  examine  the  goodness 
of  their  rough  diamonds  by  daylight.  In 
the  Indies  it  is  done  by  night.  Dr.  Wall, 
in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  seems  to 
have  found  an  infallible  method  of  dis- 
tinguishing diamonds  from  other  stones :  a 
diamond,  with  an  easy  slight  friction  in  the 
dark,  with  any  soft,  animal  substance,  a3 
the  finger,  woollen,  silk,  or  the  like,  appears 
luminous  in  its  whole  body ;  and  if  you 
keep  rubbing  it  long,  and  then  expose  it  to 
the  eye,  it  will  remain  so  for  some  time. 
Diamonds  are  found  in  the  East  Indies,  in 
Golconda,  Visiapour,  Bengal,  and  the  Island 
of  Borneo.  There  are  four  mines,  or  rather 
two  mines  and  two  rivers.  The  miners  work 
quite  naked,  except  a  thin  linen  cloth  before 
them  ;  and  they  have  also  inspectors  to  pre- 
vent their  concealing  the  stones ;  which, 
however,  they  frequently  find  means  to  do, 
by  swallowing  them  when  they  are  not 
observed.  Diamonds  have  also  been  found 
in  the  Brazils,  and  hence  the  terms  oriental 
and  occidental  diamond ;  the  latter  is 
esteemed  the  least  valuable,  but  the  con- 
stituent principle  of  both  is  the  same,  they 
are  all  pure  carbon,  and  perfectly  inflam- 
mable, as  Newton  concluded.     (See  p.  20.) 

Crystal,  Quartz  or  Iiock  Crystal,  is  a 
transparent  stone,  white  like  a  diamond, 


A    MISCELLANY   OP   USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


A13 


but  much  inferior  in  lustre  ami  hardness. 

It  is  used  fw  vases,  urns,  mirrors,  kc— The 
ancients  knew  little  ftf  its  nature.  Pliny 
speaks  of  it  as  hardened  petrified  water. 
Barer*]  mountains  of  Kurope,  and  some  of 
Asia,  produce  rock  crystal.  Madagascar  is 
also  said  to  yield  more  than  all  the  worla 
beside.  Its  perfection  consists  in  lustre  and 
transparency  ;  that  -vitli  straws,  dust,  ciouds, 
&e.,  is  little"  valued.  It  is  frequently  found 
hexagonal  (or  with  six  sides) :  the 
inimitably  fine  and  accurate.  It  is  cut  ami 
engraved  in  the  same  manner  as  common 
glass,  of  which  it  was  the  prototype.  F. 
Francisco  Lana,  in  describing  the  formation 
of  diamonds,  observes,  that  in  the  Val  Sabbia 
is  a  spacious  round  of  a  meadow,  bare  of  all 
herbs,  wherein  crystals  are  generated  all 
sexangular.  The  country  people  thought 
them  produced  from  dews,  because,  being 
fathered  over  night,  others  would  arise  in  a 
serene  and  dewy  sky.  He  observed  that 
there  was  no  mark  of  any  mine  thereabout, 
and  concluded  them  produced  by  the  plenty 
of  nitrous  streams,  which,  while  it  hindered 
the  vegetation  of  those  places,  might  coag- 
ulate the  dew  falling  thereon.  Robault 
observes,  that  crystal,  diamond,  &c  must 
have  been  originally  liquid.  Botrhaave 
takes  crystal  to  be  the  proper  matter  or  basis 
of  all  gems  or  precious  stones  ;  and  that 
they  assume  this  or  that  colour  from  the 
different  admixture  of  mineral  fumes,  kc. 
Beet  crystal  consists  of  silica,  with  a  little 
lime  and  alumina.  There  are  yellow,  green, 
blue,  and  violet  crystals,  called  after  the 
precious  stones  which  they  resemble,  and 
coloured  with  iron,  as  green  crystal  is  called 
false  emerald.  Crystal  has  been  erroneously 
supposed  useful  in  medicine  as  an  astringent, 
and  that  it  increases  milk  in  nurses,  and  is 
an  antidote  against  arsenic. 

Ruby  Is  a  red  sparkling  gem,  of  the  first 
rank  among  precious  stones.  The  ruby  is 
found  in  Pegu  and  in  Ceylon.  There  an- 
rubies  also  found  in  Europe,  particularly  in 
Bohemia  and  Hungary,  especially  the  for- 
mer, where  in  a  mine  of  flints,  are  some- 
times found  rubies,  as  fine  and  hard  as  any 
of  the  eastern  ones.  Rubies  can  be  so  nearly 
counterfeited,  that  the  lapidaries  themselves 
may  be  deceived.  AY  hen  a  ruby  exceeds 
twenty  carats  it  is  called  a  Carbuncle,  the 
name  of  an  imaginary  stone  described  by 
the  ancients.  They  long  supposed  the  car- 
buncle to  be  taken  from  the  dragon's  head, 
and  we  hear  of  many  a  cavalier  who  went 
to  combat  with  dragons,  on  purpose  to  gain 
this  invaluable  jewel.  Vartornnn  assures 
Us,  that  the  king  of  Pegu  used  no  other  light 
in  the  night  time,  but  that  of  his  carbuncle, 


which  cast  a  blaze  like  that  of  the  sun. 
The  ancients  credulously  attributed  many 
virtues  to  the  rubv,  as  that  it  expels  poi- 
sons, cures  the  plague,  banishes  sorrow,  &c. 
The  balsas,  spineli,  oriental,  and  Brazilian 
rubies,  ail  eonsist  of  lilica,  alumina,  lime, 
and  iron,  intimately  combined  in  different 
proportions. 

Kmkkald.  Is  a  precious  stone,  very  green 
and  transparent,  in  hardness  next  after  the 
ruby  There  ate  two  kinds,  Oriental  and 
I'enivian. — The  oriental  is  harder,  more 
brilliant, and  transparent  than  the  Peruvian; 
which  has  generally  clouds  found  in  it,  and 
sparkles  less.  Some,  it  is  said,  are  found  in 
Cyprus,  and  even  in  our  own  island;  but 
they  are  very  inconsiderable. — The  emerald 
is  supposed  to  grow  more  and  more  pcfectin 
the  mine,  like  the  ruby,  and  to  arrive  at  its 
greenness  by  slow  degrees.  The  ancients 
supposed  them  of  use  in  medicine,  and  made 
amulets  of  emerald,  against  all  kinds  of 
sorcery;  but  we  have  now  more  experience, 
or  less  credulity,  and  they  are  valued  f<>r 
their  beauty,  not  for  their  virtue.  Authors 
mention  emeralds  of  incredible  magnitude; 
of  one,  pretended  to  have  been  seen  by 
Theophrastus  in  a  temple  in  Egypt,  four 
cubits  long,  and  three  broad:  and  of  an 
obelisk  of  emerald  forty  feet  high.  Emerald 
consists  of  silex,  alumina,  and  oxide  of 
iron. 

Topaz.  Is  the  third  order  of  gems  after  the 
diamond.  It  is  transparent,  and  a  beautiful 
yellow  or  gold  colour,  very  hard,  and  takes 
a  fine  polish.  It  is  found  in  the  Indies,  in 
Ethiopia.  Arabia,  Peru,  and  Bohemia;  and 
is  known  in  commerce  by  the  names  Oriental, 
Brazilian,  and  Saxon  topaz.  The  oriental 
ones  are  most  esteemed  :  their  colour  bor- 
ders on  the  orange :  those  of  Peru  are 
softer,  but  their  colour  nearly  the  same. 
Those  of  Madagascar  were  in  much  esteem, 
but  are  now  little  valued.  The  topaz  is 
easily  counterfeited,  and  there  are  factitious 
ones,  which  to  the  eye  do  not  appear  in- 
ferior to  the  natural  ones.  Topaz  consists 
of  silex,  alumina,  carbonate  of  lime,  andiron. 
The  ancients  ascribed  great  virtues  to  the 
topaz,  which  are  now  discredited.  In  tho 
118th  Psalm  there  is  mention  made  of  the 
topaz.  It  appears  to  be  the  true  chrysolite 
of  the  ancients. 

Chrysolite.  Is  a  precious  stone  of  a  dusky 
green  colour,  with  a  cast  of  yellow.  The 
ancients  gave  this  name  to  all  precious 
stones,  wherein  the  yellow  or  golden  was 
the  prevailing  colour  Two  kinds  are  known, 
the  chrysolite  of  jewellers,  and  Brazilian 
chrvsolite,  the  former  is  of  a  greenish  pale 
yellow,  the  latter  a  golden  yellow. 


314 


FACTS   FOR  EVERYBODY: 


Sapphire,  or  Safphyr.  Is  a  precious 
6tone  of  an  azure  or  beautilul  sky-colour.  It 
is  transparent,  yet  so  exceedingly  hard,  as 
scarcely  to  bear  being  engraven.  The 
deepest  blues  are  esteemed,  males,  and  the 
whitest,  females.  The  finest  things,  in  the 
Hebrew,  are  called  sapphires.  The  throne 
of  God  is  said  to  resemble  a  sapphire;  and 
the  Rabbins  hold  that  Moses'  rod,  and  the 
tables  he  received  on  Mount  Sinai,  were  of 
sapphire.  There  are  oriental,  white  oriental, 
Brazilian,  and  water  sapphires,  all  con- 
taining silex,  alumina,  lime  and  iron.  The 
chemists  make  several  preparations  of  sap- 
phire; as  a  salt,  a  tincture,  an  essence,  a 
water,  an  oil,  &e.  and  there  are  few  diseases 
but  some  pretend  to  cure  by  them. 

Some  rank  the  Cat's  eye  in  the  number 
of  sapphires.  This  gem  has  a  remarkable 
diversity  cf  colours,  is  very  hard,  and  bears 
a  polish  equal  to  the  true  sapphire.  The 
sapphires  of  Pegu  are  the  most  esteemed. 
They  are  fjund  in  the  same  mines  with  the 
rubies.  Some  are  also  brought  from  Calicut, 
Cananor,  and  Ceylon.  The  soft  water  sap- 
phires of  Bohemia  and  Silesia  are  of  some 
aetount,  though  far  inferior  to  the  oriental 
ones,  both  in  their  brightness  and  firmness. 
Some  value  the  sapphire  beyond  the  ruby, 
and  give  it  the  second  place  among  precious 
stones.     (See  p.  117). 

Co  ,;undum.  Is  of  a  greenish  white,  passing 
to  flesh  red,  and  is  crystallized  like  sap- 
phire. On  account  of  its  hardness,  it 
his  obtained  the  name  of  adamantine  spar. 
It  is  found  in  Hindostan,  not  far  from  the 
river  Cavery,  south  of  Madras.  It  occurs 
also  in  China,  Ceylon,  Ava,  &c.  Of  100 
pa' ts,  89  are  alumina,  G  silex,  2  oxide  of  iron, 
and  3  loss. 

Garnet  or  Granate.  Is  a  gem  or  pre- 
cious stone  of  a  high  red  colour;  thus  called 
from  the  resemblance  it  bears  to  the  kernel 
of  a  pomegranate.  Garnets  are  either 
oriental  or  occidental :  the  first  are  found  in 
several  parts  of  the  East  Indies  and  Syria; 
the  second  in  Spain,  Scotland,  Bohemia 
and  Silesia.  Those  from  the  east  are  dis- 
tinguished by  their  colour.  Some  are  of  a 
deep  brownish  red,  as  big  as  a  hen's  egg; 
others  are  nearly  of  the  hue  of  the  hyacinth : 
a  third  kind  as  a  mixture  of  violet  with  the 
red.  Of  the  occidental  garnets,  those  of 
Sihsia  are  the  darkest,  and  those  of  Bohemia 
the  most  valued.  They  are  found  near 
Prague,  not  in  any  particular  mines,  but 
are  picked  by  peasants  in  the  fields,  from 
among  the  sand  and  pebbles. 

Amethyst.  Is  of  a  violet  colour,  bordering 
on  purple.  Plutarch  6ays  the  amethyst 
takes  its  name  from  its  colour,  which  ac- 


cording to  him  resembles  wine  mixed  with, 
water.  The  ancients  supposed  it  prevented 
drunkenness,  by  being  hung  about  the  necks 
of  great  drinkers.  The  oriental  kind,  which 
is  the  hardest,  scarcest,"  and  most  valuable, 
is  of  a  dove  colour.  The  German  is  of  a 
violet  colour ;  and  that  of  Carthagena  has 
the  colour  of  a  pansy.  There  are  beautiful 
ones  found  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  in  the 
mountains  of  Auvergne.  The  amethyst 
consist  of  rock  crystal  coloured  with  iron. 
This  stone  is  not  extremely  hard,  and  may 
be  cut  with  a  leaden  wheel,  smeared  with 
emery  moistened  in  water.  It  is  polished 
on  a  pewter  wheel  with  tripoli.  It  is 
easily  engraven  on,  either  in  has  or  alto 
relievo. 

Beryl.  Is  a  precious  stone  or  gem,  of  a 
light  or  pale  green  colour,  passing  into  blue 
and  yellow.  The  beryl  of  the  ancients  is 
the  same  with  what  in  lattertimes  has  been 
denominated  aqua  marina,  on  account  of  its 
azure  or  sea-green  colour.  Some  authors 
take  the  beryl  to  be  the  diamond  of  the 
ancients;  this  is  certain — the  ablest  modern 
jewellers  sometimes  mistake  the  one  for  the 
other.  There  are  two  species  of  this  stone, 
the  oriental  or  precious  beryl,  and  the 
occidental  or  schorlous  beryl ;  the  former 
contains  silex,  alumina,  glucine,  lime  and 
oxide  of  iron;  the  latter,  silex,  alumina, 
lime,  and  water.  The  precious  beryl  is 
much  harder  than  the  6chorlous  beryl.  '  The 
beryl  is  sometimes  found  large  enough  to 
form  fine  vases.  It  is  said  that  there  are 
many  of  them  in  Cambaya,  Pegu,  and  Cey- 
lon. It  occurs  in  considerable  quantities  in 
Saxony,  Bohemia,  and  Moravia.  The 
properties  of  the  beryl  were  wonderful  in 
the  opinion  of  the  ancient  naturalists;  it 
kept  people,  as  they  thought,  from  falling 
into  the  ambuscades  of  enemies ;  excited 
courage  in  the  fearful,  and  cured  diseases  of 
the  eyes  and  stomach ;  but  all  these  qualities 
have  vanished  with  the  ignorance  which 
gave  them  existence. 

Agate  or  Achat.  Is  a  precious  stone,  partly 
transparent,  and  partly  opaque;  usuaLly 
diversified  with  a  variety  of  colours,  veins, 
spots,  &c.  sometimes  exhibiting  figures,  or 
appearances  of  natural  objects.  There  are 
various  kinds  of  agate,  which  according  to 
their  different  colours  and  degrees  of  trans- 
parency, have  different  names.  The 
principal  are  these  four,  the  onyx,  the  chal- 
cedony, the  block,  and  the  German  abates. 
Agates  have  ordinarily  reddish  tints,  and  are 
of  all  colours,  except  bright  red,  orange  and 
green.  They  are  com  pounds  of  chalcedony, 
carnelian,  jasper,  homstone,  quartz,  ame- 
thyst and  opal.     De  Boot  mentions   one 


A   MISCELLANY   OF   USEFUL    KNOWLEDGE. 


315 


of  the  size  of  a  nail,  wherein  a  bishop  -with 
his  mitre  was  very  well  represented ;   :uk1 

turning  it  a  little,  a  man  and  woman's  head 

wen1  teen  in  its  place.     The  Sardian  and 

Sardonic  agates  are  very  valuable;  the  latter 
is  of  a  sanguine  colour,  and  is  divided  into 
zones,  which  seem  to  hare  been  painted  bv 
art.  Pliny,  Strabo,  and  Cicero,  say  thai 
Polyerates  ring  was  a  S:.rd  >uyx.  Authors 
also  speak  of  Roman  agates,  Egyptian  agates. 
and  others.  The  ancients  mention  a  red 
agate  spotted  with  points  of  gold,  found  in 
Candia,  and  called  sacred.  Agate  has  always 
been  esteemed  for  seals ;  as  being  a  stone 
that  no  wax  .vill  stick  to.  Mr.  Boyle  takes 
agate  to  have  been  formed  of  separate  beds  ol 
strata  of  tine  clay  or  earth,  brought  by  a 
petrifying  liquor  to  coagulate  into  a  .stone. 
lie  mentions  an  agate  with  a  moveable  spot, 
Or  cloud  in  it.  No  country  affords  finer  agate 
or  in  greater  abundance  than  Germany.  It 
is  found  in  great  quantity  at  Obeistein, 
where  several  thousand  persons  are  em- 
ployed in  quarrying,  sorting,  cutting  and 
poli-hing  it. 

Chalcedony.  Is  a  species  of  the  flint 
genus;  of  which  there  are  two  kinds  the  com- 
mon chalcedony  and  the  Carm  lian.  The  co- 
lour of  the  former  is  a  nebulous  milky  grey, 
in  all  its  shades.  It  is  commonly  semitranspa- 
rent.  harder  than  Hint,  and  brittle,  ltisfound 
IB  Ireland,  Ferro  IsUs,  Saxony,  Silesia, 
Siberia,  Scotland,  Cornwall,  &c.  It  is  sus- 
ceptible of  a  line  polish,  is  employed  as  an 
article  of  jewellery,  and  consists  of  silex, 
lime,  alumina,  and  a  very  little  iron. 

Onyx.  A  species  of  agate,  is  a  precious 
stone,  of  a  dark  horny  colour,  resembling, 
as  its  name  imports,  the  nail  of  a  man's 
finger,  in  which  is  a  plate  of  a  bluish  white, 
and  sometimes  of  red;  the  several  colours 
appearing  as  distinct  as  if  laid  on  by  art. 
There  are  some  brought  from  Arabia,  mixed 
with  a  browish  hue  ;  which  after  taking  off 
one  layer  of  zone,  shew  another  underneath 
of  a  different  colour.  White  zones  or  girdles 
are  essential  to  an  onyx. 

Jasper.  Is  a  sort  of  precious  stone,  chiefly 
opaque,  but  sometimes  transparent  in  cer- 
tain parts,  not  very  different  from  agate. 
The  Jio rid  jasper,  found  in  the  Pyrenees,  is 
Usually  stained  with  various  colours.  The 
n»ost  beautiful  isthatboideringon  the  colour 
of  lake  or  purple ;  next  to  that,  the  carna- 
tion ;  but  what  is  now  most  Valued  is  the 
6anguine  jasper,  being  green  spotted  with 
red.  That  in  which  the  red  is  paler,  is 
called  heliotrope.  All  the  varieties  of  jasper 
consist  of  silex,  alumina  and  iron  ;  they  are 
hard,  susceptible  of  a  high  polish,  become 
harder  en  being  exposed  to  fire,  and  occur  of 


a  red,  green,  yellow,  brown,  purple,  grey, 
blackish  and  variegated  colours.    In  s>>me 

jaspers,  nature  teems  to  have  amus"d  her- 
self in  representing  trees,  animals,  hmd- 
.  to.,  as  if  they  were  painted. 

Ul'AL.  Is  a  precious  stone  having  the  co- 
lours of  the  rainbow  more  or  less  lively,  more 
or  less  effulgent,  and  changeable  according 
to  the  different  positions  of  the  stone  to  the 
I'ght.  In  it  are  seen  the  red  of  the  ruby, 
the  purple  of  the  amethyst,  the  green  of  the 
emerald,  besides  yellow,  blue,  and  sometimes 
black  and  white.  When  the  stone  is  broken 
most  of  these  colours  disappear,  which  shews 
that  they  arise  by  reflection  from  one  or  two 
principal  ones.  Its  form  is  always  either 
round  or  oval,  like  a  pearl,  its  prevailing 
colour  white.  Its  diversity  of  colours  makes 
it  almost,  of  equal  value  with  a  sapphire  or 
ruby.  Tavernier  says,  these  are  mines  of 
opal  in  Turkey.  Others  say  Cyprus,  Arabia, 
bgypt,  Bohemia,  and  Hungary  produce  it ; 
whence  it  is  distinguished  into  two  kinds, 
oriental  and  occidental.  Pliny  and  Solinua 
mention  a  species  of  opal  called  exaeuuthaii- 
thu$,  which  had  sixty  colours.  There  is  an 
artificial  opal,  counterfeited  so  as  nearly  to 
represent  the  natural  stone.  The  opals  con- 
tain silex,  alumina,  lime  and  iron. 

Caknelian.  Is  a  precious  stone,  ordina- 
rily of  a  blood  red,  or  bordering  on  orange. 
In  many  of  its  characters  it  nearly  resembles 
the  common  chalcedony.  It  is  but  little 
transparent,  cuts  easily ;  and  we  find  most 
of  the  tine  engravings  of  antiquity,  whether 
in  relievo  or  indent!  d.  are  on  this  stone.  In 
the  fire  it  loses  its  red  colour  and  becomes 
opaque.  The  finest  carnelians  are  those 
brought,  from  near  Bab\lon,  Arabia,  and 
Uindoslan;  the  next  arc  those  of  Sardinia  ; 
the  last,  those  of  the  Rhine,  Bohemia,  and 
Silesia.  To  give  these  stones  a  greater 
lustre,  in  setting  them,  a  piece  of  silver  leaf 
is  laid  underneath.  The  principal  use  made 
of  carnelian  is  in  seals,  as  it  graves  well,  and 
takes  a  tine  polish.  It  is  also  used  for  bi  ace- 
lets  and  other  ornaments. 

II  yacixth,  or  Jacinth.  A  precious  stone, 
so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  the  purple 
flower  named  hyacinth,  or  the  violet,  which  is 
usually  of  a  deep  reddish  yellow,  approaching 
a  flame  colour,  or  the  deepest  amber.  There 
are  four  sorts  of  hyacinths,  distinguished  by 
their  colour;  they  are  also  distinguished 
into  oriental  and  occidental.  The  oriental 
comes  from  Calif  ut  and  Cambaya,  and  is 
equal  in  hardness  to  the  oriental  amethyst. 
The  occidental  is  found  in  Bohemia  and 
Portugal,  and  is  somewhat  softer.  The  stone 
graves  or  cuts  fine,  and  would  be  more  used 
for  seals  but  that  the  graving  frequently 


PACTS  for  everybody: 


costs  more  than  the  stone.  The  ancients 
used  it  for  amulets  and  talismans,  and  bore 
it  about  their  necks,  or  set  in  ring.-,  &c, 
supposing  it  to  have  the  virtue  of  securing 
them  from  the  plague.  Hyacinth  consists 
of  ?0  zircon,  35  silex,  2  oxide  of  iron  and 
some  loss  in  100  parts.  It  loses  its  colour 
but  not  its  transparency  in  the  fire. 

Pearl.  Is  a  hard,  white,  shining  body, 
usually  roundish,  found  in  a  testaceous  fish, 
resembling  an  oyster ;  and,  although  an 
animal  production,  it  is  usually  ranked 
among  the  number  of  gems  or  precious  stones. 
The  fish  wherein  the  pearls  are  found  is 
three  times  the  size  of  the  common  oysters  ; 
and  is  called  by  naturalists,  MftUm  mar- 
garitifcrus  or  pearl  muscle.  Each  muscle 
commonly  yields  ten  or  twelve  pearls,  though 
an  hundred  and  fifty,  it  is  pretended,  have 
been  seen  in  the  same  fish.  Some  among 
them  are  much  larger  than  others  and  ripen 
faster.  The  most  perfect  drop  first,  the  rest 
remaining  at  the  bottom  of  the  shell.  Some 
giow  so  big  as  to  hinder  the  oyster  from 
shutting,  in  which  case  the  fish  rots  and  dies. 
The  formation  of  pearls  has  embarrassed 
both  ancient  and  modern  naturalists.  Pliny 
Supposes  them  formed  of  the  dew.  "The 
fish,"  says  he,  "rises  every  morning  to  the 
surface  of  the  water,  and  there  opens  its 
shell  to  imbibe  the  dew  of  the  heavens,  as 
some  liquors  are  converted  into  crystals  in 
the  earth ;  or  as  the  juice  of  (lowers  into 
honey  and  wax  in  the  body  of  the  bee,  so 
the  dew,  like  a  liquid  pearl,  insinuating  into 
the  body  of  the  fish,  fixes  its  salts,  and  there 
assumes  the  colour,  hardness,  and  form  of 
pearl."  But  this,  how  plausible  soever,  is 
false;  for  the  pearl  muscles  adhere  to  the 
bottom  of  the  sea,  and  nobody  ever  yet  saw 
any  of  them  appear  on  the  surface  of  the 
water.  Some  think  pearls  to  be  the  eggs  of 
the  fishes  they  are  found  in ;  but  neither 
does  this  agree  with  the  phenomena;  for 
pearls  are  found  throughout  the  whole  sub- 
stance of  the  oyster— in  the  head,  the  coat 
that  covers  it,  the  circular  muscles  that  ter- 
minate it,  the  stomach,  and  other  parts.  M. 
Reaumur  observes  that  pearls  are  formed 
like  other  stones  in  animals,  as  those  in  the 
bladder,  kidneys,  &c.  ;  that  they  are 
apparently  the  effects  of  a  disease  in  the 
fish ;  that  they  are  formed  of  a  juice  ex- 
travasated  out  of  some  broken  vessels,  and 
detrined  and  fixed  in  the  membranes.  The 
shells  of  sea  fishes,  as  well  as  those  of  snails, 
&c,  are  formed  of  a  glutinous,  calcareous 
matter,  oozing  out  of  the  body  of  the  animal ; 
and  it  is  no  wonder  that  an  animal  which 
has  vessels  wherein  circulates  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  matter  (albumen  and  carbonate  of 


lime)  to  build,  thicken,  and  extend  a  shell, 
shall  have  enough  to  form  stones,  if  this 
matter  should  happen  to  overflow  and  burst 
forth  into  any  cavity  of  the  body,  or  among 
the  membranes. 

Pearls  are  caught,  in  the  seas  of  the  East 
Indies — on  the  coast  of  Persia,  near  Ormuz — 
about  Cape  Comoriu,  and  on  the  coast  of  the 
Island  of  Ceylon.  They  are  caught  also  in 
the  American  Seas,  and  in  some  parts  of 
Europe — as  on  the  coast  of  Scotland,  and  in 
a  river  of  Bavaria.  At  the  commencement 
of  the  season,  which  is  in  March  and  April, 
and  again  in  August  and  September,  there 
appear  frequently  two  hundred  and  fifty 
barks  on  the  pearl  banks:  in  the  larger  are 
two  divers,  in  the  smaller,  one.  Each  bark 
puts  oft' from  shore  before  sunrise,  by  a  land 
breeze  which  never  fails,  and  returns  again 
by  a  sea  breeze  which  succeeds  at  noon.  As 
soon  as  the  harks  are  arrived  at  the  place 
where  the  tish  lie,  and  have  cast  anchor, 
each  diver  binds  a  stone  under  his  body, 
which  is  to  serve  him  as  ballast,  and  pre- 
vent his  being  driven  away  by  the  motion  of 
the  waters,  and  also  to  enable  him  to  walk 
more  steadily  among  the  waves;  besides 
tnis,  they  tie  another  heavy  stone  to  one  foot, 
in  order  to  sink  them  to  the  bottom  of  the 
sea ;  and  as  the  oysters  adhere  strongly  to  the 
rocks,  they  arm  "their  fingers  with  leathern 
gloves,  or  take  an  iron  rake  to  displace  them 
with  Lastly,  each  diver  carries  with  him 
a  large  net,  tied  to  his  neck  by  a  long  cord, 
the  other  end  of  which  is  fastened  to  the  side 
of  the  bark.  The  net  or  sack  is  intended 
to  hold  the  oysters  he  may  collect,  and  the 
cord  is  to  pull  him  up  by  when  his  bag  is 
full,  or  when  he  wants  air.  Thus  equipped, 
he  precipitates  himself  sometimes  above 
sixty  feet  underwater.  As  soon  as  he  arrives 
at  the  bottom  he  begins  to  tear  the  oysters 
from  the  rock,  and  thrust  them  into  his 
budget.  At  whatever  depth  the  divers  are, 
the  light  is  sufficient  for  them  to  see  what 
passes  around  them,  and  sometimes,  to  their 
great  consternation,  they  behold  monstrous 
fishes,  from  whose  jaws  they  can  escape 
only  by  muddying  the  water,  and  con- 
cealing themselves  by  that  means ;  al- 
though the  artifice  will  not  always  save 
them  from  falling  a  prey  to  their  for- 
midable enemies. 

The  best  divers,  it  is  said,  will  remain 
under  water  near  a  quarter  of  an  hour, 
during  which  time  they  will  hold  their 
breath  without  the  use  of  oils,  acquiring 
the  habit  by  long  practice ;  but  the  exer- 
tion is  so  violent,  as  generally  to  shorten, 
the  lives  of  those  who  repeat  it  fre- 
quently. 


A  MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


317 


WAXEN  FLOWERS  AND  FRUIT. 
There  me  two  methods  in  which  to  give 
instruction  in  this  art.  The  first  is,  to  in- 
struct how  to  prepare  the  various  materials, 
and  then  [  roeeed  to  d<  scribe  in  detail  the 
making  of  a  flower  or  fruit ;  the  **••  ond  is, 
to  avail  ourselves  of  ready-prepared  ma- 
terials, to  show  the  learner  Low  much  beauty 
ean  be  readily  produced,  and  how  easily 
some  of  the  most  charming  Bowers  ean  be 
imitated — and  then  to  give  full  directions 
how  the  various  materials  may  be  prepared 
b\  the  pupil. 

The  petals,  leaves,  &c.  of  wax  flowers  are 
made  of  coloured  sheets  of  wax,  which  may 
be  purchased  in  the  shops  at  6s.  Gd.  per 
grots  of  sheets,  made  up  in  dozens,  of  various 
coiours.  The  stems  are  made  of  wire  of 
various  thicknesses,  covered  with  silk,  and 
overlaid  with  wax  ;  and  the  leaves  are  com- 
monly made  etch  with  two  thin  sheets  of 
wax  pressed  closelv  by  the  thumb  upon  an 
emho-sed  leaf  of  calico.  These  calico  leaves 
may  he  purchased  for  a  small  sum.  The 
general  plan  of  proceeding  may,  perhaps, 
be  best  understood  by  a  preliminary  general 
description  of  the  manner  of  making  a 
•ioseom  with  many  leaves  or  petals.  A 
piece  of  cardboard,  at  least  a  foot  square, 
should  be  mai  ked  out  upon  the  plan  of  the 
accompanying  little  sketch: — 


s 

CnXW  W 

s\j  j  I))}  li 

The  pattern  flower  being  then  held  in  the 
hand  with  the  face  upwards,  the  outside  or 
lowest  leaves  near  the  flower,  called  bracts, 
should  be  carefully  picked  off  and  laid  on 
the  cardboard  in  their  relative  positions  with 
regard  to  the  centre  of  the  iiower,  on  the 
outside  double  line  marked  b.  The  parts  of 
the  calyx,  or  outside  leaves  close  to  the 
flower,  should  in  the  >ame  manner  be  care- 
fully removed,  and  placed  in  their  relative 


positions  on  the  circle  e.  If  there  are  two 
rows  they  must  be  laid  upon  the  circle  // — 
arranged  alternate  with,  or  opposite,  m  in 
the  flower,  to  the  parts  already  laid  out. 
The  flower  may  be  thus  dissected  :  l)w  petals, 
9tam**$i  ItC.  being  laid  out  in  order,  and 
the  seed-vessel  or  little  central  lump  of  the 
flower,  laid  upon  the  centre  of  the  cardboard. 
For  convenience,  a  few  small  pins  may  be 
used  to  keep  the  parts  in  their  places,  i'at- 
tcrns  of  each  of  the  different  leaf}  (wilts 
may  then  he  cut  in 
paper,  and  marked,  let- 
tered, and  numhi  red. 
The  patterns  for  a 
Camellia  are  subjoined 
is  a  practical  illustra- 
tion. 

This  being  the  pat- 
tern for  the  calyx  was 
laid  upon  the  circle 
marked  c,  and  is 
narked  with  that  letter 
accordingly.  These 
leaves  are  six  in  number,  and  arranged 
alternately  in  two  rows  of  three — heuce  the 
pattern  is  marked  6  {alternate  3>.  The 
edges  of  the  sepals,  or  parts  of  the  calyx,  are 
striped  with  crimson  finely  at  the  edges,  and 
this  is  indicated  upon  the  pattern. 

I)  and  E  is  the  pattern  for  the  eight  outer- 
most petals. 

To  economise  room  we  have  given  the 
next  patterns  (F,  G,  II,  I,)  as  if  laid  one  on 
each  other. 

From  these  sketches  paper  patterns  may 
be  cut.  These  having  been  laid  upon  a 
sheet  of  white  wax,  the  proper  number  may 


be  cut  out  singly  with  a  loose-jointed  pair 
of  scissors  made  moist  by  frequently  dipping 
into  water,  to  prevent  the  wax  sticking  to 


318 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


fhem.  The  putting  together  of  these  wax 
leaves  requires  little  ingenuity,  after  a 
foundation  has  been  made  with  a  little  knob 
of  wbite  wax  upon  the  bent  end  of  a  piece 
of  middling-sized  stalk  wire.  The  scraps 
remaining  from  the  sheets  out  of  which  the 
patterns  have  been  cut,  will  supply  materials 
for  this  which  represents  the  central  seed- 
vessel,  to  which  the  petals  are  applied  in 
the  following  order  :— 6  of  I,  8  of  II,  b  of  G, 
6  of  F,  8  of  D  and  E,  and  6  of  0. 


Very  few  instruments  are  requisite  in  the 
making  of  wax  flowers,  and  these  of  the 
most  simple  character.  Of  the  most  useful 
is  what  has  been  appropriately  termed  the 
curling  pin.  It  is  desirable  to  have  two  of 
the  following  sizes  and  form.  The  wires 
should  be  of  steel,  the  heads  of  smooth  glass. 
These  pins  may  be  purchased  for  a  few 
pence,  being  not  unfrequently  used  as  shawl- 
fasteners. 

The  central  part  of  the  flower,  or  seed- 
vessel,  having  been  made  by  folding  the 
6craps  of  spare  wax  upon  the  doubled  end 
of  the  wire,  till  it  attains  the  size  of  a  large 
cherry-stone  of  this  shape,  the  whole  should 
be  put  aside  while  the  petals  are  prepared 
for  attachment.  It  will  be  found  exceed- 
ingly convenient  to  have  a  wide-mouthed 
bottle  upon  the  table,  into  which  the  wire 
stalk  can  be  placed,  so  that  the  flower  need 
never  be  laid  down ;  many  fractures  of  the 
delicate  wax  lamina-  will  thus  be  prevented, 
and  much  trouble  saved.  The  wire  should 
b«  of  that  kind  which  is  covered  with  green 
eilk,  and  should  be  about  eight  or  ten 
inches  in  length. 


One  of  the  petals  marked  I,  should  now 
be  lektn  and  laid,  with  the  dull  side  up,  flat 
along  the  inside  of  the  second 
ioint  of  the  first  finger  of  the 
left  hand;  the  curling -pin 
should  at  the  same  time  he 
held  in  the  right  hand,  with 
the  point  towards  the  palm, 
and  the  knob  free  to  press  and 
curl  the  wax.  The  wire  of  the 
pin  should  rest  upon  the  centre 
of  the  ball  of  the  thumb,  taking 
care  to  allow  it  to  revolve 
easily.  The  natural  concavity 
is  given  to  the  petal  by 
rolling  the  head  of  the 
pin  close  to  the  edge  of 
the  petal  on  each  side. 
The  head  of  the  pin 
should  be  previously 
dipped  in  water,  to  pre- 
vent the  wax  sticking 
to  it.  When,  by  this 
process,  the  wax  leaf 
hollowed    out  and 


is  hollowed  out  and  i 
curled,  it  must  be  ap-  I 
plied  to  the  base  of  the  ^-^ 


seed-vessel,  and  pressed  there 
with  the  thumb  and  finger,  so 
as  to  adhere  as  in  the  following 
engraving.  Another  leaf  must 
be  then  similarly  treated,  and 
applied  opposite  to  the  first, 
taking  care  in  each  case,  by 
pressure  at  the  point  A,  to 
incorporate  the  wax  of  the 
petal  with  that  of  the  seed- 
vessel. 

T  he  id ur  remaining  leaves  of  the  I  series 
will  require  the  application  of  yellow  paint, 
which  brings  us  to  that  depart- 
ment of  our  subject  which  refers 
to  the  application  of  colours  — 
and  which  it  will  be  necessary  for 
us  to  explain  before  we  proceed 
further. 
The  bright  surface  of  the  wax 
'  A  being  slightly  greased  in  the  pro- 
cess  of  cutting  into  sheets,  the 
colours  must  always  be  applied  on 
the  dull  side.  The  wax,  however, 
will  not  receive  common  thin 
water-colour  applied  in  the  usual  manner. 
Powder  colours  —  of  which  a  small  stock 
should  be  kept — are  used  in  the  following 
manner:  —  Having  taken  a  very  minute 
quantity  of  colour-powder  on  the  blade  of  a 
penknife,  lay  it  upon  a  palette,  or  the  under 
side  of  a  plate,  and  press  it  with  the  blade 
to  destroy  any  lumps.  With  the  penknife 
also  add  a  very  small  quantity  of  weak  gum 


A   MISCELLANY   OP  ESEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


318 


water,  and  work  the  mass  to  the  eon- 
ristenee  of  en  wn.    'I  he  colours  must 

be    applied    with    tinting  -  brushes, 

which  are  sold  in  the  shops  for  ori- 

.':-:    ratal  tinting,  with  points  m  in  the 

engraving.    Bach  colour  require!  a 

neparate  brush, as  powder-colour  will 
not  mix  like  rluid  ones.  The  brush 
must  be  held  upright  at  right  angle* 
the  wax,  and  the  colour  applied  in 
lie  direction  of  the  graining.  The 
■olniirmust  be  applied  at  once.  Yellow 
paint  should  be  thus  applied  to  the 

remaining  four  petals  of  the  I  series,  taking 

care   that  the  pigment 

does  not  touch  the  point 

where  it  is  intended  to 

adhere  to  the  basement. 

(See  cut.)     After  allow- 
ing   a    minute   or   two 

to   pass,   take    the   first 

painted,      and      having 

slightly  curled   it  with 

the  dry  curling- pin,  fix 

it   a  little  higher   than 

the  former  ones,  and  a 

little  on  one  side  of  the 

middle  line,  so  that  one 

leaf  cannot  come  exactly  behind 
another.  The  cut  represents 
the  tio\ver  with  the  petals  on 
one_si.de  torn  away,  to  show  the 
position  of  the  leaves  on  the 
other.  The  four  painted 
leaves  should  stand 
thus,  with  regard  to 
each  other,  looking  in 
at  the  top  of  the  fewer. 

The  next  size,  H,  gives  two 
rows  of  four,  the  points  being 
placed  opposite  the  vacancies 
between  those  previously  used. 
No  paint  is  applied  to  these; 
and  they  must  be  less  curled. 

Before  fixing  the  Gr  series,  having  curled 

each  petal  by  rolling  the  head  of  the  large 

pin  round  the  upper  edge,  the 

wire  should  be  laid  alone:  the 

ceutr  i  of  the  leaf,  and  the  upper 

edge  allowed  to  turn  over,  so 

as  to  present  at  the   back  view, 

a   slight  mark    like   a  central 

leal-vein,    and    to    make    the 

upper    edge    slightly    everted. 

(6ee  cut.) 
The    petals    are    more    and 

more  everted  as  the  subsequent 

rows,  including  the  F  seriee,  are  attached. 
The  next  step  is  the  making  of  the  calyx. 

The  parts  may  be  made  of  green  wax,  or  of 

white  wax,  with  green  paint  laid  on.    In 


addition  to  the  green  in  the  centre  of  the 
leaf,  the  edges  must  be  striped  Jimhj  with  a 
purple  tint,  like  the  edf/ts  of  a  tu/ijj  leaf. 
Tlie  latter  colour  may 
be  made  with  carmine 
and  ultramarine,  and 
applied  with  a  com- 
mon camolhair  pencil. 
As  previously  indi- 
cated, the  parts  of  the 
calyx  are  to  be  applied 
in  two  rows  of  three 
each,  with  the  painted 
Bide  inwards.  If  the 
calyx  is  properly 
curled,  it  should  ap- 
pear a  little  crumpled  by  the  harder  pressure 
of  the  smaller  pin ;  and  the  upper  edges 
should  be  much  everted,  to  show  the 
striping. 

The  flower  head  is  now  complete.  The 
•talk  is  made  by  covering  the  wire  with 
green  wax  cut  in  narrow  btrips,  and  pressed 
on  lengthwise,  This  stalk  wax  should  bo 
made  to  cover  the  lower  part  of  the  calyx, 
to  steady  and  strengthen  the  petals,  &c. 

To  make  the  leaf,  the  usual  and  most 
simple  proceeding  is  as  follows: — Having 
■elected  a  camellia  leaf  of  embossed  calico,  a 
thin  wire  of  abeul  eight  inches  in  length 
should  be  laid  along  its  upper  side,  in  the 
hollow  of  the  central  vein,  leaving  the  stalk 
free;  a  sheet  of  dark  green  wax,  with  the 
glossy  side  outwards,  should  then  be  so 
pressed  \sith  the  thumb  and  finger  to  the 
calico,  that  it  completely  adheres,  and  holds 
the  wire  in  its  place,  between  the  wax  and 
calico.  If  this  is  properly  done,  the  im- 
pression of  the  calico  should  be  indistinctly 
impressed  through  upon  the  layer  of  wax. 
The  under  side  of  the  leaf  of  the  camellia, 
like  that  of  most  evergreen  leaves,  is  of  a 
very  light  colour,  and  therefore  a  light  green 
shade  of  wax  is  chosen  to  cover  the  calico 
on  the  under  side,  in  the  same  manner  as 
on  the  upper.  When 
thoroughly  adherent, 
the  superfluous  wax 
must  be  cut  away, 
leaving  the  edge  ser- 
rated, or  cut  like  a 
saw;  the  superfluous 
wire  should  then  be 
twisted  spirally  round 
the  principal  stem,  so 
that  the  base  of  the  leaf  is  close  to  it,  the 
leaves  of  the  camellia  being  nearly  stalkless 
or  sessile,  like  those  of  its  near  relation,  the 
orange  tree  There  should  be  two  leaves — 
one  close  to  the  flower,  the  other  lower  on 
the  stalk:  when  these  are  attached,  the 


320 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


etalk  covered,  and  the  leaves  arranged  taste- 
fully, the  flower  is  complete. 

We  now  propose  to  gather  a  fuchsia,  and 
to  proceed,  step  by  step,  to  its  facsimile  iu 
"wax. 

The  first  thing  to  be  noticed  is  the  general 
appearance  of  the  plant  '1  here  is  a  g:  eat 
variety  of  fuchsias,  and  each  of  them  has 
peculiar  habits,  i.e.  each  of  them  carries  its 
stalks,  and  leaves,  and  flowers  in  a  slightly 
different  manner. 

Of  the  varieties  which  look  well  in  wax, 
that  with  the  pale-pink  calyx  (or  outside 
leaves  of  the  flower),  with  the  vermilion 
corolla  (or  inside  part  of  the  flower),  is  the 
best  It  is  to  be  found  in  every  greenhouse, 
and  almost  every  cottage  window  where 
flowers  peep  out  at  the  casement.  It  is 
less  difficult  to  imitate  icell  than  the  deep 
•crimson  fuchsia,  which  is  known  by  most 
gardeners  as  ''the  old  original"  Having 
procured  a  specimen  of  the  variety  we  have 
first  described,  the  cardboard  plan  should  be 
laid  before  the  learner,  and  the  sprig,  with 
the  Mowers  and  buds  upon  it,  held  in  the 
left  hand. 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  leaves  are  ar- 
ranged  opposite  each  other 
™  on  the  stem.  The  stalks 
of  the  leaves  E,  growing 
out  from  the  stem  D  on 
either  side,   have  in   their 

C i  axil    (or    armpit),    a    bud 

more  or  less  de veined,  ac- 
cording to  the  lateness  of 
the  season,  and  a  flower  on 
a  pendulous  stalk.  The  next  set  of  leaves 
grows  out  of  another  aspect  of  the  stalk,  and 
the  mark  of  one  is  seen 
at  A,  while  the  base  of 
its  fellow  leaf  would 
be  on  the  other  side  of 
the  stalk  indicated  by 
C.  All  these  points 
are  important  to  those 
who  wish  their  flowers 
to  bear  criticism.  Hav- 
ing noticed  the  droop- 
ing position  of  the 
flowers,  pick  off  some 
of  the  best  leaves,  and 
lay  them  upon  square 
pieces  of  gummed 
paper,  press  them  close 
and  lay  them  on  one 
side — then  pick  off  a 
bud,  and  lay  it  on  the 
corner  of  your  card- 
board, and  put  a  pin 
through  it.       Having 


X  A 


taken  one  of  the  best  flowers,  pin  it  in  like 


manner  to  another  corner.  This  will  serve 
as  your  guide  to  the  putting  up  of  your 
waxen  nv  d  1  when  your  parts  are  ready. 
A  flower  slightly  faded  may  be  used  to  pick 
to  pieces.  The  flower  is  suspended  upon  a 
thin  drooping  stalk,  and  is  joined,  as  it 
were,  to  the  coloured calyx  by  a  green  knob, 
the  seed-vessel  or  ovary  (0).  Beyond  this 
is  a  tube,  extending  and  dividing  into  four 
segments.  This  is  the  coloured  calyx  (C.) 
A  division  may  be  made  at  D,  and  the  stalk 
and  ovary  may  be  pinned  down  on  another 
corner  of  the  cardboard.  The  tube  of  the 
calyx  (T)  should  then  be  slit  up  with  a 
sharp-pointed  knife  to  the  base  of  one  of  the 
nOtche*  between  the  segments,  and  opened 
out.  The  stamens  whose  points  or  anthers 
are  marked  A  in  the  diagram,  and  the  leaves 
of  the  corolla,  P  (the  purple  petals),  will  be 
found  to  adhere  to  this  tube;  these  must 
be  carefully  removed  and  laid  out  in  their 
proper  order  on  the  cardboard.  As  there  is 
only  one  row  of  petals,  they  may  be  laid  in 
any  of  the  circles,/,  <?,  or  h.  The  numbers 
1,  2,  3,  and  4,  are  understood  to  be  points 
representing  the  segments  of  the  calyx. 
The  stamens  should  be  then  arranged  with 
reference  to  the  petals,  aa  in  the  diagram, 
as  that  is  the  relative  position  of  these  parts 


-3 


in  the  flower.  The  long  pistil  marked  S  in 
the  diagram  of  the  complete  flower,  and  the 
tube  of  the  calyx,  will  now  remain  in  the 
left  hand  ;  the  former  should  be  stuck  in  a 
pinhole  in  the  centre  of  the  cardboard,  with 
its  delicate  knob  or  stigma  (S),  upwards ; 
the  tube  of  the  corolla  should  be  laid  fiat  on 
a  piece  of  very  thin  cardboard,  and  a  pattern 
cut  from  it  at  once.  The  segments  are  never 
exactly  regular  in  size,  but  the  following 
diagram  will  be  found  a  pretty  good  guide. 
The  pupil  is  now  ready  to  commence  making 
the  wax  flower ;  but  before  doing  so  it  is 
recommended,  to  save  future  trouble,  to  cut 
out  in  cardboard  a  pattern  of  the  shape  of 


A    MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


321 


the  leaves  of  the  corolla,  and  mark  it  ac- 


cording to  directions  before  given.  A  piece 
of  starched  braid  with  a  small  knot  at  the 
end  could  be  cut  the  length  ol 
the  pistil,  and  8  pieces  ol 
i  cotton  with  knot-  g 

tod  ends,  as  me- 
mentoes of  the 
length  and  num- 
ber of  stamens. 
We  subjoin  patterns  of  the 
proper  length  of  the  pistil  S, 
and  stamens  A.  The  former 
is  attached  to  the  seed-vessel 
as  a  suggestion  of  the  distance 
required  between  the  point  of 
the  pistil  (the  stigma  S)  and 
the  ovary  (0),  in  laying  the 
foundation  of  the  flower,  which 
we  shall  now  proceed  to  de- 
scribe. 

Several  flowers  should  be 
made  before  they  are  attached 
to  the  main  stalk.  Several 
pieces  of  very  fine  copper  wire 
should  therefore  be  selected  of 
the  length  of  this  page.  Hav- 
ing waxed  these  with  any 
scraps  of  wax  which  may  have 
been  savedfrom  previous  opera- 
tions, wrap  a  little  very  fine 
silk  round  the  wire,  at.  the  dis- 
tance of  about  four  inches  and 
a  half  from  the  end.  This  is 
for  the  foundation  of  the  seed-vessel,  or 
ovary.  The  diagram  next  given  will  indi- 
cate the  position  of  this  organ.  The  scraps 
of  light-green  wax  wliich  remained  from  1  lie 
sheets  used  for  the  under  side  of  the  camellia 
leaves  must  be  pressed  with  the  finger  and 


,; 


thumb,  so  as  to  make  a  knob.  Beyond  and 
above  this,  more  silk  may  be  wrapped  round 
the  pistil,  wliich  should  be  dipped  in  the 
melted  scraps  of  pink  wax  which  will  re- 
main alter  setting  out  the  pattern  of  the 
calyx.  With  the  fingers  the  basis  of  the 
flower  should  be  made  to  assume  the  form 
given  in  this  diagram,  by  folding  other 
scraps  of  wax  for  an  inch  above  f% 
the  ovary.  Eight  pieces  of  white 
netting  silk,  the  length  of  the 
stamens,  should  now  be  dipped  in 
the  melted  pink  wax,  and  having 
been  allowed  to  stiffen,  the  tips 
should  be  re-dipped,  and  these 
touched  with  a  little  flour;  they 
must  be  made  to  adhere  to  the 
basis  at  the  point  T,  at  equal  dis- 
tances all  round.  A  little  fine 
silk  tied  round  the  lowest  point 
of  the  stamens  is  a  good  security, 
but  must  be  well  pressed  in. 

The  four  petals  cut  from  the 
darkest  shade  of  pink  should  bo 
coloured  in  the  manner  already 
described,  with  a  mixture  of  car- 
mine and  ultramarine  applied  on 
the  dull  side,  and  applied  at  the 
point  T  over  the  bases  of  the 
stamens.  The  coloured  surface 
will  of  course  be  outside,  and  the 
edges  willoverlan  each  other  as  tho 
I  series  in  camellia.  These  petals 
must  not  be  curled. 

The  calyx  has  now  to  be  applied.  Pre- 
suming that  it  has  been  cut  out  of  pale  pink 
wax,  according  to  the  pattern  given  above, 
it  must  be  curled  with  the  sm  illest  pin  iu 
the  following  manner  : — The  pattern  being 
laid  upon  the  palm  of  the  left  hand,  the 
head  of  the  pin  must  be  rolled  along  the 
dotted  line  X,  Y,  Z,  very  lightly,  and  then 
with  considerable  pressure  along  each  of  the 
segments  in  the  direction  ot  the  dotted 
lines  to  Q,  It.  S,  T.  The  handle  of  a  paint- 
brush should  now  be  laid  along  the  line 
from  X,  Y,  Z,  to  TV,  and  the  sides  ol  the 
calyx  folded  over  it.  The  edges  being  made 
to  Void  over  each  other  slightly'  should  be 
rubbed  down  with  the  handle  of  another 
brush ;  and  the  tube  of  the  calyx  having 
been  thus  formed,  the  first  brush  handle 
should  he  withdrawn.  The  tubular  calyx 
should  then  be  slipped  up  from  the  bottom 
of  the  wire  over  the  ovary,  and  pressed 
firmlv  to  its  place,  thus  giving  s'eadiness  to 
all  the  parts.  The  nails  and  lingers  will 
(wish  neatly  these  parts.  The  point  of  the 
pistil  should  be  redipped  and  floured,  and 
the  blossom  is  completed  as  soon  as  the  stalk 
is  thinly  covered   with    light-green  wax. 


322 


FACTS   FOP    EYERY150DY: 


Several  leaves  should  also  be  made  of  va- 
rious sizes  with  stalks  about  an  inch  in 
length.      The    dark-green     upper    surface 


should  be  marked  with  a  pattern  drawn  upon 
paper  thus :— Lay  a  sheet  of  dark- green 
wax,  with  the  dull  side  up,  on  a  thick  piece 
of  blotting  paper,  and  having  laid  over  it 
the  drawing  paper  on  which  the  pattern  has 
been  rlraitm}  go  over  the  lines  with  a  hard 
pencil.  This  will  leave  the  impression  on 
the  wax,  by  which  it  can  be. cut  out.  The 
leaf  may  be  finished  by  laving  a  light  layer 
of  wax  on  the  under  side,  with  tine  wire 
between  for  a  stalk,  as  with  the  camellia. 
The  stalk  may  be  covered  with  green  wax 
painted  with  carmine. 
The  flowers  and  leaves 
must  be  attached  to 
the  stalk  by  covering 
the  main  stem  Avith 
wax  after  fastening  the 
leaves  and  flowers  in 
their  proper  places. 
To  make  the  sprig 
natural,  some  unopened  buds  should  be 
added.  The  seed-vessel  0,  being  made  in 
the  same  manner  as  before  with  green  wax, 


the  bud  B  must  be  made  solid,  of  scraps 

covered  with  pink  wax  rubbed  smooth  with 

the    steel    part    of   the 

curling     pin.         There 

Bhould     be    also     some 

fruit,    or    seed  -  vessels 

partly    ripened  —  imitated  by  a  knob  of 

<rreen  wax  rather  larger  than  the  ovary  at 

the  b:i<e  of  the  flower. 

We  propose  to  conclude  by  explaining- 
how  the  foregoing  principles  are  applied  to 
the  imitation  of  the  composite  order  of 
flowers  These  in  some  points  differ  so 
much  from  most  other  blossoms,  that  our 
first  section  would  be  incomplete  without  it. 
The  composite  is  the  largest  natural  order 
which  systematic  botanists  have  established. 
Its  flowers  are  readily  recognised  bv  their 
general  character,  the  types  of  which  are 
the  daisy,  the  sunflower,  the  china-aster, 
the  common  tansy,  the  groundsel,  and  the 
well  known  dandelion. 

The  head,  or  flower,  i» 

consists  of  many  blos- 
soms, brought  together 
upon  a  flat  top,  or  re- 
ceptacle, formed  of  small 
strap  -  shaped  leaves, 
called  bracts  (B).  The 
yellow  centre,  marked 
C,  consists  of  florets 
whose  corollas  are  not 
developed.  One  of  these 
heads  may  therefore  con- 
tain two  hundred  florets, 
which  in  a  wild  and  un- 
cultivated state  may  not 
not  only  possess  corollas 
at  the  outer  edge,  as  in 
the  common  daisy  ;  or 
may  be  covered  with 
corollas,  or  doubled,  as 
in  the  highly  cultivated 
dahlia,  where  the  central 
disk  or  eye  entirely  dis- 
appears. What  "are 
known  as  the  single  flowers  of  this  order, 
as  they  require  peculiar  management,  are 
the  subject  of  the  present  paper. 

As  a  specimen  flower  we  will  take  the  china- 
aster,  because  on  the  one  hand  it  is  not  so  de- 
licately small  as  the  daisy,  nor  on  the  other 
hand,  is  it  too  large  for  a  bouquet.  It  allows  of 
great  variety  of  colouring  also,  and  will  har- 
monize with  the  flowers  which  have  gone 
before. 

Having  procured  two  flowers,  lay  the 
cardboard  sheet  on  the  table  before  you  to 
receive  the  parts  of  the  flower  which  you 
dissect ;  and  taking  it  to  pieces,  place  each 
in  its  appropriate  position.    The  developed 


MA 


# 


A   MIFCFTI.ANY   OF   FSFFFL    KNOWLEDGE. 


petals  will  be  found  generally  to  consist  of 
two  rows,  arcl  would  lie  upon  t  ho  cardboard 


as  in  the  diagram.  A  vertical  section  should 
then  be  made  of  the  disks  and  florets,  to 
give  the  idea  of  the  thick- 
ness of  that  part  of  the 
flower,  and  this  should  be 
laid  in  the  centre  of  the 
cardboard.  As  strips  of 
wax  as  small  as  those  re- 
quired for  the  petal  of  the 
china-aster  or  the  com- 
posite flowers  generally, 
are  so  small  that  they  are 
easily  affected  by  the 
warmth  of  the  hand,  it  is 
better  to  cut  out  twenty- 
four  pieces  of  the  proper 
size  and  shape  {see  diagram),  and  prepare 
them  before  proceeding  to  lay  the  foundation 
of  the  waxen  dower.  This  allows 
the  petals  time  to  cool,  and  saves 
trouble  in  practice.  The  petals 
must  be  cut  in  thin  pale  blue  wax, 
about  the  eighth  of  an  inch  longer 
than  t'ne  real  flower-leaf,  to  allow 
sufficient  wax  to  adhere  to  the  base- 
ment. The  natural  petals  will  be 
found  to  be  dimpled  in  a  delicate 
manner,  which  we  found  at  first 
difficult  to  imitate;  but  the  follow- 
ing plan  answers  well.  Take  a 
hard  cedar  pencil,  and  having  sliced 
the  top  obliquely,  cut  the  straight 
edge  so  made  into  regular  but  close 
notches,  as  drep  as  practicable. 
With  this,  by  firm  pressure,  indent  a  piece 
of  card  ;  then  grain  each  wax  petal  by  lav- 
ing it  upon  the  card,  and  pressing  it  gently 
with  the  notched  end  of  the  pencil  held 


r\ 


U 


323 
obliquely.    The  pencil  should  be  damped 


before  it  is  drawn  along  the  petal.  This 
simple  node  of  crimping  wax  petals  will  be 
found  useful  in  many  other  ease*. 

We  now  proceed  to  lay  the  foundation  of 
the  lower.  Before  doing  so  take  note  of  the 
stitf  appearam  e  of  the  natural  stalk,  and  the 
way  in  which  the  flower .  carries  its  head. 
To  secure  this  appearance, 
.zr "Y)  a  strong  piece  of  wire 
'  -  should  be  chosen,  and 
should  be  doubled  and  tied 
so  as  to  make  a  flat  ring  at 
the  top  and  a  stiff  stalk. 
[The  diagram,  in  which  the 
twining  of  the  wire  is  re- 
presented loosely,  will  ex- 
plain this.]  Scrips  of  wax 
are  then  to  be  pressed  about 
the  wire,  so  as.  to  imitate 
the  general  outline  of  the 
basement  of  the  flower.  To 
make  everything  intelligible,  we  have  added 
a  sketch  of  this  stage  of  the  proceeding. 
A  piece  of  thick  yellow  wax  should  be  cut 
out  the  size  of  the  top  of  the  disk,  and 
marked  so  as  to  resemble  the  eye  of  the 
flower.  This  is  done  very  carelessly  by 
most  artists  in  wax  and  com- 
posite flowers;  as  ordinarily 
made,  they  never  look  well,  as 
the  centre  is  composed  of  shreds 
of  wax  cut  finely  with  sci-sors. 
We  can  recommend  the  follow- 
ing .—Apply  the  yellow  wax  to 
the  basement  so  as  to  make  a 
good  round  top  and  then,  with 
a  wet  tinting  brush  (before  de 
scribed}  which  has  been  slightly 
damped  with  gum  water,  "bad" 
the  wax  regularly  all  over  till 
it  assumes  the  appearance  of 
fine  hairs.  The  blue  petals  may 
then  be  applied  by  pressing  them  gently 
against  the  underside  of  the  receptacle, 
being  attentive  in  giving  each  petal  a  fellow 
on  the  opposite  side,  and  placing  the  second 
row  alternate  with  the  first. 

This  having  been  done,  twenty-four  bracts 
made  of  dark-green  wax  must  be  laid  on 
regularly  below  or  against  the  petals.  They 
must  be  cut  out  of  four  sizes  of  six  ;  the 
largest  being  about  an  inch,  the  shortest  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  stalk 
being  covered  with  green  wax  must  be  made 


324 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


angular,  and  dusted  with,  scrapings  from 
any  light-coloured  woollen  substance.  This 
will  give  the  hair}  appearance.  If  these 
directions  are  followed  caret  lly,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  composite  flowers  are  to  be 
imitated  in  wax  more  completely  than  many 
blossoms  which  have  the  reputation  of  being 
made  with  less  difficulty. 

When  making  wax-flowers  choose  a  warm 
situation  as  your  seat.  If  the  hands  are  too 
hot,  and  the  wax  is  thereby  rendered  too 
flaccid,  wash  in  tepid  water.  The  hands  are 
oftener  too  cold  ;  iu  which  case,  washing  in 
hot  water,  and  a  seat  near  the  fire,  are  re- 
commended. Never  be  in  a  hurry,  or  you 
will  spoil  your  flower.  IV  careful  in  cutting 
the  petals,  &c,  correctly  :  young  artists  in 
wax  are  apt  to  be  incorrect  in  cutting  the 
petals,  and  their  flowers  are,  in  consequence. 
unsym metrical.  After  having  dissected  and 
imitated  a  flower,  preserve  patterns  and 
s ketches  of  its  different  parts;  so  that  when 
the  season  for  the  plant  has  passed,  other 
conies  of  it  may  be  made.  Always  hold  the 
flower  in  the  left  hand,  and  apply  fresh 
pieces  with  the  right.  Any  oil,  grease,  or 
water,  will  prevent  the  proper  adhesion  of 
the  lamina)  of  wax  to  each  other. 

PHYSIO  LOGIC  A  L  P^ACTS.  The  number 
of  hones  in  the  frame-work  of  a  human  body 
is  260,  10S  of  which  are  in  the  feet  and  hands, 
there  being  in  each  27.  The  quantity  of  blood 
in  adults  is.  on  an  average,  about  30  pounds,! 
which  passes  through  the  heart  once  in  four 
minutes.  Only  one  tenth  of  the  human  body 
is  solid  matter.  A  dead  body  weighing  120 
pounds  was  dried  in  au  oven  till  all  moisture 
was  expelled,  and  its  weight  was  reduced  to 
12  pounds.  Egyptian  mummies,  when  thor- 
oughly dried,  usually  weigh  about  7  pounds. 
The  lungs  of  an  adult  ordinarily  inhale  about 
40  cubic  inches  of  air  at  once  ;  and  if  we 
breathe  20  times  in  a  minute,  the  quantity  of 
air  consumed  in  that  time  will  be  800  cubic 
inches,  or  48,000  inches  an  hour,  and  1,152,000 
a  day,  which  is  equal  to  86  hogsheads. 

What  a  noisy  creature  would  a  man  be, 
were  his  voice  in  proportion  to  his  weight, 
as  loud  as  that  of  a  locust !  A  locust  can  be' 
heard  at  the  distance  of  l-16th  of  a  mile.; 
The  golden  wren  is  said  to  weigh  but  half  an! 
ounce,  so  that  a  middling-sized  man  would' 
weigh  down  not  short  of  4.000  of  them,  and  a 
golden  wren  would  probably  outweigh  four 
of  our  locusts  Supposing,  therefore,  that  j 
a  medium-sized  man  weighed  as  much  as 
16.000  of  our  locusts,  and  that  the  note  of  aj 
locust  can  be  heard  l-16th  of  a  mile,  a  man  of 
common  dimensions,  and  souud  in  wind  and  ! 
limb,  ought  to  be  able  to  make  himself  heard  j 
a  distance  of  1 ,000  miles. 

A  man  is  taller  iu  the  momiug  than  at 
night,  to  the  extent  of  half  an  inch,  owing  to 


the  relaxation  of  the  cartilages.  Ten  days 
per  annum  is  the  average  sickness  of  human 
life.  About  the  age  of  thirty-six  the  lean  man 
generally  becomes  fatter,  and  the  fat  man 
leaner. 

CURIOUS  CALCULATION.  Few  persons 
have  any  idea  of  the  space  which  would  be 
occupied  by  the  whole  population  now  liviug 
on  the  face  of  the  glooe,  if  congregated  to- 
gether;  and  as  to  that  vast  majority,  the 
dead,  the  wildest  conjectures  have  been  in- 
dulged in.  Some  have  even  doubted  whether 
such  a  number  of  human  beings  could  find 
standing-room  on  the  whole  face  of  the 
earth.  Now,  taking  the  present  population 
of  the  earth  to  number  one  thousand  millions, 
and  assuming  that  the  average  population  of 
the  earth  from  the  time  of  Adam  till  now 
aas  been  half  that  n  .mber,  and  that  the  gen- 
erations of  men  have  averaged  forty  years 
each,  we  come  to  this  conclusion — that,  tne 
smallest  county  of  New  York  would  furnish 
sitting  room  for  all  the  men,  women  and 
children  now  alive  on  the  earth  ;  and  that  a 
number  of  human  beings  equal  to  all  that 
have  ever  lived  upon  the  face  of  the  earth, 
might  stand  within  the  area  of  the  largest 
county  of  New  York. 

LOST  SACRED  BOOKS.  I.  The  Prophe- 
cy of  Enoch.     See  Epistle  to  Jude,  14. 

II.  The  Book  of  the  Wars  of  the  Lord. 
See  Num.  xxi,  14.  . 

III.  Tne  Prophetical  Gospel  of  Eve,  which 
relates  to  the  Amours  of  the  Sons  of  God, 
with  the  daughters  of  meu.  See  Origen 
Contt,  Celsum,  Tertui,  &c. 

IY.  The  Book  of  Joshua.  See  Joshua,  x, 
13  ;  Samuel,  i,  18. 

Y.  The  Book  of  Iddo  the  Seer.  See  Chron. 
ix,  2j  ;  and  vii,  15. 

VI.  The  Book  of  Nathan  the  Prophet. 
See  as  above. 

VII.  The  Prophecies  of  Ahjah  the  Shilo- 
nite.    See  as  above. 

VI T.  The  acts  of  Rehoboam,  in  Book  of 
Shem  tih.    See  2  Chron.  xii,  15. 

IX.  The  Book  of  Jehu,  the  Son  of  Hanani. 
See  2  Chron.  xx,  34. 

X.  The  live  books  of  Solomon,  treating  ou 
trees,  beasts,  fowls,  serpents  and  fishes.  See 
1  Kings,  iv,  33. 

SCRIPTURAL  STATISTICS.  There  are 
in  the  old  Testament,  39  books,  929  chapters, 
23,2 14  verses,  592,439  words,  3,728,100  letters. 
In  the  new.  57  books,  260  chapters,  7,959 
verses,  181,252  words,  838,380  letters.  The 
shortest  chapter  is  Psalm  cxvii.  The  short- 
est verse  in  the  old  Testament  is  1  Chroni- 
cl.s,  i,25.  In  the  new,  John  xi,  35.  Ezra 
vii  contains  the  whole  of  the  alphibet.  2 
Kings,  xix  and  Isa,iah  xxxvii  are  alike. 

Wesley  has  preached  40,000  sermons  from 
the  Bible. 


A    MISCELLANY    OF    USEFUL    KNOWLEDGE. 


325 


DECEPTIVE  VISION.  The  following 
k'<  tight,  which  we  take  from  the  Maiiiiian's 
Own  Book,  shows  how  easily  the  eye  may  be 


deceived.     Take  a  piece  of  pasteboard,  an 

inch  and  a  hall'  in  width,  and  live   Inches  in 
length,  and  divide  it  by  inked  lines  into  thirty 


squares,  then  cut  it  fr>  mi  corner  to  corner,  so  I  fourth  square  from  the   right  angle,)  after 
-.in  two  triangle*.    After  this,  cut  off  which,  arrange  the  pieces  in  the  manner  rep- 
the  top  of  these  triangles  at  0  and  d,  (at  the    resented  below  : 


^~\!^_ 

i      "Hj 

i 

/ 

! 

/ 

/ 

/ 
/ 

On  counting  the  squares  in  the  first  figure, 
there  appear  to  be  thirty,  but  the  other  ar- 
rangement of  the  same  card  seems  to  contain 
thirty-two.  It  .does  so,  however,  only  in  ap- 
pearance, but  it  is  only  a  very  correct  eye  that 
c.n  detect  the  imperfection. 

COINCIDENCES.  It  lias  been  remarked 
as  i  curious  circumstance  that  Bonaparte  and 
Wellington  were  bora  iu  the  same  year,  and 
that  Burns  and  Hogg,  the  Scotch  poets,  were 
born  on  the  25th  of  January  ;  but  it  is  more 
remarkable  that  Shakspeare  and  Cervantes, 
the  two  greatest  dramatic  poets  of  modern 
Europe,  died  on  the  same  day,  in  the  same 
year,  April  16,  1616.  It  is  further  remarka- 
ble that  Shakspeare.  as  In  the  case  of  the 
great  Raphael,  and  Sobieski,  died  on  the  an- 
niversary of  his  birth. 

The  most  remarkable  coincidence  on  rec- 
ord, however,  is  one  mentioned  on  another 
Sage,  viz. :  the  death  of  the  two  ex-Presidents. 
ofan  Adams  and  Thomas  Jefferson,  who  were 
members  of  the  committee  of  five  appointed 
to  draft  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
their  deaths  occurring  on  the  same  day,  and 
about  the  same  hour,  on  the  fiftieth  anniver- 
sary of  the  day  which  made  their  names  im- 
mortal. 

THE  WORLD  IX  EPITOME.  The  num- 
ber of  languages epoken  in  the  world  amounts 
to  3.064  ;  587  in  Europe  ;  896  in  Asia  ;  276 
in  Africa,  and  1,264  in  America.  The  inhab- 
itants of  the  globe  profess  more  than  1,000 
different  religions.  The  number  of  men  is 
about  equal  to  the  number  of  women.  The 
average  of  human  life  is  about  thirty  years  ; 

15 


one  quarter  die  previous  to  the  age  of  seven 
years  ;  one  half  before  reaching  seventeen. 
To  every  one  thousand  persons,  only  one 
reaches  one  hundred  years.  To  every  hundred 
only  six  reach  the  age  of  sixty-five,  and  not 
more  than  one  in  five  hundred  reach  the  age 
of  eighty.  There  are  on  the  earth  1000,000,- 
000  inhabitants;  of  these,  333,333,333  die 
every  year,  91,324  every  day,  3,780  every 
hour,  60  every  minute,  and  1  in  every  second. 
These  losses  are  balanced  by  about  an  equal 
number  of  births.  The  married  live  longer 
than  the  single,  and  above  all,  those  who  ob- 
serve a  sober  and  industrious  life.  Women 
have  more  chances  of  life  in  their  favor,  pre- 
vious to  being  fifty  years  of  age,  than  men 
have,  but  fewer  afterwards.  The  number  of 
men  capable  of  bearing  arms  is  calculated  at 
one-fourth  of  the  population. 

REMARKABLE  WORKS  OF  HUMAN 
LABOR.  Nineveh  was  14  miles  long, 8 miles 
,  wide,  and  40  miles  round,  with  a  wall  100 
I  feet  high,  and  thick  enough  for  three  chariots 
|  abreast.  Babylon  was  56  miles  within  the 
walls,  which  were  75  feet  thick  and  100  feet 
high,  with  100  brazen  gates.  The  temple  of 
Diana,  at  Ephesus,  was  420  feet  to  the  support 
of  the  roof.  It  was  a  hundred  years  In 
'  building.  The  largest  of  the  pyramids  is  4S1 
feet  high,  and  653  feet  on  the  sides  ;  its  base 
'covers  11  acres.  The  stones  are  about  80 
!  feet  in  length,  and  the  layers  are  208  feet. 
'  It  employed  330,000  men  in  building.  The 
labyrinth  in  Egypt  contains  300  chambers  and 
j  12  halls.  Thebes,  iu  Egypt,  presents  ruins 
1 27  miles  around,  and  100  gates.     Carthage 


32G 


FACTS    FOR    EVERYBODY 


was  29  miles  around.  Athens  was  25  miles 
around,  and  contained  359,000  citizens  and 
400  slaves.  The  temple  of  Delphns  was  so 
rich  in  its  donations  that  it  was  plundered  of 
$50,000,000,  and  Nero  carried  away  from  it 
200  statues. 

INVENTIONS  AND  DISCOVERIES.  The 
following  are  the  dates  of  some  of  the  most 
important  inventions  and  discoveries  :  Glass 
windows,  first  used,  1189  :  chimneys  in  hous- 
es, 1226  ;  leaden  pipes  for  conveying  water, 
1253;  tallow  candles  for  lights,  1290  ;  specta- 
cles invented  by  an  Italian,  1299  ;  paper  first 
made  from  linen,  1302  ;  woolen  cloth  first 
made  in  England,  1331  ;  printing  invented, 
1449  ;  watches  made  in  Germany,  1470  ;  vari- 
ations in  compass  noticed,  1532  ;  pins  used  in 
England,  1540  ;  circulation  of  blood,  discov- 
ered by  Harvey,  1619  ;  first  newspaper  pub- 
lished, 1637  ;  first  steam  engine  invented, 
1749  ;  steam  engine  improved  by  Watt,  1763  ; 
steam  null  erected,  1783  ;  stereotyping  in- 
vented in  Scotland,  1785  ;  animal  magne- 
tism, by  Mesmer,  1789  ;  invention  of  the 
electro-magnetic  telegraph,  by  Morse,  1843. 

RIVERS  AND  OCEANS.  The  basin  of 
the  Thames  covers  5,500  square  miles  ;  of  the 
Rhine.  89,000 ;  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  243,000  ; 
Brahma  Pootra,  270,000;  Nile,  707,000; 
Danube,  312.500  ;  Indus,  410.000  ;  Ganges, 
443,000;  Volga,  653,000;  Yang-tse-kiang, 
742,000  ;  Mississippi,  1,101,000  ;  Plata,  1,560- 
000;  Amazonas,  1,920,000.  These  and  hun- 
dreds of  minor  rivers  are  unceasingly  replen- 
ishing the  waters  of  the  ocean,  and  thus 
pursue  that  uninterrupted  round  of  inter- 
change which  characterizes  all  creation.  In 
round  numbers  it  may  be  considered  that  the 
ocean  surface  is  equal  to  160,000,000  square 
miles,  and  the  earth's  surface  to  40,000,000. 

GROWTH  OF  AMERICAN  CITIES.  Bos- 
ton was  trying  to  grow  nearly  100  years 
•before  it  attained  a  population  of  10,000.  Al- 
bany was  200  years.  New  York  was  130 
years.  Philadelphia,  settled  60  or  70  years 
later,  grew  much  faster  than  the  older  cities, 
and  arrived  at  the  dignity  of  10,000  in  about 
50  years.  New  Orleans  was  about  100  years 
old  before  she  attained  that  number.  During 
the  first  hundred  years  after  the  settlement 
of  Boston  (1630),  this  was  the  largest  city  of 
the  colonies.  New  York  became  as  populous 
as  Boston  just  before  the  revolutionary  war  ; 
about  1811  New  York  became  as  populous  as 
Philadelphia,  each  containing  100,000  inhab- 
itants. Baltimore  overtook  Boston  about 
the  year  1800.  The  principal  new  cities  grew 
to  the  number  of  10,000  nearly  as  follows  : 

Pittsburgh  in  66  years ;  Louisville,  50}-ears  ; 
Cincinnati,  22  years  ;  Cleveland,  40  years  ; 
Detroit,  45  years  (counting  out  its  French  and 
Indian  period)  ;  New  Albany,  35  years ; 
Chicago,  12  years  ;  Mihvaukie,  10  years. 


These  cities  attained  to  20,000  in  the  num- 
of  vears  from  their  birth  as  follows  : 

Boston,  163;  Albany,  220;  New  York, 
150  ;  Philadelphia,  80  :  New  Orleans,  113  ; 
Baltimore,  about  80  ;  Pittsburgh,  75  ;  Louis- 
ville, 41:  Cincinnati,  30:  Cleveland.  45; 
Detroit,  52  ;  Chicago,  16  ;  Milwaukie,  17. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  OR1GINE.  The  Alps 
take  their  name  from  the  snows  with  which 
their  summits  are  continually  covered,  the 
Sabine  word  Alpnm  signifying  the  same  as 
the  Latin  word,  Album,  white.  France  is  so 
called  from  the  Franci,  or  Franks,  a  people 
of  Germany  who  seized  on  those  parts  of  it 
nearest  the  Rhine,  in  the  time  of  Valentinian 
the  Third,  and  afterwards  subduing  Paris 
they  made  it  the  seat-royal  of  their  growing 
empire,  and  thus  caused  the  country  there- 
abouts to  be  called  France.  Hibernia  most 
probably  derived  its  name  from  Ibernce,  a 
Phoenician  word,  meaning  the  farthest  habi- 
tation, there  being  no  country  known  among 
the  ancients  west  of  Ireland.  Portugal  was 
anciently  called  Lusitania,  from  the  Lusitani, 
who  then  inhabited  it ;  it  took  its  present 
name  from  the  haven  of  Porto,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Duerus,  where  the  Gauls  used  to  land 
their  merchandise,  thence  it  was  called  For- 
tus  Gallomm.  This  town  was  given  in  dow- 
er with  Teresa,  daughter  of  Alphonso  the 
Sixth,  to  Henry  de  Lorrain,  who  took  the 
title  of  Earl  of  Portugal  ;  his  successors  com- 
ing to  be  kings,  extended  the  name  to  all 
those  parts  which  they  conquered  from  the 
Moors.  Russia  took  its  denomination  from 
the  Rossi,  or  Russi,  a  people  of  Mount  Tau- 
rus, who  possessed  themselves  of  some  parts 
of  it  in  the  declining  times  of  the  Greek  em- 
pire, and  being  the  prevailing  people,  im- 
posed their  name  upon  all  the  rest.  Greece 
is  a  name  given  from  Graecus,  son  of  Cecrops, 
first  king  of  Athens. 

THE  BOWIE  KNIFE.  This  famous  wea- 
pon received  its  name  from  Colonel  James 
Bowie,  by  whom  it  was  invented.  Colonel 
Bowie  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  of  In- 
dependence in  Texas.  He  showed  great 
bravery  in  several  battles  and  skirmishes,  and 
was  killed  with  Colonels  Travis  and  Crockett, 
in  the  attack  on  the  Alamo,  in  San  Antonio. 
Colonel  Bowie  lived  in  Louisiana,  but  was  by 
birth  a  Georgian.  He  became  notorious  in 
the  Southwest  on  account  of  a  terrible  duel 
which  he  fought  with  Norris  Wright  and 
others,  on  a  bar  of  the  Mississippi — one  of 
the  bloodiest  rencontres  on  record — in  which 
he  was  wounded  and  two  men  were  killed. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  man  of  daring  and 
great  muscular  power. 

AN  OLD  BOOK.  The  oldest  book  known 
to  be  extant  is  an  edition  of  the  Psalms,  in 
Latin,  printed  in  1457,  which  is  now  400 
years  old. 


A    MISCFLLANT   OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


327 


STOXES.  Stone  is  a  general  term  for  all 
hard,  brittle,  or  insoluble  bodies,  Having 
•poken  of  Precious  Stones,  we  have  now  to 
notice  the  more  roninion  kinds  ;  as  Marble, 
Porphyry,  Alabaster.  Portland  stone,  &<•. 

Mauhlk.    is  a  valuable  stone,  formed  by 

the  union  of  earth  of  lime,    with  carbonic 

arid,  or  in  the  modern  Language  of  mine- 
ralogy,  is  carbonated  lime,  found  in  great 
sand  dug  out  of  pits  or  quarries.  Being 

of  a  hard,  compact  constitution,  and  so  tine 
as  readily  to  take  a  beautiful  polish,  it  is 
much  used  in  ornaments  of  buildings,  as 
columns,  statues,  altars,  tombs,  chimney- 
pieces,  babies,  and  the  like,  Hauy  has  de- 
scribed nearly  100  different  varieties  of  car- 
bonated lime,  but  there  is  still  an  indefinite 
number  of  different  kinds  of  marble,  usually 
denominated  either  from  their  colour,  their 
age,  their  country,  their  grain,  their  degree 
of  hardness,  their  weight,  or  their  defects ; 
some  are  of  one  simple  colour,  as  white,  or 
black  ;  others  streaked  or  variegated  with 
stains,  clouds,  waves,  veins,  &c.  but  all 
opaque  except  the  white,  which,  when  cut 
into  thin  slices,  becomes  transparent.  Eng- 
lish a  kite  marble  is  veined  with  red.  Derby- 
shire marble  is  variously  clouded,  and  di- 
versified with  brown,  red,  and  yellow.  That 
of  Devonshire  is  either  black  with  white 
veins,  or  red  shaded  with  gray  and  orange. 
Marble  of  Auvetyite,  in  France,  is  of  a  pale 
red,  mingled  with  violet,  green,  and  yellow. 
Ya.ious  other  kinds  are  denominated  by  the 
places  from  which  they  are  brought,  as 
Dinan,  near  Liege — Namur,  Lanu'uedoc,  Sa» 
voy,  Sicily,  Spain,  &c  Artificial  Mar- 
ble is  only  marble  pulverized,  and  mixed 
in  a  certain  portion  with  plaster ;  the  whole 
well  sifted,  worked  up  with  water,  and  used 
like  common  plaster.  With  this  stucco  are 
made  statues,  busts,  basso-relievos,  and 
other  ornaments  of  architecture.  Marble  is 
polished  by  being  first  rubbed  with  freestone, 
after waids  with  pumice-stone,  and  last 
with  emery,  putty,  or  calcined  tin. 

Porphyry.  Belong-;  to  that  class  of  mine- 
rals, which,  occurring  in  great  masses, 
mineralogists  have  considered  as  properly 
designated  by  the  geneial  term  rock:  a  pre- 
cious kind  of  stone  or  marble.  It  is  of  a 
brownish  red,  green,  or  black  colour  fre- 
quently interspersed  with  white  stains;  for- 
merly brought  from  Egypt,  and  exceeding 
all  others  in  hardness.  The  ancient  por- 
phyry quarries  are  long  since  lost,  and  the 
art  of  cutting  it,  as  practised  by  the 
Egyptians,  is  also  lost.  The  modern  tools 
•will  scarcely  touch  it.  Either  the  ancients, 
therefore,  had  the  art  of  tempering  steel 
better  than  we,  or  they  had  the  art  of  soften- 


l  ing  the  porphyry.     Though  it  ifl  probable 
thai  time  and  air  have  contributed  to  increase 

its  hardness.    Mr.  .Addison  saw  a  workman 
at  Rome  employed  in  the  cutting  of  porphyry. 

but  his  advances  were  exceedingly  slow,  and 
almost    insensible.       The    Italian    sculptors 
work  it  with  a  brass  saw  without  any  teeth, 
together  with  emery  and  water.      Leon  Bap- 
tist! Alberta,   searching  for  the  necessary 
temper,  says  he  found  goafs  blood  the   best 
of  any.     Cosmo  de  Mcdieis  is  said  to  have 
distilled  a  water  from  certain  herbs,    with 
which  his  sculptor  gave  his  tools  such  an 
admirable  hardness  and  temper,  as  that  he 
performed  some  tine  works  with  them,   par- 
ticularly our  Saviour's  head,  in  demi-relievo. 
Even  the  very  hair  and  beard,  how  difficult 
soever,  are  here  well  conducted,  and  there 
is  nothing  of  the  kind  better  in  all  the  works 
I  of  the  ancients.     Lut  the  secret  seems  to 
|  have  died  with  him.  The  French  pretend  to 
j  have  found  another  method,  with  an  iron  saw 
I  without  teeth,  and  freestone  pulverized  with 
;  water.      The    Porphyries  are  composed    of 
|  felspar  in  little  fragments,  of  short,   and  a 
kind  of  cement  of  the  nature  o'f  jasper,  on 
which  the  colour  of  the  porphyry  generally 
depends.     The  felspar  and  shorl  which  enter 
into  the  composition  of  porphyries,   contain 
silex,  alumina,  magnesia,  baryte,  and  a  little 
iron. 

Serpentine.  Is  one  of  the  primitive  rocks, 
and  although  most  commonly  of  a  green 
colour,  deviating  sometimes  into  vari  us 
shades  of  red,  it  is  ofien  confounded  with, 
porphyry.  There  are  two  varieties  of  ser- 
pentine, the  common  and  the  precious.  The 
common  serpentine  contains  silex,  magnesia, 
alumina,  water  and  iron,  and  is  found  in 
Saxony,  Bohemia,  Italy,  Cornwall,  and 
Scotland,  particularly  at  Portsoy.  It  is 
soft,  takes  a  good  polish,  and  is  turned  into 
vessels  and  ornaments  of  a  great  variety  of 
shapes.  At  Zoblitz,  in  Saxony,  several 
hundreds  of  people  are  employed  in  quarry- 
ing and  manufacturing  this  mineral;  but 
the  serpentine  of  Portsoy  is  much  superior 
to  the  Saxon  in  colour,  hardness,  and  trans- 
parency, and  when  cut  is  very  beautiful. 
Precious  serpentine  is  found  in  Silesia  and 
Italy;  it  is  soft,  and  of  a  dark  leaf  green. 
The  verd  antique  is  a  variety  of  this  kind  of 
serpentine. 

Granite.  Is  an  aggregated  rock,  which 
generally  forms  the  most  elevated  parts  of 
lofty  chains  of  mountains.  It  is  white  or 
red,  and  is  compo>ed  of  quartz,  felspar,  and 
mica,  of  the  latter  in  the  least,  quantity. 
The  stones  used  in  paving  the  streets  of 
New  York,  and  most  of  the  curb-stones, 
are  of  granite,  brought  from  Massachusetts. 


328 


PACTS  for  everybody: 


Granite  is  very  hard,  but  not  susceptible  of  a 
fin"  polish. 

.Flint  or  Silex  {silica  is  the  appellation 
of  the  simple  earth).  Is  commonly  of  a  gray 
colour,  varying  from  ash  gray  to  grayish 
black  and  brownish  red  ;  it  occurs  generally 
in  roundish  masses  of  no  great  magnitude, 
rarely  in  crystal*,  and  sometimes  in  hollow 
or  perforated  globules.  It  is  found  in  almost 
all  countries,  although  not  very  abundantly 
in  Scotland,  and  is  used  when  split  into 
narrow  thin  pieces,  as  flints  for  gun-locks, 
or  to  strike  fire  with  steel  to  light  matches, 
and  for  the  manufacture  of  glass  instead  of 
fine  sand.  According  to  Klaproth,  Hint 
contains  98  silica,  lime  050,  alumina  025, 
oxide  of  iron  0  25,  and  loss  1  =  100.  The 
best  Hints  are  found  in  the  chalk  or  lime 
quarries.  The  Indians  use  two  pieces  of 
wood,  which  they  rub  violently  against  each 
other,  instead  of  steel  and  flint,  to  generate 
fire  or  inflame  a  match. 

Mill-stones  are  chiefly  composed  of 
quartz  and  felspar,  the  latter  in  small  parti- 
cles, with  a  little  mica  ;  they  are  very  hard, 
not  susceptihle  of  a  polish,  and  by  their 
numerous  unequal  angular  prominences,  are 
particularly  adapted  to  grinding  corn  to 
powder.  Mill-stones  are  principally  brought 
from  Normandy  in  France,  and  their  chemi- 
cal and  mincralogical  characters  have  never 
vet  been  sufficiently  examined.  There  is, 
however,  much  reason  to  believe,  that  if  the 
mountains  of  Scotland,  Ireland  or  Wales, 
were  minutely  investigated,  a  stone  in  every 
respect  fit  for  mills  would  be  found. 

Alabaster,  or  compact  gypsum.  Is  a  well 
knowu  mineral,  used  by  architects,  statua- 
ries, plasterers,  and  others.  It  is  a  sulphate 
of  lime,  of  which  plaster  of  Paris  is  a  coarse 
variety.  There  are  three  kinds  1st,  the 
snow-white,  shining  alabaster,  found  in 
Taurus,  in  .pieces  large  enough  to  make 
dishes :  it  cuts  freely,  and  is  capable  of  a 
fine  polish.  2nd.  the  yellow  alabaster,  which 
is  found  in  Greece,  of  a  soft  texture,  heavy 
and  nearly  the  colour  of  honey.  This 
species  has  been  found  also  in  "Germany, 
France,  in  Derbyshire,  and  in  Cumberland. 
3rd.  the  variegated,  yellow,  and  reddish 
alabaster.  This  is  the  common  alabaster  of 
the  ancients,  and  is  so  soft  that  it  may  be 
cut  with  a  knife,  it  is  remarkably  bright, 
almost  transparent ;  admits  of  a  fine  polish, 
and  consists  of  large  angular  sparry  con- 
cretions. Alabasters  are  frequently  used  by 
statuaries  for  small  statues,  vases,  and 
columns.  The  clearness  and  fineness  of  thi> 
stone  renders  it  in  some  measure  transpa- 
rent, whence  it  has  been  occasionally  em- 
ployed for  windows.     There  is  a  church  at 


Florence,  still  illuminated  by  alabaster 
windows  ;  instead  of  panes  of  glass  there  are 
slabs  of  alabaster  near  fifteen  feet  high,  each 
of  which  forms  a  single  window,  through 
which  the  light  is  conveyed.  The  countries 
in  Europe  which  abound  most  in  alabaster, 
are  Germany  towards  Coblentz ;  in  some 
parts  of  Spam  and  France,  in  Italy  towards 
Rome.  A  new  manufacture  of  basso  relievos, 
from  a  singular  species  of  factitious  alabaster, 
has  been  established  by  M.  Letapie,  at  the 
baths  of  St.  Philip  in  Etruria  or  Tuscany. 
The  stream  of  these  baths  deposits  a  peculiar 
kind  of  sand,  which  when  collected  and  con- 
densed in  the  cavities  of  any  body  emplo}  ed 
to  oppose  its  current,  acquires  the  nature, 
hardness,  and  colour  of  alabaster,  and  as- 
sumes the  forms  of  those  cavities  in  which 
it  is  thus  lodged.  When  alabaster  is  burned, 
it  falls  to  powder ,  is  then  used  in  stucuo 
work,  for  polishing  silver,  &c. 

Freestone  or  Sandstone.  That  dug  in 
the  peninsula  of  Portland,  and  thence 
called  Portland  stone,  is  much  used,  being 
softer  and  whiter  than  Purbec  stone,  and  is 
commonly  raised  out  of  quarries  in  bigger 
blocks  ;  some  are  also  called  ryegate  or  Jire 
stone,  freestone.  Mr  Boyle  observes,  that  a 
competent  knowlege  of  the  stones  used  in 
building  is  of  great  importance ;  one  stone 
dug  out  of  a  quarry  being  found  to  moulder 
away  in  a  few  winters,  while  another  will 
brave  the  air  for  many  ages.  The  same 
author  adds,  that,  as  there  are  some  sorts  of 
stones  which  will  decay  in  a  few  years,  there 
are  others  that  will  not  have  attained  their 
full  haidness  in  thirty  or  forty  years,  or  even 
much  more.  Freestone  is  a  whitish  stone, 
dug  up  in  many  parts  of  England,  that 
works  like  alabaster ;  but  more  hard  and 
durable,  being  of  excellent  use  in  building. 
It  is  a  kind  of  grit  or  fine  sandstone,  and  is 
called  freestone  from  its  being  of  such  a 
constitution  as  to  be  cut  freely  in  any  direc- 
tion. This  stone  occurs  m  almost  all 
countries,  is  of  a  reddish,  yellow,  white,  or 
gray  colour,  and  is  sometimes  mixed  with 
small  particles  of  mica,  or  vestiges  of  shells. 
It  is  used  for  grindstones,  scythe-stones, 
shoemaker's  whetstones,  &c.  and  in  build- 
ings. Workmen  constantly  employed  in 
cutting  it,  generally  die  of  consumption  in 
consequence  of  its  fine  particles  being  im- 
bibed by  the  lungs.  A  kind  of  flexible  grey 
sandstone  is  found  in  the  Brazils.  A  coarse 
kind  of  sandstone  is  used  for  filtering  water. 

Slate.  Is  a  blue  fossil,  very  soft  when  dug 
out  of  the  quarry,  and  is  easily  cleft,  cut,  or 
sawed  into  thin  long  squares,  to  serve  in  lieu 
of  tiles,  for  the  covering  of  houses.  Some- 
times also  it  is  used  for  tables,  and  other 


A  MISCELLANY   OP   tJSEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


329 


purposes.  The  ancients  were  unacquainted 
with  the  use  of  slate,  and  Covered  their 
bouses  with  shingle,  as  we  read  in  Pliny. 
Besides  the  blue-state,  we  hare  in  England 

a  greyish  slate,  e.ilh-d  also  Uoisham-stone, 
from  a  town  in  Sns.'x  of  that  name,  where 
the  greatest  quantities  of  it  are  found.  The 
bme  -Lite  is  a  wry  Light,  Lasting,  and  beau- 
tiful coi  a  judge  of  the  goodness 
of  slate,  air.  C<  depress  recommends  an  ex- 
amination of  its  sonorous  quality;  if  it 
emits  a  good  clear  sound,  the  stone  is  firm 
and  g-»d.  Another  method  of  proving  its 
goodness  is  by  weighing  it,  then  letting  it 
lie  six  or  etght  hours  under  water,  and 
wiping  it  very  clean ;  if  it  weighs  then 
more  than  it  did  before,  it  will  not  endure 
without  rotting  the  lath  and  timber.  .The 
clay-slate,  which  varies  in  colour  from  light 
blue  to  purple,  is  the  most  generally  used. 
The  blackish-grey  kind  is  used  in  schools  by 
scholars  learning  arithmetic,  and  for  writing; 
the  splinter  kind  is  made  into  pencils,  and  se- 
veral varieties  are  used  as  whetstones.  Some 
kinds  of  hard  slate,  or  schist  us,  have  iron 
p\  rites,  and  mica  embedded  in  them  ;  others 
are  soft,  and  used  for  designing  as  black 
chalk. 

Pumice-Stoxe.  Is  a  kind  of  spongy  fibrous 
stone,  very  porous  and  friable,  found  in  the 
ashes  of  most  volcanoes.  Dr.  Woodward 
con.-iders  pumice  as  only  a  sort  of  slag  or 
cinder;  and  affirms  it  is  only  found  either 
where  forges  of  metal  have  anciently  been, 
or  near  some  volcano  or  burning  mountain. 
Other  authors  will  have  it  to  arise  from  the 
bottom  of  the  tea,  whence  they  suppose  it 
to  be  detached  by  subterranean  fires ;  and 
hence  account  both  for  its  lightness  and  po- 
rosity, and  its  saline  taste,  alleging  that 
several  parts  of  the  Archipelago  are  fre- 
quently found  covered  with  it  all  at  once, 
after  a  few  inward  shakes  and  heavings  of 
the  bottom  of  the  sea.  It  consists  of  77 
parts  si  lex,  17  alumina,  and  the  remainder 
of  a  100  in  iron,  manganese,  and  alkali. 
Pumice  makes  a  very  considerable  article  in 
commerce,  and  is  much  used  in  the  arts  and 
manufactories,  to  glazo  pottery,  and  to 
v  dish  and  smooth  several  works.  The  mar- 
biers  and  parchment-makers  use  the  largest 
and  lightest — the  curriers,  the  heaviest  and 
flattest — pewterers,  the  smallest. 

11  one.  A  fine  sort  of  whetstone,  whereon 
to  set  a  razor  or  penknife.  It  is  of  a  yel- 
lowish colour;  according  to  some  accounts, 
it  is  holly-wood  petrified,  or  changed  into 
stone,  by  1\  ing  in  the  water  for  a  certain 
time.  Some  in  Arkansas  are  said  to  be 
thus  petrified  in  a  very  short  time.  Several 
kinds  of  petrified  wood  are  used  as  whet- 


stones, but  they  are  generally  too  hard  nni 
too  coarse  for  fine  edges. 

RABBITS.     Rabbit   House.    The  first 

and  most  important  matter  is  to  have  a  good 
dry  house  or  shed,  in  which  the  animals 
con  be  well  protected  from  damp  weather. 
Too  MuCQ  moisture  is  as  fatal  to  rabbits  as 
it  is  to  sheep;  it  gives  them  the  rot. 
Dampness  maybe  all  very  well  for  fishes, 
but  isnotgood'formen,  women  and  children, 
nor  yet  for  horses,  cows,  pigs,  poultry,  b  es, 
or  rabbits;  these  all  thrive  better  and  are 
preserved  from  many  diseases  by  being  pro- 
tected from  it. 

Put  though  you  keep  out  the  wet  from 
your  rabbit- house,  you  must  not  at  the  same 
time  exclude  fresh  air;  for  rabbits  can  no 
more  be  in  health  without  fresh  air,  than 
human  beings. 

Many  writers  advise  that  rabbits  should 
not  be  kept  in  hutches,  but  in  little  houses, 
so  constructed,  that  they  may  have  pro- 
tection from  the  weather,  and  at  the  s  ime 
time  enjoy  their  liberty  and  amuse  them- 
selves. 1  his  house  may  be  buile  about  four 
or  f.ve  feet  square,  as  may  be  convenient, 
with,  a  roof  ^"»rmed  to  carrv  off  the  rain. 
The  floor  should  be  boarded  or  paw  J,  to 
prevent  the  rabbits  from  burrowing,  and 
have  hay  or  straw  laid  on  it.  Some  boxes 
must  be  provided,  placed  on  the  floor  with 
the  open  side  downwards,  and  with  holes  at 
the  side  for  the  rabbits  to  go  in  or  out. 
Sliding  doors  to  these  boxes  are  convenient 
to  -hut  in  the  rabbits  when  necessary. 

In  the  front  of  the  house  there  should  be 
a  Llile  court,  or  yard  railed  off,  into  which 
the  rabbits  may  be  allowed  to  run  when  the 
weather  is  dry ;  and  here  they  will  sport 
and  enjoy  themselves,  and  give  you  oppor- 
tunities of  observing  their  pretty  antics. 

But  this  house  will  only  do  for  young 
rabbits,  or  until  they  are  about  five  months 
old;  after  that  age,  they  would  begin  to 
tear  each  other  to  pieces,  if  left  together; 
all  the  pleasure  you  had  in  witnessing  their 
former  harmony  and  happiness  would  be 
gone ;  the  bucks  would  fight  dreadfully, 
and  the  litters  the  does  might  have,  would 
be  destroyed  ,  so  that  it  is  necessary  that 
breeding  does  should  be  kept  in  hutches, 
and  the  bucks  be  separated  from  one  another. 
Put  we  nevertheless  advise  that  young 
rabbits  should  be  allowed  to  have  their 
liberty  in  such  a  house ;  as  they  will  be  tar 
more  "healthy,  and  will  grow  much  better, 
than  arh.cn  they  are  cooped  up  in  hutches, 
where  they  have  no  room  to  exercise  their 
limbs. 

Hutches.  The  hutches  should  l>e  made 
as  large  as  convenient,  that  the  rabbits  may 


330 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


not  be  cramped  for  want  of  exercise;  those 
for  breeding  does  must  have  a  partition,  so 
as  to  form  two  apartments,  one  for  feeding, 
the  other  as  a  bed.  Single  hutches,  that  is, 
with  one  room  only,  will  do  for  young 
rabbits,  or  for  bucks  to  be  kept  in.  The 
door  of  the  feeding  apartment  should  have 
wires  in  it,  but  that  of  the  bed-plar  e  must 
be  of  wood,  as  the  d  >e  likes  darkness  and 
concealment  when  she  has  her  dtter.  It  is 
well  to  have  a  sliding-board  to  divide  the 
two  compartments,  and  to  shut  out  the 
rabbits  when  the  hutch  is  to  be  cleaned;  as 
it  is  very  inconvenient  to  do  this  with  the 
rabbits  running  about.  The  floors  of  the 
hutches  should  be  quite  smooth,  that  the 
wet  may  run  off,  and,  in  order  to  facilitate 
this,  a  small  slit  or  opening  in  the  floor  at 
the  back  of  the  hutch  should  be  made,  and 
the  hutch  itself  be  put  sloping,  a  little 
higher  at  the  front  than  at  the  back ;  for 
when  rabbits  have  much  green  food,  there 
is  a  considerable  quantity  of  moisture  which 
requires  to  be  drained  off,  that  the  creatures 
may  be  kept  dry  and  clean  ;  and  if  proper 
means  be  taken  to  receive  this  into  a  drain, 
it  forms  a  verv  valuable  liquid  manure. 

Feeding  Troughs.  Are  usually  made 
in  the  form  of  a  long  open  box,  but  this 
is  inconvenient  in  many  respects,  as  the 
young  rabbits  get  in  and  spoil  the  food, 
and  the  older  ones  scratch  out  much  of  it, 
tread  it  under  foot  and  waste  it.  A  better 
plan  is  to  have  a  swinging  board  in  front, 
the  cost  of  which  is  soon  nude  up  by  the 
food  saved.  The  rabbits  when  they  take 
their  food,  push  this  board  inwards  with 
their  forehead,  and  when  the  head  is 
withdrawn,  the  board  flaps  back  against 
the  front  of  the  trough.  Some  persons 
have  a  lid  to  the  trough  which  the  rabbit 
soon  learns  to  lift,  and  which  shuts  down 
again  of  itself  as  soon  as  the  head  is  taken 
out  of  the  way. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  rabbits, 
varying  in  size,  form,  colour,  length  of 
legs  or  fur,  and  position  of  the  ears,  but 
the  races  have  been  so  continuously  inter- 
mixed, and  varied,  by  breeding,  that  it  is 
a  difficult  task  to  point  out  any  distinct 
kind  as  preferable.  The  smallest  and  short- 
lereed  variety,  of  the  colour  of  the  wild 
rabbit,  appears  to  be  the  hardiest.  Boys 
generally  prize  lop-ears,  though  they  are 
scarcely  so  nretty  in  appearance  as  the 
common  kind.  There  is  the  single  or 
double  lop,  according  as  one  only,  or  both 
ears  are  dropped.  Smuts  too  are  favourites, 
either  single  or  double.  The  smut  is  a 
black  spot  on  the  sule  of  the  rabbit's  nose, 
and  a  spot    on   each  side  constitutes  the 


double  smut.  Some  of  these  are  very  beau- 
tiful creatures,  having  a  white  silvery  fur, 
with  rich,  glossy,  black  spots,  and  they 
are  generally  large  sized  rabbits. 

Food.     This  is  an    important   matter; 
rabbits  eat  a  very  great  quantity  ;  you  must  * 

!  not  think  that  because  they  are  little 
animals,  they  require  only  a  little  food ; 
they  want  much  more  than  you  do,  in 
proportion  to  their  size :  and  to  give  them 

j  proper  kinds  of  food,  in  sufficient  quantity, 
and  at  a  low  expense,  constitutes  the  -chief 

j  question  as  regards  their  profit.  How  often 
do  we  hear  it  said,  and  how  generally  true 
is  the  saying,  "  Oh  !  my  rabbits  never  pay, 
they  eat  their  heads  off,  &c,"  meaning  that 
the  expense  of  the  food  eon-umed,  more 
than  counterbalances  the  advantage  gained. 
Now,  this  arises  from  want  of  knowledge. 
For  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  rabbits 
may  be  kept  almost  entirely  upon  food 
procured  from  the  fields  or  garden.  Al- 
though green  food  is  naturally  the  food  of 
labbits,  vet,  because  when  injudiciously 
supplied  It  scours,  and  gives  them  the  rot, 
it  is  erroneously  supposed  that  it  must  be 
almost  entirely  witheld.  It  is  true,  that 
if  it  be  given  to  them  in  a  wet  state  after 
rain  ;  if  it  consist  of  one  kind  of  vegetable 
only;  or  if  it  be  of  a  watery  kind,  a  bad 
effect  takes  place  ;  but  when  the  green  food 
is  given  in  sufficient  variety,  and  with  a 
small  supply  of  good  dry  hay  or  oats  daily, 
there  is  not  the  least  fear  in  giving  an 
unlimited  quantity. 

We  will  now  give  a  list  of  many  of  the 
vegetables  that  are  good  food  for  rabbits. 
All  through  the  summer  there  will  be  an 
ample  supply  from  the  garden  and  hedges. 
Dandelion,  groundsel,  sow-thistle,  dock- 
leaves,  peas-haulm,  lettuce;  strawberry, 
raspberry,  and  currant  leaves ;  carrot, 
parsnip,  potato,  and  horse-radish  tops;  all 
kinds  of  grasses,  celery ;  French  beans  in 
the  pod,  vine  dressing,  apple  parings,  &c.f 
&c.  But  we  need  not  further  enumerate, 
when  there  is  scarcely  any  vegetable  which 
rabbits  will  not  eat;  but  before  all  other 
things  they  prefer  parsley,  carrot  tops, 
French-beans,  bath-leaves,  stalks,  and  pods. 
As  soon  as  the  p  as  and  kidney-beans 
have  done  bearing,  let  them  be  pulled  up 
and  given  to  the  rabbits,  together  with  all 
the  pods  not  wanted  for  use.  In  the 
autumn,  when  green  food  becomes  scarcer, 
we  give  the  waste  scarlet-runner  stalks,  of 
which  they  are  verv  fond  ;  also  the  leaves 
which  now  fall  in  abundance  from  the  apple 
and  other  trees ;  and  when  the  garden  sup- 
plies fail,  there  is  generally  plenty  of  marsh- 
mallows,   docks,   ground-ivy,    and   grasses 


A  MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


331 


from  the  hedges,  to  form  an  abundance  of 
green  (bod  for  some  time  longer. 

In  the  winter,  carrots,  parsnips,  swede 
and  common  turnip,  together  with  brewer's 
grains,  mixed  With  topping!  or  pollard, 
■apply  the  lack  iif  fresh  vegetables.  We 
never  use  grains  in  the  summer,  because 
they  so  soon  turn  sour  and  mouldy,  and 
much  better  food  can  then  be  obtained 

We  must  not  omit  to  tell  you  that  rabbits 
like  the  young  bark  of  trees ,  for  this 
reason  we  supply  ours  in  the  winter  with 
small  branches  "  and  twigs,  which  they 
cither  strip  or  entirely  consume.  We 
throw  to  the  young  ones  the  prunings  of 
vines;  currant,  apple,  and  other  trees; 
except  such  as  laurel,  and  evergreens  . 
said  to  be  poisonous.  Nibbling  these  twigs  ' 
is  excellent  amusement  for  rabbits,  and 
beside  keeping  them  in  health,  serves  as  a 
portion  of  their  food. 

Here,  then,  we  have  shown  that  there 
is  do  need  for  starving  rabbits,  when  there 
is  such  an  abundant  variety  of  food  suitable 
for  them,  and  at  all  times  to  be  procured. 
One  writer  observes,  that  when  rabbits  die, 
ninety-nine  times  out  of  the  hundred, 
starvation  is  the  malady  And  particularly 
short- feeding  the  doe,  while,  and  before  she 
has  young  ones. 

Feeding.  It  is  best  to  feed  rabbits  three, 
or  even  four  times  a-day,  because  when  they 
are  fed  only  twiee  during  that  time,  a 
larger  quantity  of  food  must  be  given  at 
each  feeding,  which  is  too  often  wasted. 
ta  appear  to  relish  their  food  best 
when  given  in  small  quantities,  and  you 
will  soon  learn  how  much  to  give  at  each 
time  you  feed,  so  as  to  avoid  waste  and  yet 
for  the  rabbits  to  have  euough.  The  does 
must  be  well  kept,  as  we  have  just  said, 
both  before  and  after  they  have  young  ones, 
or  it  is  useless  to  expect  "their  produce  to  be 
vigorous  and  healthy.  A  doe  with  a  litter 
will  eat  twice  as  much  as  at  other  times, 
and  must  be  liberally  supplied  with  green 
food,  and  carrots  and  parsnips,  raw  or, 
boiled,  as  well  as  with  oats  and  hay.  A 
few  days  both  before  and  after  kittincj, 
every  evening,  we  give  to  our  does,  a  few 
table-spoonsful  of  gruel,  made  either  with 
Hour  or  oatmeal,  and  we  rind  this  a  good 
practice,  as  the  animal  appears  to  sutler 
a  jrood  deal  from  thirst,  about  that  period ; 
c;  re  must  be  taken  not  to  give  this  while  it 
is  hot,  nor  is  it  necessary  to  give  much 
when  there  is  an  abundance  of  green  meat 
A  little  cold  water,  or  milk  may  be  given 
instead  of  the  gruel ;  we  have  never  fouud 
it  to  hurt  any  of  our  rabbits. 

Young  rabbits  when  they  first  come  out 


to  feed  must  not  he  allowed  to  eat  the 
greens,  with  which  the  doe  is  supplied; 
but  they  may  nibble  at  carrots,  and  other 
roots,  and  at  the  little  twigs  we  have  men- 
tioned, and  gradually  be  accustomed  to 
partake  of  a  more  moist  diet.  # 

BbbeDTJTG.  Rabbits  begin  to  breed  when 
about  five  or  six  months  old,  and  will  give 
seven  or  eight  litters  in  the  year,  though  it 
ia  better  to  allow  them  only  to  have  five, 
as  too  frequent  breeding  is  injurious.  Iu 
thirty  days  after  being  with  the  buck,  the 
doe  produces  her  young.  A  few  days  before 
the  time,  some  hay  must  be  given  to  her, 
with  which  and  the  down  she  pulls  from 
her  fur,  she  will  construct  her  bed.  It  is 
always  a  sign  of  the  approaching  birth  of 
the  young  wlieu  she  begins  to  bite  down  the 
hay,  or  carry  it  about  in  her  mouth,  and  to 
tear  the  jflue  from  her  body.  There  are 
generally"  from  four  to  ten  young  ones, 
sometimes  more  ;  but  it  is  far  better  when 
the  doe  has  so  many,  to  keep  only  five  or 
six  of  the  finest,  they  will  then  grow  up 
strong  and  healthy,  and  the  doe  will  not  to 
so  much  weakened  as  if  all  had  been  pre- 
served. At  the  end  of  six  weeks  the  young 
brood  may  be  removed,  and  the  doe  and 
buck  come  together  again.  Great  care 
is  required  during  very  severe  weather,  to 
prevent  the  young  from  dying  with  cold ; 
and  for  this  reason  it  is  better  to  allow  the 
doe  to  rest  during  the  win  er.  The  best 
breeding  rabbits  are  said  to  be  those  pro- 
duced in  March. 

Fattening.  There  is  no  need  to  resort 
to  any  other  method  in  preparing  rabbits 
for  the  table,  than  to  give  them  as  much 
oats,  carrots,  and  green  loud  as  they  choose 
to  take ;  if  fattened  w  ith  corn  alone,  the 
tlesh  is  not  so  juicy  and  relishing,  as  when 
they  are  also  allowed  an  unlimited  quan- 
tity of  vegetables.  They  are  in  the  greatest 
perfection  from  about  three  to  seven  months 
old.  and  about  a  month's  feeding  as  advised 
will  make  them  thoroughly  fat,  provided 
they  have  not  been  hall-starved  previously. 
The  New  York  poulterers  exhibit  tine  speci- 
mens of  fatted  rabbbits  at  Christinas,  some 
we  have  seen  weighing  upwards  of  fifteen 
pounds ;  but  it  is  not  desirable  to  produce 
such  over-fat  animals,  whether  rabbits,  or 
oxen,  or  sheep. 

Diseases.  Rabbits  are  generally  very 
healthy,  and  hardy.  When  due  attention 
is  paid  to  their  food,  to  ventilation  and 
cleanliness,  few  animals  are  less  subject  to 
disease  ;  but,  as  in  all  other  cases,  tilth, 
foul  air,  aud  damp,  produce  disease  in 
rabbits.  Looseness,  which  may  be  seen 
by  the  dung  being  too  moist,  must  be  re- 


332 


PACTS  FOE  everybody: 


medied  by  dry  food,  such  as  crusts  of 
bread,  good  corn,  old  hay,  hard  biscuit, 
or  any  food  of  a  dry  quality.  The  rot 
may  be  said  to  be  incurable,  at  least  we 
have  found  it  so  with  young  rabbits.  The 
remedy  must  be  looked  for  in  dry  hutches, 
fresh  air,  and  substantial  food.  The  liver 
complaint,  another  disorder,  is  said  also  to 
be  incurable ;  but  a3  it  doe8  not  prevent 
the  rabbits  from  fattening,  the  best  course 
is  to  prepare  tbose  attacked  at  once  for  the 
table.  Snuffles  or  colds  may  be  cured  by 
removing  the  rabbit  from  the  damps  and 
draughts,  which  hare  produced  the  disorder, 
to  a  drier  and  warmer  place.    It  is  much 


easier  to  prevent  disease  than  to  cure. 
Cleanliness,  careful  attention,  dryness,  and 
Tegular  feeding  in  the  manner  we  have 
directed,  will,  in  general,  ensure  good 
health  in  the  rabbits,  and  entirely  prevent 
any  of  these  diseases. 

Profits.  Rabbits  are  really  profitable. 
Three  doe3  and  a  buck  will  give  you  a 
rabbit  to  cat  for  every  three  days  in  the 
year,  which  is  a  very  much  larger  quantity 
of  food  than  any  man  will  get  by  spending 
half  his  time  in  the  pursuit  of  wild  animals, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  toil,  the  tearing  of 
clothes;  and  the  danger  of  pursuing  the 
latter.  When  the  am" ring  fecundity  of  the 
rabbit  is  taken  into  account,  it  willreadily 
be  seen  tiiat  if  the  expense  of  food,  and 
management  can  be  kept  low,  a  great  profit 
may  be  obtained.  It  is  said,  that  from  a 
single  pair  of  rabbits,  the  prodigious  number 
of  one  million,  two-hundred  and  seventy- 
four  thousand,  eight  hundred  and  forty, 
may  be  produced  in  four  years,  supposing 


all  the  rabbits  to  live.  We  hare  shown  how 
the  least  possible  expense  as  to  food  may  be 
attained,  by  pointing  out  the  food  which 
costs  least,  and  vet  is  quite  suitable  for  the 
animals  ;  and  there  appears  to  be  no  good 
reason,  why,  a  person  living  in  the  country 
who  has  a  6hed  and  a  garden  should  not 


derire  adrantage  from  the  keeping  of 
rabbits,  and  when  the  care  of  them  can  be 
entrusted  to  a  bov,  the  cost  of  management 
would  of  course  be  diminished.  The  value 
of  the  dung,  either  for  sale,  or  for  the 
garden  is  considerable,  as  it  is  a  very  valu- 
able manure. 

PAINTING  (OIL).— We  begin  by  sup- 
posing that  you  can  draw — at  least,  that 
you  can  make  a  straight  line  (which,  in- 
deed, not  everyone  can  do)  —  and,  that 
you  can,  either  from  a  fair  knowledge  of 
perspective,  or  a  naturally  correct  eye, 
copy  any  object  in  the  room,  as  the 
books  on  the  table,  the  jar  of  flowers,  or 
the  coal-scuttle;  for,  though  a  person 
may,  without  being  able  to  draw  from  na- 
ture, produce  a  highly  finished  copy  of  a 
picture,  there  would  be  more  labour  than 
pleasure  in  the  task ;  while  an  original,  if 
only  a  wheel-barrow  and  besom,  grouped 
with  taste,  would  give  far  more  delight  in 
the  doing,  and  you  would  acquire  an  artistic 
freedom  of  hand  by  such  studies. 

In  the  next  place,  we  suppose  that  you 
can  see  colours  according  to  nature,  for 
many  persons  see  them  too  bright,  or  quite 
the  reverse  of  what  they  are. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  describe  the 
materials  actually  required  in  this  art.  If 
our  pupil  can  command  a  room  to  himself 
as  a  studio,  if  ever  so  small,  so  much  the 
better.  This,  however,  is  not  at  all  needful 
— a  moderate-sized  table  will  be  all  the 
space  he  requires  to  engross. 

An  easel,  palette,  palette-knife,  brushes, 
colours,  a  little  oil  and  varnish,  and  some 
prepared  mill-board,  are  all  that  is  neces- 
sary, and  they  are  not  very  expensive. 

As  a  large  easel  standing  on  the  ground 


A   MTSCELLANY   OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


333 


is  only  fit  f™*  ft  studio,  we  gWe  a  sketch  of  a 
"table -easel,"  which  is  both  simple  and 
portable,   and  may  be  made  by  any  car- 


penter; it  will  fold  up  quite  flat,  and  pack 
at  the  bottom  of  a  box.  It  is  18  inches 
high,  15  wide  at  the  base,  7  wide  at  the 
top,  20  long  for  the  leg,  22  for  the  stand; 
this  is  provided  with  holes,  and  the  leg  has 
an  iron  point  at  the  end,  which  fits  into  the 
holes,  and  regulates  the  inclination  of  the 
easel.  A  loose  grooved  bai  of  wood,  about 
18  inches  long,  rests  on  2  pegs,  which  are 
placed  in  the  holes  in  from;  of  the  easel  ; 
this  supports  the  picture. 

The  palette  should  be  made  of  mahogany, 
of  an  oblong  shape,  and  light  in  weight. 

The  palette-knife  to  mix  the  colours 
should  be  pliant  and  well-tempered. 

The  brushes  we  recommend  are,  two  flat 
hog's  hair  brushes  in  tin,  Nos.  2  and  7; 
two  flat  sable  brushes  in  tin,  Nos.  4  and  8; 
three  round  sable  brushes,  Nos.  1,  4,  and  6. 

These  seven  tools  will  be  amply  sufficient 
to  begin  with,  but  some  camel-hair  ones, 
in  quills,  the  same  as  those  used  in  water- 
colour  drawing,  may  be  added;  they  are 
very  cheap.  A  brush  called  a  "badger 
softener"  is  of  use  in  painting  skies,  but 
they  are  expensive,  and  may  be  dispensed 
with  at  first. 

The  colours  are  enclosed  in  air-tight 
metal  tubes,  and  the  capsule  being  un- 
screwed, you  squeeze  the  colour  up  from 
the  bottom  of  the  tubes.  "We  give  a  list  of 
the  most  useful  colours,  and  from  which 
almost  any  picture  may  be  painted.  Of 
these,  the  first  six  are  opaque,  and  the  re- 
mainder transparent;  we  wish  the  pupil  to 
bear  this  in  mind. 

1.  Flake  white;  2.  Naples  yellow;  3. 
Light  red;  4.  Indian  red;  5.  Vermilion; 
6.  Terra  verte ;  7.  Burnt  umber;  8.  Raw 
sienna ;  9.  Burnt  sienna ;  10.  Antwerp 
blue  ;  11.  Ivory  black. 

There  are  also  some  extra  colours,  which 
are  of  higher  price,  and  used  in  finishing ; 

16" 


these  are,  French  ultramarine,  and  madder 
lake.  These  are  verv  beautiful,  and  are 
chiefly  used  in  sky  tints,  and  in  delicate 
flesh  tints. 

The  price  of  the  tubes  of  paint  is  s  xpenre 
each,  that  of  the  extra  colours  one  aid 
sixpence  each;  but  they  last  for  a  lonj, 
time. 

Of  oils  and  varnish,  you  require  some  raw 
linseed  oil,  some  light  drying  oil,  a  bottle 
of  mastic  varnish,  a  little  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine, and  a  little  olive  or  eating  oil. 

The  prepared  millboards  for  Minting  on 
are  of  all  sizes,  from  six  inches  by  eight,  to 
24  by  20,  and  the  prices  are  from  sixpence 
to  three  shillings  each.  Academy  boards 
are  similar,  but  thinner  and  cheaper,  and 
may  easily  be  cut  to  what  size  you  like. 
Oil  sketching-paper  (which  is  only  drawing- 
paper  covered  with  two  or  three  coats  of 
paint)  is  cheaper  still,  and  for  first  trials  is 
very  useful.  It  must  be  fastened  with 
drawing-pins  to  a  board  when  used,  or  if  a 
very  small  sketch,  it  may  merely  rest  on  a 
board  or  a  book.  We  prefer  these  boards 
to  canvas,  which  is  dear,  and  requires  to 
be  put  on  a  stretching  frame.  With  the 
addition  of  a  small  tin  "dipper,"  or  galli- 
pot, and  a  few  clean  rags,  our  materials  are 
complete  ;  and  we  trust  in  the  next  chapter 
to  explain  to  our  friends  the  manner  of 
using  them. 

Second  Article.  The  palette  must  be 
prepared  for  use  by  rubbing  into  it  as  much 
raw  linseed  oil  as  it  will  absorb;  repeat  this 
for  two  or  three  days,  and  then  rub  it  dry 
with  a  rag.  It  will  now  have  a  fine  polished 
surface,  and  the  colour  will  not  sink  into  it. 
Your  subject  must  be  sketched  on  the 
millboard,  before  you  begin  your  painting 
operations — a  fine  light  pencil  is  best  for 
small  pictures,  but  dialk  or  charcoal  is 
generally  used  for  large  subjects.  A  wet 
rag  is  better  than  India-rubber  for  correct- 
ing mistakes.  Let  your  lines  be  as  few  and 
light  as  possible,  and  make  the  drawing 
very  carefully,  that  you  may  not  be  troubled 
with  alterations  when  you  begin  to  paint. 

You  now  mix  up  in  the  dipper  (which  is 
a  little  tin  cup,  made  to  fix  on  the  palette, 
though  a  pomade-pot  with  a  cover  does 
quite  as  well)  the  "  Vehicle"  which  is  a 
preparation  of  oil  and  varnish,  used  to  tem- 
per the  colours  and  make  them  work  plea- 
santly. There  are  many  kinds  of  "vehicles," 
ami  artists  differ  greatly  in  their  choice. 
That  known  as  "  Meglip*  is  what  we  ad- 
vise, and  is  made  by  mixing  equal  parts  of 
the  mastic  varnish,  and  light  drying  oil; 
stir  it  for  a  few  moments,  and  it  will  become 
a  kind  of  jelly.    Make  no  more  than  you 


334 


FACTS  for  everybody: 


require  for  your  day's  painting  ;  half  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  each  is  enough. 

You  now  "  set  your  palette"  as  it  is 
termed  ;  that  is,  you  squeeze  out  of  the 
tubes  portions  of  colour  about  the  size  of  a 
nut,  and  lay  them  along  the  upper  edge  of 
the  palette,  beginning  from  the  thumb-side 
in  the  following  order  —  white,  Naples 
yeitow,  raw  sienna,  burnt  sienna,  light  red, 
Indian  red,  vermilion,  terra  verte,  umber, 
blue,  and  black.  You  have  thus  ample 
space  for  mixing,  with  the  knife,  the  various 
tints  on  the  lower  part  of  the  palette.  The 
-lighter  tints  are  generally  placed  on  the 
right-hand  side  of  the  palette.  White  or 
black  is  usually  combined  with  all  colours, 
as  they  are  required  lighter  or  darker.  To 
make  any  tint,  take  on  the  point  of  the 
knife  a  small  portion  of  meglip,  and  the 
colours  you  want,  mix  them  on  the  palette, 
scrape  them  up,  and  lay  in  giadations. 
The  following  is  a  set  of  flesh-tints  for  a 
head  or  figure  . — 

LIGHTS.— "White  and  a  little  Naples  yel- 
low ;  white,  Naples  yellow,  and  vermilion; 
white,  vermilion,  or  light  red. 

Middle  Tints.  White,  black,  and  ver- 
milion; white,  black,  and  Indian  red; 
white,  terra  verte,  and  a  little  vermilion. 

Shadow  Tint.  Black,  Indian  red,  and  a 
little  umber. 

The  tint  of  pearly  blue  we  see  under  the 
eye  is  produced  by  white,  vermilion,  and 
ultramarine.  For  the  greenish  shade  on 
the  forehead  and  complexions  of  sallow  per- 
sons, the  terra  verte  tint  is  beautiful. 

Having  the  palette  now  set,  you  are  all 


POETABLE    TABLE-EASEL, 


ready  to  begin  to  paint.  Place  your  picture 
at  a  convenient  height,  so  that  you  mav  not 
stoop  to  it;  the  left  hand  holds  the  palette, 
and  the  "  rest,  or  nwhl  stick  "  on  which  you 
support  the  right  hand,  as  shown  in  the  en- 
graving. The  hands  should  be  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  body,  and  the  artist  should 
sit  rather  erect,  so  there  is  no  danger  of  in- 
juring the  chest.  It  is  bitter  to  copy  at  first 
from  a  painting,  matching  the  tints  as  nearly 
as  possible,  by  holding  them  close  to  the 
original,  on  the  knife.  It  is,  however,  very 
good  practice  to  copy  from  engravings, 
where  the  artist  must  use  his  owu  taste  iu 
the  colouring. 

We  will  imagine  a  sketch  of  a  "  little 
shrimper,"  and  will  now  direct  our  pupil 
liow  to  paint  it  throughout ;  it  is  an  easy 
study,  and  will  make  a  pleasing  picture. 


The  sky  round  the  head,  cool  gray  cloud, 
composed  of  black,  white,  and  vermilion ; 
above  the  cloud  a  little  blue  sky  of  ultrama- 
rine and  white,  and  a  few  streaks  of  white, 
Naples  yellow,  and  vermilion  at  the  horizon. 
The  distant  hill — shades  of  white,  black, 
and  vermilion  ;  the  nearer  rocks — shades  of 
white,  black,  and  raw  sienna ;  the  ground, 
or  shore — raw  umber,  white,  or  raw  sienna, 
white,  and  black  ;  the  lightest  part  of  the 
sea — black,  white,  and  Naples  yellow,  melt- 
ing off  to  black,  and  white,  and  a  little 
blue;  the  pool  of  water  in  the  foreground — 
black,  white,  burnt  sienna,  and  a  little  gray 
in  the  lights  (as  the  reflection  of  the  sky)  ; 
the  basket  and  net — black,  umber,  or  sienna; 
the  face,  hands,  and  legs  may  be  painted 
with  the  flesh  tints,  and  a  little  Indian  red 
and  vermilion  for  the  lips,  and  black  and 
burnt  sienna  for  the  eyes  ;  the  cap — for  the 
darks,  Indian  red,  black  ;  middle  tint — ver- 
milion, Indian  red  ;  high  light — vermilion 
and  white.  For  the  fold  of  white  round  the 
neck — white,  subdued  with  umber ;  for  the 


A    MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


335 


iecket — raw  sienna,  burnt  sienna,  and  blaek 
IH  the  shadow,  and  raw  sienna  and  white  in 
the  lifchl  ;  for  the  trowsers — tints  (if  blue 
and  black,  and  blue  and  white;  for  the 
boots— Idaek  and  a  little  Indian  red,  with 
white  touched  of  light. 

Paint  in  the  sky  first  with  a  Hat  sable 
brush,  not  overloaded  with  eolour,  and  rub 
it  well  in,  so  M  to  have  no  thick  patches  of 
colour  on  the  board — soften  with  a  hog's- 
hair  tool.  The  distance  must  also  he  painted 
with  little  body  of  paint.  With  a  small 
brush  lay  in  the  face,  the  eye,  and  the  dark 
parts  first,  with  more  colour  in  your  brush 
than  for  the  sky ;  then  work  downwards  at 
the  dress,  &c,  finishing  as  correctly  as  you 
can,  laying  on  the  lights  with  a  fiat  sable, 
and  with  thicker  colour  on  the  shadows  The 
net  must  be  painted  with  thin  colour  over 
the  sky.  This  finishes  the  irst  painting,  or 
"dead  colouring,"  as  it  is  called.  When 
quite  dry  (which  in  summer  time  will  be  in 
a  day  or  two,  but  in  damp  weather  longer), 
wa&fa  it  with  cold  water,  and  dry  it  with  a 
soft  cloth  ;  this  is  to  prevent  the  colours  from 
running  and  working  as  if  they  were  greasy, 
when  you  begin  to  paint  again.  Hub  over 
the  paits  you  intend  to  paint,  with  a  brush 
wet  with  a  little  linseed  or  oil  or  meglip,  so 
as  to  leave  the  least  possible  quantity  on  the 
painting.  This  makes  the  colours  combine 
with  the  first  painting,  and  also  enables  you 
to  wipe  them  entirely  off,  if  you  cannot 
succeed  to  your  mind,  while  the  previous 
•work  remains  as  it  was. 

Go  over  the  painting  with  the  same  tints 
as  in  the  dead  colouring,  correcting,  improv- 
ing, and  softening,  marking  the  high  lights 
rather  lighter,  laying  them  on  with  spirited 
touches,  and  with  rather  stiff  colour. 

For  the  third,  or  last  painting,  when  per- 
fectly dry,  wash  and  oil  as  before,  and  touch 
up,  where  it  is  needed,  with  the  delicate 
flesh  tints,  adding  a  little  madder  lake  on 
the  cheeks. 

The  "glazing"  is  put  on  at  this  stage  of 
the  picture — that  is,  laying  some^ transpa- 
rent colour,  mixed  only  with  meglip,  over 
any  part,  to  enrich  andgive  it  depth ;  thus, 
some  burnt  sienna,  glazed  over  the  red  cap, 
will  have  a  very  good  effect.  It  must  be 
put  on  sparingly,  so  as  to  see  the  former 
paintings  through  it,  and  even  taken  off 
entirely  with  a  rag  or  the  finger,  in  some 
places,  as  on  the  highest  light.  In  the  same 
manner  may  the  jacket  be  glazed  with  burnt 
sienna,  the  trowsers  with  blue,  and  a  little 
madder  lake  in  the  shadows,  to  enrich  them. 

We  will  now  give  a  few  general  hints  on 
working  up  a  painting  : — 

Lay  your  colours  on  steadily  and  boldly, 


with  as  few  strokes  of  the  brush  as  you  can 
help.     Keep  your  tints  pure  and  distinct, 

each  in  i  he  place  you  mean  it  to  be.  Do  not, 
by  going  over  and  over  them  with  the  brush 
more  than  you  can  avoid,  muddle  and  mix 
the  tints,  for  some  tints  destroy  each  other, 
and  the  transparency  and  beauty  of  the 
painting  will  be  lost.  In  softening  or  uni- 
ting two  tints,  it  is  best  either  to  use  an 
intermediate  shade,  or  else,  with  a  clean 
brush  and  no  colour,  to  melt  them  together. 
Much  depends  on  the  first  painting.  It  should 
be  lighter  in  colour  than  the  picture  is  in- 
tended to  be,  as  all  colours  sink,  more  or 
less,  into  the  ground  as  they  dry,  and  it  can 
easily  be  glazed  and  toned  down  to  the 
proper  colour.  The  shadows  should  be  put 
on  thin  in  eolour,  the  lights  with  a  greater 
body  of  paint,  with  a  sharp  and  firm  touch. 
The  brightest  lights  may  be  painted  quite 
white,  and  glazed  to  the  intended  hue  ;  but, 
though  beautiful  effects  are  produced  by 
glazing,  it  is  dangerous  for  the  student  to 
be  too  free  in  the  use  of  it.  Be  as  careful 
as  you  can  in  the  earlier  paintings ;  for  it  ia 
impossible  to  glaze  a  bad  picture  into  a  good 
one. 

"Scumbling"  is  the  reverse  of  glazing, 
and  is  done  by  going  over  the  painting  when 
quite  dry,  with  opaque  tints  of  a  lighter 
hue,  generally  with  a  mixture  of  white.  It 
is  of  use  in  cooling  down  colours  that  are 
too  bright,  and  in  making  objects  appear 
more  distant ;  smoke,  mists,  and  the  hazi- 
ness of  the  far-off  hills,  are  thus  produced. 
It  should  be  laid  on  very  thinly  with  a  hog's- 
hair  tool.  Scumbling,  however,  must  not 
go  over  shadows,  as  that  would  spoil  their 
depth. 

In  painting  a  head,  begin  with  the  eyes 
and  nose,  then  the  forehead,  mouth,  cheeks, 
and  hair;  then  go  to  the  background,  com- 
mencing at  the  top  of  the  picture,  and  work- 
ing down  to  the  head.  Backgrounds  are 
very  various,  but  there  is  generally  a  little 
lightish  tint  near  the  face,  which  melts  off 
into  deep  shadow  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
picture.  In  black  hair,  or  draperies,  mix  a 
little  Indian  red,  to  give  a  warmth  and  har- 
mony. A  brilliant  effect  is  produced  by  some 
painters,  who  lay  the  first  colouring  of  a 
head  in  gray  tints  only,  composed  of  black, 
white,  and  Indian  red,  of  different  shades, 
using  pure  white  for  the  high  lights;  and, 
when  dry,  glaze  it  all  over  with  madder  lake 
and  raw  sienna;  then  put  on  the  carnation 
tints,  and  point  up  the  shadows  with  burnt 
sienna  and  black.  This  would  answer  best 
for  a  large  head,  and  is  only  one  of  the  va- 
garies in  which  artists  indulge.  Let  a  be- 
ginner get  the  picture  as  like  the  copy  as 


S36 


FACTS   FOR  FVFTVTRODY  : 


possible  in  the  first  painting,  though  rather 
lighter  in  tone. 

During  the  progress  of  the  work,  fre- 
quently retire  and  look  at  it  from  a  distance, 
to  judge  of  the  effect;  to  examine  it  also  in 
a  looking-glass  is  a  good  plan  to  detect  any 
faults  in  the  drawing.  If  you  are  copying 
from  anything  in  nature,  cither  landscape 
or  figure,  look  at  it  occasionally  with  the  eyes 
half-closed,  or  through  a  tube  or  roll  of 
paper;  the  lights  and  shadows  will  by  this 
means  appear  more  distinct  and  defined,  and 
the  object  more  raised,  and  be  more  easily 
copied. 

In  our  next  chapter,  we  hope  to  give  our 
readers  a  few  hints  on  landscape  jointing, 
together  with  the  choice  of  subjects,  aud 
the  arrangement  of  a  picture,  &c. 

Third  Article.  As  Landscape  Paint- 
ing is  one  of  the  most  favourite  branches 
of  the  art,  so  it  is  one  of  the  easiest ;  for, 
while  keening  the  general  outline  of  a  view, 
Ave  can  allow  ourselves  much  latitude  in 
details :  we  may  make  our  trees  more  full 
in  leaf,  our  rooks  more  moss-grown,  our 
rivers  more  clear,  and  either  bathe  our 
scene  in  the  golden  light  of  sunset,  or  make 
it  solemn  with  "  dark  driving  clouds," 
without  in  anyway  affecting  the  truthful- 
ness of  the  scene: 

The  hints  which  we  will  give  shall  apply 
to  any  style  of  landscape. 

The  sky  is  always  put  in  first,  beginning 
with  the  blue  of  the  sky,  and  working 
downwards  with  the  various  tints,  be  they 
golden  or  gray,  according  to  the  aspect  you 
have  chosen.  In  a  clear  unclouded  sky, 
the  blue  is  deepest  above  our  heads,  and 
melts  off  to  the  homon,  till  it  becomes  a 
tender  gray.  Ultramarine  and  white  is  the 
purest  sky  tint,  and  a  little  black  and 
vermilion  combined  with  it,  gives  the  most 
beautiful  grays.  Clouds  are  painted  over 
the  clear  sky  with  deeper  shades  of  gray,  or 
with  a  little  umber  mixed  with  it ;  their 
bright  edges  are  put  on  after  the  work  is 
dry,  and  may  be  pure  white  or  some 
f  esh-coloured  tint,  according  to  the  reilec- 
tton  of  the  sun.  Lay  the  colour  on  spa- 
ringly with  one  of  the  larger  brushes,  in 
touches  or  pats,  from  left  to  right,  begin- 
ning from  the  left-hand  corner  of  the 
picture.  The  distances  are  put  in  with  the 
gray  sky  tints,  but  a  little  darker  in  tone. 
The  sky  and  distance  should  be  softened 
with  a  large  brush,  and  allowed  to  dry 
before  proceeding  to  the  other  parts. 

Trees,  if  thin  of  leaf,  and  showing  much 
light  through  them,  should  be  painted  over 
the  sky,  otherwise  they  may  be  laid  in  at 
once,  in  masses  of  light  and  "shade,  and  the 


leaves  made  over  them  when  dry,  with  little 
touches  of  the  brush,  and  rather  thicker 
colour.  There  are  many  different  "touches" 
for  foliage,  and  it  requires  a  little  practice 
to  get  the  habit  of  doing  it  well ;  some,  with 
a  fine  brush  with  plenty  of  colour  in  it,  make 
a  kind  of  little  loop,  as  if  they  were  going 
to  write  the  letters  0  or  C ;  this  leaves  an 
oval,  full  touch.  Sometimes  a  brush  is 
crushed  flat  upon  the  colour,  and  stabbed 
on  the  painting,  this  leaves  a  star-like 
touch.  Or  an  old  hog  or  flat  sable  brush, 
with  the  hairs  worn,  and  of  different  lengths, 
is  used  for  a  jagged  foliage.  These  various 
touches  may  be  pointed  up  and  corrected  by 
a  tine  brush.  The  receding  parts  of  ths 
foliage  and  the  leaves  that  come  against  the 
sky,  are  painted  with  thin,  transparent 
colour,  with  a  small  tool ;  the  light  touches 
with  opaque  tints.  Foliage  should  not  be 
made  of  too  glaring  a  green.  A  good  set  of 
tints  is  made  of  blue,  raw  sienna,  and  white, 
blue  and  burnt  sienna  :  and  for  light  touches, 
raw  sienna  and  white,  or  Naples  yellow 
alone;  for  the  dark  shadows  no  blue  is 
needed ;  shades  of  black  and  raiv  and  burnt 
sienna  give  a  warm  olive  tone.  The  lights 
may  be  glazed  with  sienna  and  a  little  blue 
to  enrich  them.  You  may  produce  the 
rough  bark  of  near  trees  by  painting  the 
trunks  rather  dark,  and  putting  over  rugged, 
uneven  touches  of  lightish  gray,  with  a 
very  full  brush,  and  glazing  it  when  dry 
with  black  and  burnt  sienna.  For  trees 
which  are  at  some  distance,  and  whose 
foliage  appeals  of  a  grayish  yellow  cast, 
use  black,  Naples  yellow,  and  white;  for 
very  distant  trees,  add  the  French  blue  and  a 
little  light  red,  to  give  the  atmospheric  tint. 
The  foreground  must  be  painted^  with 
stronger  colours,  larger  brushes,  and  bolder 
touches.  For  stalks  of  grass  and  weeds,  a 
fine-pointed  brush  is  used,  and  jerked  up- 
wards, which  gives  a  spirited  touch.  For 
flat  rocks  or  stones  the  lights  are  sometimes 
put  on  with  the  palette  knife,  the  colour 
being  taken  on  the  knife,  and  laid  upon  the 
picture,  in  the  manner  (to  use  a  homely 
simile)  of  spreading  bread  and  butter  ;  but 
as  a  nervous  hand  would  most  likely  fail  in 
this,  the  brush  is  the  safest  for  a  beginner. 
The  foreground  shadows  should  be  glazed 
with  rich  "tones  of  browns  and  olives.  When 
the  painting  is  finished  to  your  mind,  by 
touching  upon  it  here  and  there  (though 
you  must  be  careful  not  to  do  too  much, 
and  spoil  the  spirit  of  it),  you  may  scumble 
the  distances ;  and  the  6ky,  if  too  blue,  with 
white  alone,  or  a  gray  tint ;  this  gives  a 
misty  softness  to  the  whole,  and  brings  it 
to  a  conclusion. 


A    MISCELLANY    OF   USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


337 


We  have  thus  given  a  few  general  rules 
for  landscape  painting,  which  is  all  we  can 
do,  nature's  tints  being  innumerable.    Try 

on  your  palette  different  combinations  of 
colour,  and  yen  may  find  out  some  beautiful 
tints  yourself ;  and  if  you  see  any  peculiar 
light  Or  shade  In  your"  walks,  try  and  dis- 
cover the  colours  it  is  composed  of—  indeed, 
a  painter  should  be  always  looking  out  for 
effects,  always  trying  to  leani  something 
fresh  from  Nature  herself,  and  every  day 
the  study  will  become  more  interesting. 

We  must  notforget  to  give  some  directions 
for  cleaning  up,  on  which  all  your  comfort 
in  painting  depends,  if  not  much  of  the 
beauty  of  the  picture.  Never  leave  your 
tools  uncleancd  till  next  day;  the  paint 
will  dry  on  the  palette,  and  the  oil  in  the 
brushes,  and  soon  quite  spoil  them.  Take 
up,  on  the  knife,  all  the  bits  of  pure  colour 
you  have  to  spare,  and  lay  them  on  a  plate; 
pour  over  them  as  much  cold  water  as  will 
cover  them,  and  they  will  keep  several 
days  soft  and  workable.  Scrape  oft'  the 
palette  all  the  waste  colour  and  oil;  wipe 
it  with  a  rag ;  pour  on  it  some  linseed  oil, 
in  which  clean  all  the  colour  out  of  the 
brushes,  wiping  them,  now  and  then,  with 
a  rag ;  dip  them  in  clean  oil,  which  is  to 
remain  in  them.  Wipe  the  dirty  oil  off  the 
palette ;  put  a  little  fresh  on  it,  and  rub  it 
clean  and  dry.  Be  careful  to  keep  it,  and 
also  the  brushes,  from  dust.  If  some  days 
are  likely  to  elapse  between  your  paintings, 
clean  the  brushes  with  spirits  of  turpentine, 
and  dip  them  into  olive  oil,  they  may  then 
be  left  for  a  fortnight  without  getting  stiff,  ■ 
or  u  tacky"—  the  turpentine  must  be  all  | 
wiped  from  them,  or  it  will  eat  away  the  i 
hair.  Wash  the  hog  tools  in  soap  and 
water — warm  is  best — dry  them  bv  rubbing 
lightly  and  quickly  over  a  cloth.  After 
using  oils  or  varnish,  wipe  the  mouth  of  the  | 
bottles,  to  prevent  the  corks  sticking  fast; 
wipe  the  tubes,  too.  after  using,  that  they 
may  screw  properly.  All  this  may  be 
speedily  done  with  plenty  of  rags  (old 
stockings  make  the  best)  and  a  newspaper 
underneath,  with  very  slight  soiling  of  the 
fingers. 

Having  now  earned  you  through  the 
practical  part,  we  will  speak  of  the  sub- 
jects most  suitable  for  the  pencil.  The 
various  branches  of  art  are  divided  as 
follows : — 

The  histro-icol,  or  grand  style,  which 
includes  historical,  classical,  and  Scriptural 
subjects ;  this  is  the  highest  branch,  and 
few  can  hope  to  arrive  at  excellence  in  it ;  as 
it  not  only  requires  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
anatomy,'but  a  fertile  and  well-stored  mind. 


Portrait  painting  is  a  delightful  field  for 
the  pencil,  and  affords  more  pleasure  than 
almost   any   other    branch.      Moreover,  it  is 
!  not  much  more  ditlieult  to  copy  a  head  from 
nature  than  from  another  painting     Per- 
suade   some    friend    who  is  good-natured 
I  enough  to  submit  to  he  caricatured,  or  made 
I  hideous  for  the  first  few  trials,  to  sit  to  you, 
;  and  you  will  soon  find  it  become  easy.     An 
old  person's    face,    with    strongly-marked 
features,   is  the   best  study—  children    and 
young  people  are  more  troublesome*  as  to 
expression. 

Landscape  which  includes  Marine  sub- 
jects, is  a  most  popular  style,  and  on  a 
small  scale,  one  of  the  most  suitable  for 
ladies. 

BACKGAMMON.  Backgammon  is  the 
modern  name  of  a  game  of  considerable  an- 
tiquity in  England,  where  it  was  formerly 
known  by  the  appellation  of  "the  tables." 
The  words  back-gammonha\e  been  ascribed 
to  the  Welsh  tongue,  in  which  they  arc  said 
to  signify  little  battle;  but  Strutt,  with 
greater  plausibility,  traces  the  term  to  the 
Saxon  "  bac  and  gamvn — that  is,  back-game 
— so  denominated  because  the  performance 
consists  in  the  two  players  bringing  their 
men  back  from  their  antagonist's  tables 
into  their  own ;  or  because  the  pieces  are 
sometimes  taken  up  and  obliged  to  go  back 
— that  is,  re-enter  at  the  table  they  came 
from."  Whatever  be  the  etymology  of  the 
term,  the  game  has  been  long  established 
in  the  country;  and,  as  a  fireside  amuse- 
ment of  a  decorous  and  exciting  nature,  is  a 
favourite  among  clergymen,  squires,  farmers, 
and  retired  professional  persons. 
W 


The  Backgammon  Table. 
Backgammon  is  played  with  an  apparatus 


S'Sb 


FACTS  FOR   EVERYBODY: 


consisting  of  a  board  or  tables,  men  or 
pieces,  dice,  and  dice-boxes.  The  introduc- 
tion of  dice  into  the  game,  and  their  con- 
stant use  in  determining  moves,  makes 
backgammon  essentially  a  game  of  chance, 
and  therefore  brings  two  players  of  unequal 
talents  nearer  a  level  than  other  diversions 
in  which  skill  is  the  sole  or  predominant 
element. 

The  backgammon  board  consists  of  two 
parts  or  tables,  generally  united  by  a  hinge 
in  the  middle,  by  which  they  can  be  shut 
up  as  a  box.  Each  table  possesses  twelve 
points,  six  at  each  end.  These  points  are 
coloured  white  and  black  alternately ;  but 
this  variation  of  colour  has  no  reference  to 
the  game,  and  is  only  done  to  make  the 
points  more  easily  counted. 

The  game  is  played  by  two  parties,  and 
with  thirty  pieces  or  men;  each  party  has 
fifteen  men,  one  set  of  fifteen  beintr  black, 
and  the  other  white.  In  beginning  the 
game,  the  men  are  placed  on  certain  points  on 
the  tables,  as  shewn  in  the  foregoing  tigure. 

The  game  is  played  with  two  dice  and 
two  dice-boxes.  The  dice  are  common  to 
both  ;  but  each  party  uses  his  own  dice-box, 
and  the  throws  are  alternate. 

Each  dice  is  a  perfect  cube,  marked  on 
its  sides  with  dots  from  one  to  six.  The 
one  is  called  ace  ;  the  two,  deuce  ;  the  three, 
tre,  or  Irois  ;  the  four,  quatre ;  the  five, 
cinque;  and  the  six,  size.  At  every  throw 
the  two  dice  are  employed  ;  consequently,  a 
person  may  throw  from  two  up  to  twelve — 
that  is  two  aces  up  to  two  sizes. 

If  a  player  throw  doublets,  or  both  dice  of 
one  number,  double  the  number  of  dots  is 
reckoned  ;  thus,  by  a  throw  of  two  aces,  the 
player  does  not  count  two,  but  four. 

These  numbers  thrown,  or  accidentally 
turned  up  by  the  dice,  bear  a  reference  to 
the  points  on  the  tables.  In  order  to  un- 
derstand this  connection  between  the  dice 
and  the  men,  the  learner  must  observe  how 
the  men  are  placed  on  the  points,  and  the 
rules  by  which  their  shifting  from  one  to 
another  is  governed. 

The  tables  are  here  spread  out  as  if  two 
partners  were  seated,  and  about  to  begin  to 
play.  The  party  owning  the  white  men  is 
seated  at  W,  and  the  party  owning  the 
black  men  at  B.  We  shall  call  one  party 
White  and  another  Black.  White  counts 
round  from  the  ace-point  of  Black,  and 
Black  counts  round  from  the  ace-point  of 
White.  These  ace-poi.its  are  respectively 
seen  to  have  two  men  upon  them  in  oppo- 
site corners  of  the  same  table. 

The  grand  object  of  the  game  is  for  each 
party  to  get  all  his  men  played  round  into 


the  table  containing  the  aces,  removing 
them  from  point  to  point  agreeable  to  the 
throws  of  the  dice. 

In  throwing,  the  number  upon  each  die 
turned  up  may  be  reckoned  by  itself,  or 
collectively,  with  the  number  on  th<» 
other  die.  Thus,  if  quatre  be  thrown  by 
one  die,  and  size  by  the  other,  a  man  can  be 
advanced  four  points,  and  another  six  points; 
or oneman  can  be  advanced  ten  points,  always 
providing  that  a  point  is  open  to  suit  this 
movement  to  it.  No  point  can  be  moved  to 
if  covered  by  two  men  belonging  to  the  ad- 
versary. If  covered  by  only  one  man, 
which  is  called  a  blot,  then  that  man  can 
be  hit,  and  be  removed  from  the  point,  and 
placed  on  the  bar  between  the  tables,  his 
place  being  taken  by  the  man  who  has  won  it. 

The  removal  of  a  man  to  the  bars  throws 
a  player  considerably  behind  in  the  game, 
because  the  man  must  remain  out  of  the 
play  till  the  dice  turn  up  a  certain  number 
corresponding  to  one  open  point  on  the  ad- 
versary's table.  Being  fortunate  to  get  an 
open  p'dnt  by  this  means,  the  man  must  be 
entered  and  wrought  round  from  thence,  as 
in  the  case  of  others  in  the  set  to  which  he 
belongs.  The  frequent  occurrence  of  this 
hitting  of  a  blot  gives  an  adversary  a  great 
advantage,  and  allows  him  to  win  the  gam- 
mon. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  victory — winning 
the  hit,  and  winning  the  gammon.  The 
party  who  has  played  all  his  men  round 
into  his  own  table,  and  by  fortunate  throws 
of  the  dice  has  borne  or  played  the  men  off 
the  point  first,  wins  the  hit. 

The  gammon  may  be  explained  as  fol- 
lows :  When  you  have  got  all  your  men 
round  to  your  own  table,  covering  every 
point,  and  your  adversary  has  a  man  out, 
then  you  are  enabled  to  bear  or  lift  your 
men  away.  If  you  can  bear  all  away,  so  as 
to  clear  your  table  before  the  adversary 
gets  his  man  placed  by  a  throw  on  your 
tablf,  you  win  the  gammon.  If  the  adver- 
sary has  been  able  to  bear  one  before  you 
have  borne  all  your  men,  it  reduces  the 
victory  to  a  hit. 

Two  hits  are  reckoned  equal  to  one  gam- 
mon in  playing  matches.  To  win  two 
games  out  of  three  is  called  winning  the 
rub,  as  at  whist. 

Hoyle's  Directions  for  Bearing  Men;. 
— If  a  player  has  taken  up  two  of  the  ad- 
versary's men,  and  happens  to  have  two, 
three,  or  ,more  points  made  in  his  own 
tables,  he  should  spread  his  men,  that  he 
either  may  take  a  new  point  in  his  tables, 
or  be  ready  to  hit  the  man  which  the  adver- 
sary may  happen  to  enter.    If  he  finds, 


A   MISCELLANY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


339 


upon  the  adversary's  entering,  that  the 
game  is  upon  a  par,  or  that  the  advantage 
mod  his  own  side,  he  should  take  the  ad- 
versary's man  up  whenever  he  can,  it  being 
twenty-five  to  eleven  that  he  is  not  liit;  ex- 
cept when  he  is  playing:  for  a  tingle  hit 
only;  then,  if  playing  the  throw  otherwise 
gives  him  a  better  chance  for  it,  he  ought 
to  do  it. 

It  being  five  to  one  against  his  heing  hit 
with  double  dice,  lie  should  never  be  de- 
terred from  takiug  up  any  one  man  of  the 
adversary's. 

If  he  has  taken  up  one  of  the  adversary's 
men,  and  should  happen  to  have  five  points 
in  his  own  tables,  and  forced  to  leave  a  blot 
out  of  his  tables,  he  should  endeavour  to 
leave  it  upon  doublets  preferable  to  any 
other  chance,  because  in  that  case  the  odds 
are  thirty-five  to  one  that  he  is  not  hit; 
whereas  it  is  only  seventeen  to  one  that  he 
is  hit  upon  any  other  chance. 

When  the  adversary  is  very  forward,  a 
player  should  never  move  a  man  from  his 
quatre,  trois,  or  deuce  points,  thinking  to 
hear  that  man  from  the  point  where  he  put 
it,  as  nothing  but  high  doublets  can  give 
him  any  chance  for  the  hit.  Instead  of 
playing  an  ace  or  a  deuce  from  any  of  those 
points,  he  should  play  them  from  his  own 
size  or  highest  points  ;  so  that  throwing 
two  fives  or  two  fours,  his  size  and  cinque 
points  heing  eased,  would  be  a  considerable 
advantage  to  him;  whereas,  had  they  been 
loaded,  he  must  have  been  obliged  to  play 
otherwise. 

It  is  the  interest  of  the  adversary  to  take 
np  the  pla\er  as  soon  as  he  enters.  The 
blot  should  be  left  upon  the  adversary's 
lowest  point — that  is  to  say,  upon  his  deuce- 
point  rather  than  upon  his  trois-point ;  or 
upon  his  trois-point  rather  than  upon  his 

51  uatre-point :  or  upon  his  quatre  point  pre- 
erable  to  his  cinque-point — for  a  reason 
be/ore  mentioned  :  all  the  men  the  adver- 
sary plays  upon  his  trois  or  his  deuce-points 
are  deenit  d  lost,  being  greatly  out  of  play  ; 
so  that  those  men,  not  having  it  in  their 
power  to  make  his  cinque-point,  and  his 
game  being  crowded  in  one  place,  and  open 
m  another,  the  adversary  must  be  greatly 
annoyed  by  the  player. 

If  the  player  has  two  of  the  adversary's 
men  in  his  tables,  he  has  a  better  chance 
for  ■  hit  than  if  he  had  more,  provided  his 
game  is  forwarder  than  that  of  his  antagonist; 
for  if  he  had  three  or  more  of  the  adversary's 
men  in  his  tables,  he  would  stand  a  worse 
chance  to  be  hit. 

When  a  player  is  running  to  save  the 
gammon,  if  he  should  have  two  men  upon  | 


liis  aoe-point,  and  several  men  abroad, 
although  he  should  lo-e  one  point  or  two  in 
putting  hi>  men  into  his  tables,  it  is  his  in- 
terest to  leave  a  man  upon  the  adversary's 
aoe-point,  because  it  will  prevent  his  adver- 
sary from  bearing  his  men  to  the  greatest 
advantage,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  player 
will  have  a  chance  of  the  adversary's 
making  a  blot,  which  he  may  chance  to  hit. 
However,  if  a  player  finds,  upon  a  throw, 
that  he  has  a  probability  of  saving  his  gam- 
mon, he  should  never  wait  for  a  blot,  as  the 
odds  are  greatly  against  his  hitting  it,  but 
should  embrace  that  opportunity. 

ROLLING  BLINDS.  There  is  often  a 
great  difficulty  in  making  a  blind  roll  nicely 
after  it  has  been  washed  :  this  difficulty  may 
be  effectually  obviated  by  attending  to  the 
following  directions : — Be  careful  that  in 
drying  the  blind,  it  is  not  stretched  out  of 
shape,  by  being  carelessly  thrown  upon  a 
hedge  of  unequal  heights,  or  pegged  to  a 
line  in  a  crooked  manner.  The  best  mode 
of  drying  is  to  lay  it  lightly  on  an  even 
grass  plot.  When  there  is  a  little  moisture 
remaining,  fold  the  blind  by  carefully  plac- 
ing the  two  ends  exactly  together,  not  the 
two  sides,  as  is  proper  in  folding  most  other 
things:  then  fold  the  middle  to  the  two 
ends,  and  again  fold  it  in  the  same  direction 
until  it  is  a  convenient  width  for  mangling. 
There  is  to  be  no  fold  funning  from  end  to 
end  of  the  blind.  It  may  then  be  carefully 
mangled.  It  must  be  nailed  exactly  straight 
upon  the  roller,  or  it  will  not  roll  well, 
whether  washed  or  unwashed 

DAYS  OF  ,TUE  WEEK  (ROMAN 
NAMES  OF).  Sunday  was  called  Lies 
Solis,  or  the  Sun's  day;  Monday,  Dies 
Luna,  or  the  Moon's  day  ;  Tuesday,  Dies 
Jfartis,  or  Mar's  day;  Wednesday,  Dies 
Mercurii,  or  Mercury's  day;  Thursday, 
Dies  Jovis,  or  Jupiter's  day  ;  Friday,  Dies 
Veneris,  or  Venus's  flay ;  and  Saturday, 
Dies  Batumi,  or  Saturn's  day.  The  reason 
they  were  named  thus,  was  because  they 
considered  each  of  these  deities  to  preside 
over  the  dav  dedicated  to  them. 

BANDAGES.  There  is  not  a  more  import- 
ant art  connected  with  household  surgery 
than  that  of  bandaging.  To  do  it  well  re- 
quires much  practice  and  no  little  judg- 
ment; even  hospital  dressers  are  not  always 
perfect  in  this  branch  of  their  operations; 
and  we  have  known  "  family  doctors  "  make 
a  sad  bundle  of  bandaging  a  leg  or  an  arm. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  have  seen  it  >o  deltly 
performed,  that  no  piece  of  machinery- 
work  could  excel  it ;  so  smooth  and  regular, 
so  compact  and  firm  ;  every  fold  and  diago* 
nal  turn  falling  into  its  exact  place,  and 


340 


FACTS  FOR   FTFTIYRODY : 


maintaining  its  proper  relative  position; 
each  layer  of  even  texture  fading  off,  as  it 
were,  from  its  fellow,  and  in  turn  support- 
ing- another,  with  no  undue  strain  or  pres- 
suie  on  any  part;  the  very  perfection  of 
close  binding.  We  do  not  expect  many  of 
our  readers  to  accomplish  this ;  but  it  will 
he  as  well  for  them  to  understand  how  it  is 
done,  that  they  may,  when  the  emergency 
arises,  know  how  to  go  about  it.  First  of  all 
let  us  ask  what  is  a  bandage?  Something 
that  binds,  a  fillet,  a  piece  of  linen  or  cloth 


for  binding  up  a  wounded  limb.  The  ma- 
terial employed  for  this  purpose  is  usifally 
stout  unbleached  calico,  from  two  or  three 
to  nine  or  ten  inches  wide,  and  from  six  to 
twelve  yards  long ;  the  former  length  and 
breadth  will  do  best  for  the  leg.  If  com- 
menced at  the  ball  of  the  foot,  and  evenly 
applied,  so  that  each  fold  overlaps  the  other 
about  one-third,  it  will  reach  to  the  knee ; 
the  preceding  cut  will  best  show  the  mode  of 
application.  The  bandage  having  been  first 
tightly  rolled  up,  is  taken  in  the  right  hand 
of  the  operator ;  the  end  is  passed  under  the 
foot,  and  held  there  by  the  left  hand  until 
it  is  secured  by  one  turn  of  the  bandage  over 
it;  an  upward  direction  is  then  taken,  so 
that  a  couple  of  folds  bring  the  bandage  up 
to  the  front  of  thejleg,  over  the  instep  ;  the 
next  turn  will  naturally  pass  over  the  heel 
behind  ;  and  then,  if  proper  care  be  observed, 
it  will  go  on  fold  above  fold,  each  overlapp- 
ing the  other  slightly,  all  up  the  leg ;  the 
bandage  is  passed  from  the  right  to  the  left 
hand  each  time  that  it  goes  round  the  leg, 
and  great  care  should  be  taken  to  hold  it 
firmly,  and  equalize  the  pressure,  as  well  as 
to  smooth  out  any  wrinkles  that  may  occur 
in  the  process  of  binding.  A  firm  and  even 
support  is  thus  afforded  to  the  limb,  which 
is  not  likely  to  crease,  or  get  displaced  by 
the  motion  which  may  be  afterwards  neces- 
sary ;  it  may  be  made  fast  above  the  calf  by 
a  couple  of  pins,  or  a  needle  and  thread. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  in  this,  as  in  all 
similar  operations,  to  get  the  bandage  rolled 


up  tightly  and  smoothly,  before  commenc* 
ing ;  it  may  thus  be  grasped  in  the  hand, 
and  kept  well  under  the  command  of  the 
operator,  who  should  on  no  account  let  go 
his  hold  of  the  bandage,  so  as  to  relax  the 
pressure. 

The  arm  does  not  require  so  long  or  broad 
a  bandage  as  the  leg  ;  about  two  inches,  by 
three  or  four  yards,  being  the  average  size: 
this  limb  is  rather  more  difficult  to  manage, 
half  turns  being  necessary  to  effect  a  proper 
envelopment.  How  this  is  effected  may  be 
seen  by  the  following  cut.  The  bandage  is 
folded  back  upon  itself,  so  as  to  take  a  diffe- 
rent direction,  and  cover  the  space  which 
would  be  left  exposed  by  the  ordinary  method 
of  folding;  these  half  turns,  unless  they  are 
done  tightly  and  evenly,  will  be  very  apt  to 
slip  and  derange  the  whole  binding.  Some 
operators  avoid  half  turns  by  letting  the 
roller  take  its  natural  course,  and  then  com- 


ing back  to  cover  the  exposed  parts;  but 
this  method,  besides  requiring  a  larger 
bandage,  does  not  effect  the  required  purpose 
so  neatly  and  efficiently.  One  mode  of 
fastening  a  bandage  is  to  split  it  up  a  short 
distance,  so  as  to  leave  two  ends,  which  can 
be  passed  round  the  limb,  and  tied.  It 
should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
chief  art  in  applying  bandages  is  to  give  firm 
and  uniform  support,  without  undue  pres- 
sure upon  any  part ;  and  to  effect  this  pro- 
perly, the  strain  in  winding  should  be  upon 
the  whole  roll  held  in  the  hand,  and  not 
upon  the  unrolled  portion  of  it ;  and  this 
strain  ehould  not  be  relaxed  during  the  ope- 
ration. 

The  next  cut  represents  the  mode  of  ap- 
plying what  is  called  a  many-tailed  bandage, 
useful  to  apply  over  a  wound,  or  wherever  it 
requires  frequent  changing,  or  in  cases  in 
which  it  is  desirable  not  to  exhaust  the 
patient  by  much  movement  of  the  limb, 
This  is  a  strip  of  calico  somewhat  longer 
than  the  limb  to  be  enveloped ;  on  it  are 
sewn,  at  right  angles,  other  strips,   about 


A   MISCELLANY  OP  TT8EFTJL  KNOWLEDGE. 


341 


one -half  longer  than  the  circumference  of 
the  limb,  each  overlapping  the  other  about 
one-third  of  its  breadth,  so  that  when  drawn 
tightly  over    in   regular   succession,  each 


(Mm 


secures  the  other;  the  end  of  the  strip 
passes  under  the  heel,  and  coming  up  on 
the  other  side,  is  made  fast  to  the  bandage 
there,  and  so  all  is  kept  firm. 

For  keeping  poultices  on  the  lower  part  of 
the  back,  or  in  the  groin,  a  cross  bandage  is 
used,  the  fashion  of  which  is  this  :  make  a 
calico  band  large  enough  to  pass  round  the 
loins,  and  tie  a  buckle  in  front;  to  this  is 
attached  another  piece,  which  proceeds  from 
the  centre  of  the  back  to  the  anus,  where  it 
divides  into  two,  which  pass  under  the 
thighs,  up  on  either  side,  and  are  fastened 
to  the  band  in  front.  The  bandage  used  to 
cl  ise  a  vein  after  bleeding  is  commonly 
called  a  figure  of  eight. 

For  a  sprain*  d  ankle,  place  the  end  of  the 
bandage  upon  the  instep,  then  carry  it  round, 
and  bring  it  over  the  same  part  again,  and 
from  thence  round  the  foot  two  or  three 
times,  finishing  off  with  a  turn  or  two  round 
the  leg  above  the  ankle. 


Por  a  sprained  wrist  begin  by  passing  the 
bandage  round  the  hand,  across  and  across, 
like  the  figure  8;  exclude  the  thumb,  and 
finish  with  a  turn  or  two  round  the  wrist. 


For  a  cut  finger,  pass  the  bandage,  a  nar- 
row one,  round  the  finger  ■even]  times, 
winding  from  the  top,  and  splitting  the  end, 
fastest  by  tying  round  the  thick  part  above 

the  cut;  of  if  it  be  high  up,  tie  round  the 
wrist. 

The  best  bandage  for  the  pye  is  an  old 
silk  handkerchief  passed  over  the  forehead, 
and  tied  at  the  back  of  the  head.  For  the 
head  itself,  it  is  best  to  have  a  cross-band- 
age, or  rather  two  bandages;  one  passing 
across  the  forehead,  and  round  the  ba<  k  of 
the  head,  and  the  other  over  the  top  of  the 
head,  and  below  the  chin,  as  in  the  preced- 
ing cut.  Or,  better  than  this  is,  perhaps,  a 
large  handkerchief  which  will  extend  all 
over  the  forehead  and  crown,  two  ends  of  it 


passing  to  the  back,  and  after  crossing  from 
thence  round  the  neck,  then  tying  the  other 
two  beneath  the  chin. 

For  a  bandage  to  support  a  pad  or  poultice 
under  the  armpit,  a  handkerchief  may  be 


used,  put  on  as  in  the  following  cut;  or  a 
broad  piece  of  calico,  arranged  in  the  same 
way. 


342 


TACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


For  fracture  of  the  ribs,  bandages  should 
be  about  nine  inches  wide,  and  drawn 
round  the  body  very  tightly  ;  in  this  case, 
as  in  that  of  any  other  fracture  or  disloca- 
tion, only  a  properly  qualified  person  should 
attempt,  their  application. 

We  have  not  yet  spoken  of  the  T  bandage, 
■which  is  simply  a  broad  band  to  pass  round 
the  body  or  elsewhere,  having  attached  to 
it  one  of  the  same  width,  or  narrower,  like 
the  upright  part  of  the  letter  after  which  it 
is  named ;  or,  there  may  be  two  stems,  if 
they  can  be  so  called,  in  which  case  it  is  a 
double  T  bandage,  as  under. 


i 

III 


Starch  bandages  are  those  in  which  the 
roller,  before  it  is  put  on,  is  saturated  in  a 
strong  solution  of  starch.  Sometimes  a 
covering  of  brown  paper  is  put  ova"  this, 
and  another  dry  bandage  is  applied  ;  this 
makes  a  firm  and  compact  case  for  the  limb  ; 
it  is  useful  in  cases  of  fracture,  especially  if 
the  patient  has  to  be  removed  to  a  distance. 
Sometimes,  when  it  is  not  desirable  to  make 
the  covering  so  thick  and  durable,  the  dis- 
placement of  the  bandages  is  guarded  against 
by  brushing  a  weak  solution  of  starch  or 
gum  over  the  folds. 

Bandaging  should  be  performed  iff  nearly 
all  cases  from  the  extremities  upwards,  or 
inwards  to  the  heart,  except  where  the  in- 
jury is  situated  above  the  seat  of  vital  ac- 
tion. If  they  give  much  pain  there  is  reason 
to  suspect  inflammatory  swelling  beneath, 
and  they  should  be  loosened,  if  moistening 
with  cold  water  does  not  relieve  the  pain. 
Flannel  for  bandages  is  used  where  warmth 
as  well  as  support  is  required.  —  Family 
Doctor. 

KALI  and  ALKALI.  These  words  had 
originally  a  similar  meaning.  The  latter 
term  is  now  applied  to  a  class  of  bodies 
having  peculiar  properties,  whilst  the  term 
kali  is  mostly  eonfined  to  potash,  the  most 
active  of  the  class  of  alkalies.  The  metal 
potassium  is  sometimes  called  kalium,  and 
the  svmbol  is  always  written  with  the 
initial  letter  K. 

HIEROGLYPHICS.  Hieroglyphics  con- 
sist in  certain  symbols  which  are  made  to 


|  stand  for  invisible  objects,  on  account  of 
!  some  analogy  which  such  symbols  were  sup- 
'  posed  to  bear  to  the  objects.  Egypt  was 
the  country  where  this  sort  of  writing  was 
most  studied,  and  brought  into  a  regular 
science.  In  hieroglyphics  was  conveyed  all 
the  boasted  knowledge  of  their  priests. 
According  to  the  properties  which  they 
ascribed  to  animals,  they  chose  them  to  be 
the  emblems  of  moral  objects.  Thus  ingra- 
titude was  expressed  by  a  viper;  impru- 
dence, by  a  fly ;  wisdom,  by  an  ant ;  know- 
ledge, by  an  eye ;  eternity,  by  a  circle, 
which  has  neither  begininning  nor  end;  a 
man  universally  shunned,  by  an  eel,  which 
they  supposed  to  be  found  with  no  other 
fish.  Sometimes  they  joined  two  or  more 
of  these  characters  together;  as,  a  serpent 
with  a  hawk's  head  denoted  nature,  with 
God  presiding  over  it.  Hieroglyphics  may 
be  made  an  interesting  medium  for  instruct- 
ing the  young,  as  occasionally  shown  in  the 
"  Pastime"  department  of  some  of  our  maga- 
zines. 

MICROSCOPE  GLASSES  (TO  CLEAN). 
When  you  clean  the  eye-glasses,  do  not  re- 
move more  than  one  at  a  time,  and  be  sure 
to  replace  it  before  you  begin  another  ;  by 
this  means  you  will  be  sure  to  preserve  the 
component  glasses  in  their  proper  places; 
recollect  that  if  they  become  intermingled, 
they  will  be  useless.  Keep  a  piece  of  well- 
dusted  chamois  leather,  slightly  impregnated 
with  some  of  the  finest  putty  or  crocus 
powder,  in  a  little  box  to  wipe  them  with — 
for  it  is  of  consequence  to  preserve  it  from 
dust  and  damp;  the  former  will  scratch 
the  glasses,  and  the  latter  will  prevent  you 
from  wiping  them  clean.  As  to  the  object- 
glasses,  endeavour  to  keep  them  as  clean  as 
possible  without  wiping,  and  merely  use  a 
camel' s-hair  pencil  to  brush  them  with; 
for  wiping  them  hard  with  anything  has 
always  a  tendency  to  destroy  their  adjust- 
ment, unless  they  are  firmly  burnished  into 
their  cells  (see  Microscope,  p  80). 

PHONOGRAPHY.  Phonography  in- 
cludes ever}-  method  of  writing  by  signs 
that  represent  the  sounds  of  the  language. 
It  differs  from  stenography  in  this  respect : 
— Stenography  uses  characters  to  represent 
words  by  theirspelling,  instead  of  their  sound ; 
hence  phonography  is  much  the  shortest  and 
simplest  mode  of  short-hand  writing. 

VOICE,  HUMAN  (RANGE  OF  THE). 
The  range  of  the  human  voice  is  quite 
astounding,  —  there  being  about  9  perfect 
tones,  but  17,592,186,044,515  different 
sounds;  thus  14  direct  muscles,  alone,  or 
together,  produce  16,383  ;  30  indirect  mus- 
cles, ditto,  173,741,823,  and  all  in  co-opera- 


A    MTSCEI.LANY   0*    TJSEFUL   KNOWLF.DOE. 


3if 


lion  produce  the  number  sre  hav<  named  ; 
ami  tnese,  independently  <>f  different  degrees 
of  intensity.  A  man's  voice  ranges  trom 
bass  to  tenor,   the  mediam  being  what  is 

culled  ;i  barytone.    The  female  voice  ranges 

from  bOntnil  oto  soprano,  the  medium  being 
termed  ■  mezzo-soprano, — whereas,  a  hoy's 
voiee    is   alto,    or   between    a    tenor   and    a 

treble. 

PINCHBECK.  This  alloy  derives  its 
name  from  being  brought  into  notice  by  a 

{tenon  of  the  name  of  Pinchbeck.  It  may 
M  made  by  combining  three  parts  of  zinc 
with  four  of  copper.  It  was  formerly  used 
to  make  the  cases  of  watches  and  Brooch 
settings. 

MEDICINES  (APERIENT).  Spring 
Aperients.  For  children,  nothing  is  better 
than: — 1.  Brimstone  and  treacle;  to  each 
tea-cupful  of  this,  when  mixed,  add  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  cream  of  tartar.     As  this  some- 


Black  Draught.  6.  The  common 
aperient  medicine  known  as  black  draught 
is  made  in  the  following  manner: — Take  of 
senna  leaves,  six  drachms ;  bruised  ginger, 
half  a  drachm ,  sliced  liauorice-root,  four 
drachms;  boiling  water  half  an  imperial 
pint.  Keep  this  st  inding  cm  the  hol>,  or 
near  the  tiie.  for  three  hours,  then  strain, 
and  after  allowing  it  to  grow  cool,  add  of 
sal  volatile,  one  drachm  and  a-ha!f;  of 
tincture  of  senna,  and  of  tincture  of  carda- 
moms ;  each  half  an  ounce.  This  mixture 
will  keep  a  long  time  in  a  cool  place.  Dose, 
a  wine-glassful  for  an  adult ;  two  table- 
spoonsful  for  young  persons  above  fifteen 
years  of  age.  It  is  not  a  suitable  medicine 
for  children. 

Infants'  Aperient.  7.  Take  of  rhu- 
barb, five  grains;  magnesia,  three  grains; 
white,  susar  a  scruple  ;  manna,  five  grains  ; 
mix.     Dose,  varying  from  a  piece  half  the 


times  produces  sickness,  the  following  may  size  of  a  sweet-pea  to  a  piece  the  size  of  an 

be  used  :— 2.  Take  of  tartrate  of  soda,  one  I  ordinary   pea.      8.  A    useful    laxative    for 

drachm  and   a-half;    powdered    jalap   and  children  is  composed  of  calomel,  two  grains; 

powdered  rhubarb,  each  fifteen  grains  ;  sin-  and  sugar,  a  scruple;  made  into  five  powders; 

ger,  two  grains.  Mix.  Dose  for  a  child  above  half  of  one  of  these  for  a  child  from  birth  to 

five  years,  one  small  tea-spoonful  ;    above  one  year  and  a-half,  and  a  whole  one  from 

ten    years,   a  large    tea-spoonful ;    above  that  age  to  five  years. 

fifteen,     half    the     whole,     or     two    tea-  AQUARIA  (PARLOUR).*  An  Aquarium 

spoonsful ;    and  for  a  person  above  twenty,  is  a  collection  of  aquatic  plants  and  animals 

time  tea-spoonsful,  or  the  whole,  as  may  be  placed   in  conditions   as  nearly  natural  as 

required  by  the  habit  of  the  person.     This  possible,  so  as  to  afford  at  all  times  a  view 

medicine  may  be  dissolved  in  warm  water,  of  their  modes  of  growth  and  reproduction, 

common,  or  mint  tea      This  powder  can  be  and  of  such  particulars  of  their  habits  and 


kept  for  u^e  in  a  wide-mouthed  bottle,  and 
be  in  readiwess  for  any  emergency.  The 
druggist  may  be  directed  to  treble  or  quad- 
ruple the  quantities  as  convenient. 

Apekient  Pills.  To  some  adults,  all 
liquid  medicines  produce  such  nausea  that 
pills  are  the  only  form  in  which  laxative 
medicines  can  be  exhibited  ;  the  following 
is  a  useful  formula:— 3.  Take  of  compound 
rhubarb  pill,  a  drachm  and  one  scruple;  of 
powdered  ipecacuanha,  six  grains  ;  and  of 
extract  of  hyoscyamus,  one  scruple.  Mix 
and  beat  into  a  mass,  and  divide  into  twenty- 
four  pills.  Take  one,  or  two,  or  if  of  a  very 
costive  habit,  three  at  bed-time.  4.  For 
persons  requiring  a  more  powerful  purge, 
the  same  formula,  with  ten  grains  ox  com- 
pound extract  of  colocynth,  will  form  a  good 
purgative  pill.  The  mass  receiving  this 
addition,  mu-t  he  divided  into  thirty,  in- 
stead of  twent\  -four  pills. 

Tonic  Aperient  5.  Take  of  Epsom  salts, 
one  ounce;  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  one 
drachm  ;  infusion  of  quas>ia  chips,  half  an 
imperial  pint ;  compound  tincture  of  rhu- 
barb, two  drachms.  Half  a  wine-glassful 
for  a  dose  twice  a-day. 


economy  as  are  open  to  observations  thiough 
the  medium  of  the  glass  vessel  which  con- 
tains them.  It  is  the  simplicity  of  the 
Aquarium  that  ensures  its  success,  and  most 
excites  the  admiration  of  the  scientific  ob- 
server. 

Supposing  the  student  to  have  made  his 
choice  of  a  vessel,  his  next  step  will  be  to 
determine  whether  it  shall  be  stocked  with 
marine  or  fresh-water  specimens;  marine 
stock  is  the  most  expensive,  and  the  most 
difficult  to  manage.  One  great  difficulty  of 
the  marine  tank,  that  of  obtaining  fresh 
sea- water,  is  obviated  by  the  use  of  the  pre- 
pared marine  salts,  by  means  of  which  we 
can  manufacture  sea- water  out  of  the  water- 
butt  ;  and,  more  interesting  still,  if  properly 
managed,  this  artificial  sea-water  is  in  some 
respects  preferable  to  the  genuine  article,  on 
account  of  its  freedom  from  organic  matter. 

But  those  who  use  artificial  sea-water  for 
the  fii st  time,  need  a  caution.  As  at  present 
prepared,  it  is  not  so  pure  as  might  be  de- 
sired, and  it  deposits  a  recldish  sediment, 
consisting  of  oxide  of  iron  and  particies  of 
lime  and  sand.  To  obviate  the  consequences 
of  such  impurities.it  is  advisable  to  dissolve 


*  See  "  Thb  Family  Aquarium."    New  York :  Dick  &  Fitzgerald.    Price  50  Cents. 


344 


FACTS  rOK  EVERYBODY 


it  in  a  separate  vessel  placed  at  a  higher 
level  than  the  tank  into  which  it  is  to  be 
transferred.  First  place  your  tank  as  it  is  to 
remain, — for  when  tilled,  you  will  be  unable 
to  move  it, — then  dissolve  the  salts  in  clear 
spring  or  river-water,  and  test  its  strength 
by  the  hydrometer,  till  its  specific  gravity  is 
1-028.  It  should  be  left  undisturhed  for 
four-and-twenty  hours,  in  order  that  any 
sediment  may  be  deposited  ;  and  it  may  then 
be  drawn  off  into  the  tank  by  means  of  a 
syphon  of  glass  or  gutta-percha,  and  the 
deposit  left  behind.  The  object  of  placing 
the  pan  at  a  higher  level  than  the  tank,  is 
to  facilitate  the  action  of  the  syphon.  A 
loose  glass  lid,  to  keep  out  dust,  is  a  neces- 
sary addition  to  the  tank  in    ny  case. 

In  stocking  a  marine  tank,  a  stratum  of 
sea-sand  and  pebbles  should  first  be  laid 
down,  or,  if  these  are  not  easily  procurable, 
common  silver-sand  may  be  used,  jf  the  pre- 
caution be  taken  to  wash  it  well  previously, 
so  as  to  dissolve  out  any  solvent  matters. 
From  this  point  the  difficulties  begin.  A 
beginner  may  introduce  plants  that  speedily 
decay,  and  animals  that  perish  in  a  day  or 
two.  If  a  sea-side  rambler,  he  may  gather 
many  curiosities  for  the  tank,  and  soon  have 
the  mortification  of  rinding  that  some  of  the 
prettiest  of  his  specimens  have  ruined  the 
whole  by  their  rapid  decomposition. 

But  if  the  specific  gravity  be  first  accu- 
rately tested,  one  or  two  plants  of  the  genus 
Viva,  or  sea-lettuce,  should  first  be  intro- 
duced, then  one  or  two  of  the  genus  Entero- 
morpha  ;  and,  in  eight  or  nine  days,  these 
will  convey  to  the  water  certain  properties 
which  fit  it  for  the  reception  of  animals. 
Long  experience  proves  that  plants  of  any 
genus,  except  the  two  first-named,  are 
utterly  unsuitable  for  a  new  tank,  and  many 
months  must  elapse  before  Ithodosperms 
and  other  delicate  weeds  can  be  used  with 
safety.  The  fact  is,  that  artificial  sea-water 
is  deficient  of  some  minute  quantities  of 
certain  chemical  ingredients,  such  as  iodine 
and  bromine,  for  instance;  and  in  process 
of  time,  these  materials  are  communicated 
to  it  by  the  Ulva  and  Enteromorpha,  and  it 
becomes  fitted  for  more  delicately  constituted 
plants  and  animals. 

H  fulljr  exposed  to  the  daylight,  the  sea- 
weeds will  in  the  course  of  eight  or  ten 
days  disseminate  their  spores,  and  the  stones 
at  the  bottom  will  begin  to  evolve  from  their 
surfaces  bubbles  of  oxygen.  Now  some  com- 
mon sorts  of  anemonies  may  be  introduced, 
such  as  Actinia  Mesembnjanthemum,  A. 
clavata,  and  A.  bcllis,  but  A.  crass icornis 
and  Anthea  cereus  are  too  delicate  for  early 
experiments. 


Some  pretty  molluscs  may  be  introduced 
at  the  earliest  stages,  if  all  goes  well,  even 
a  few  days  after  the  sea-weeds,  especially 
species  of  Trochus  and  any  of  the  common 
sorts  of  periwinkle.  Bivalves  are  less  hardy; 
and  another  ten  days  ought  to  elapse  before 
specimens  id'  J't'itus  and  Pallustra  are  added. 
When  the  last-named  are  introduced,  a 
few  Chita/is.  scallops,  and  Aplytia  ma\  be 
added.  As  the  weeds  grow,  there  will  be 
oxygen  sufficient  to  render  the  initiation  of 
crustaceans  safe,  and  such  cmbs  as  the 
fiddler,  the  soldier,  and  the  pretty  straw- 
berry crab  may  follow,  as  well  as  a  few 
prawns  and  shrimps. 

The  time  will  now  come  for  increasing  the 
amount  of  vegetation,  and  Laminaria  phyl- 
litis,  CladopJiora  rupestris,  lihodymenia 
palmata,  and  the  lovely  Griffithsia,  with 
the  curious  Padina  if  you  can  get  it,  and, 
indeed,  any  green  or  red  weeds  except 
tangle  and  oar-weed. 

Marine  fishes  are  suitable  for  none  but 
very  ripe  tanks,  and  even  then  are  difficult 
to  preserve  for  any  length  of  time.  Gobies, 
blennies,  and  wrasses  are,  however,  too 
beautiful  not  to  be  worth  an  effort  to  domes- 
ticate them,  and  the  experience  gained  in 
establishing  the  collection  will  enable  the 
possessor  to  proceed  with  proper  caution  in 
the  introduction  of  such  lively  and  intelli- 
gent inmates.  If  the  weeds  hang  out  their 
gay  banners,  and  put  out  their  slender  fin- 
gers with  certain  signs  of  healthy  growth, 
pipe  fishes,  suckers,  marine  sticklebacks, 
small  lobsters,  and  nudibranoh  molluscs  may 
follow,  until  an  extensive  collection  is 
formed  of  creatures  that  we  never  before 
had  opportunities  of  observing  alive,  many 
of  which  we  were  never  previously  ac- 
quainted with,  even  when  dead. 

As  a  domestic  ornament,  combining  in- 
struction with  a  novel  kind  of  recreation, 
the  fresh- water  aquarium  has  already  taken 
precedence  of  the  marine,  and  will  doubt- 
less keep  it.  The  marine  tank  is  certainly 
the  most  attractive  to  the  eyes  of  a  student, 
but  the  fresh- water  tank  is  at  once  cheaper, 
more  easily  stocked  and  managed,  and  un- 
attended with  the  risks  that  beset  marine 
life  even  under  the  most  favourable  circum- 
stances. The  nearest  brook  or  pond  will 
furnish  fluviatile  specimens,  and  generally 
speaking,  these  are  so  easy  of  management, 
that  a  child  might  set  up  a  tank  of  this 
kind,  and  maintain  it  in  a  flourishing  con- 
dition. 

Yet  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  there  ia 
nothing  to  learn  even  in  this  case,  though 
the  experience  acquired  through  many  trial! 
and  disappointments  may   be  very  briefly 


A   MISCELLANY   OP  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


815 


told  for  the  benefit  of  beginners.  As  a  rule, 
it  may  bo  held  tbat  either  rock  work  or 
branching  coral  is  u  necessity,  as  well  as  an 
ornament  of  a  marine  tank,  but  rockwork  of 
any  kind  is  a  positive  injury  to  a  frcsli-water 
collection;  it  toon  pets  covered  with  con- 
ferva1, which  is  t lie  greatest  enemy  to  the 
collection.  It  may  here  be  mentioned,  too, 
that  propagating  glasses  are  not  strong 
enough  to  bear  the  weight  of  rockwork  ; 
and  if  they  were,  it  is  scarcely  an  ornament 
to  any  cylindrical  vessel :  so  that  in  the  case 
of  marine  stock,  a  piece  of  branching  coral 
is  the  only  ornament  of  the  kind  suited  to 
a  cylinder. 

In  forming  the  bed  of  the  fresh-water 
tank,  we  sho  Id  advise  the  use  of  sharp  sand 
only  with  a  few  small  pebbles,  the  whole 
well  washed  previously.  Writers  on  aqua- 
rian subjects  have  invariably  recommended 
the  use  of  mould,  but  the  tank  can  be 
kept  more  free  from  objectionable  vegetable 
growths,  and  hence  more  brilliantly  trans- 
parent, if  pure  sand  be  used,  while  all  the 
ordinary  weeds,  J'allisneria.  Anaeharsis, 
lilies,  <&c,  grow  just  as  well  in  6ani  as  in 
mould,  and  if  the  barbel  and  stone  loach 
are  inclined  to  stir  it  up  with  their  bearded 
snouts,  there  is  no  muddy  deposit  on  the 
6ides  of  the  vessel  in  consequence.  Indeed, 
■when  a  hungry  loach  smells  a  worm,  he 
■will  stir  up  the  bottom  as  violently  as  a 
cook  would  stir  up  batter;  and  if  there  be 
any  solvent  matter  tliere,  the  leaves  of  the 
Palliantri*  and  Utrntoides  will  soon  be 
coated  with  slime,  and  upon  that  slime  fucus 
will  soon  appear. 

As  to  the  plants  for  a  fresh-water  tank, 
there  is  scarcely  a  weed  to  be  found  in  any 
brook  or  river  but  may  be  safely  transplanted 
to  it,  a  little  washing  and  trimming  being 
necessary  to  remove  decaying  matter.  Val- 
lisnerin  spiralis  is  essential,  for  it  is  one  of 
the  best  oxygen  makers,  a  free  grower,  and 
very  elegant  in  outline;  the  great  water 
soldier  ( Stratoides)  with  its  spiny  leaves 
shaped  like  those  of  the  Yucca  gloriow.  and 
•with  its  elegant  offshoots  starting  up  like  so 
many  umbrella  frames  on  very  long  stems, 
is  another  good  oxygen  maker.  The  new 
•water-weed  Anaeharsis  alsinastrum,  the 
pretty  Ranunculus  aquatalis,  jlfi/riop/n/l- 
iio»  spicattim  and  Potamogeton  of  any  spe- 
cies, besides  the  smaller  kinds  of  water  lily, 
flourish  amazingly,  and  give  the  tank  "a 
frc  h  and  luxuriant  appearance.  To  those 
who  live  in  the  north,  we  commend  a  little 
plant  which  may  be  found  on  the  shallow 
margins  and  lakes  at  great  elevations.  It 
is  the  pretty  awl-wort,  Subularia  aqi'a/ica, 
a  member  of  the  extensive  family  of  Cru- 


cifera.  It  produces  numerous  rush-like 
leaves,  each  of  them  curved  at  the  point 
like  a  cobbler's  awl — whence  its  name  ;  and 
in  July  sends  up  a  little  head  of  tetraform 
white  blossoms  strongly  resembling  those  of 
the  watercress.  Though  somewhat  rare,  it 
takes  to  its  indoor  home  kindly,  and  bio.  nis 
freely  beneath,  the  surface,  very  much  to  the 
astonishment  of  non-botanical  observers. 

Unlike  the  marine  tank,  the  fresh- water 
vessel  may  he  stocked  with  fishes  and  plants 
at  the  same  time,  but  the  precaution  must 
be  taken  to  throw  in  a  few  hand!  uls  of  some 
common  weed,  which  should  be  left  to  float 
about  and  supply  oxygen  until  the  plants  at 
the  bottom  have  fairly  taken  root.  A  mass 
of  floating  weeds  is  a  decided  improvement 
to  the  tank,  and  creates  a  rich  green  shadow 
in  which  the  fishes  delight,  and  most  of  the 
succulent  weeds  from  brooks  will  flourish  ia 
this  way  for  many  months,  and  even  in- 
crease considerably  by  the  numerous  white 
rootlets  they  send  down  from  their  joints, 
some  of  which  will  probably  reach  the  bot- 
tom and  produce  a  forest  of  vegetation. 

Among  the  animal  stock,  minnows,  carp, 
barbel,  stone  loach,  perch,  dace,  roach, 
bream,  bleak,  and  chub,  and  water  lizards, 
are  all  suitable.  Dace  and  roach  are  per- 
haps the  most  delicate  ;  carp  and  minnows 
the  most  hardv.  We  have  at  the  present 
time  about  a  hundred  of  various  kinds  of 
fresh-water  fish,  some  of  them  so  tame  as  to 
take  food  from  the  hand,  and  even  nibble 
the  fingers  sharply ;  they  swarm  to  the  side 
of  the  vessel  when  we  tap  on  it  with  tho 
finger  i  ails,  and  will  hunt  a  piece  of  bread 
or  white  of  egg,  as  we  move  it  up  and  down 
outside,  in  a  lively  style  that  would  make 
phlegmatic  dulness  laugh  itself  into  hyste- 
tics  anytime.  The  molluscs  to  be  most 
strongly  recommended  are  Planorbis  cor- 
neus,  a  handsome  snail  of  a  ram's-horn 
shape,  Pallia 'inn  I'iripara,  all  the  kinds  of 
Li/»we",  Hithinia  tentacula,  and  the  very 
useful  bivalves,  the  swan  mussel,  Ancdcn 
cygneus,  and  the  duck  mussel,  Unin  pic- 
iorum.  Though  we  recommend  these,  we 
are  bound  to  add  that  the  Lyiunea,  though 
.good  cleaners,  are  given  to  the  vice  of  eat- 
ing the  Vallisneritt  and  the  Htraloides ; 
that  Paludina  is  of  little  use  as  a  cleaner, 
his  beauty  only  recommending  him ;  and 
that  Planorbis  "is  the  best  of  all  cleaners, 
and  rarely  deserts  the  side  of  the  vessel, 
whore  snails  should  remain  as  much  as  pos- 
sible. 

We  seldom  feed  our  marine  stock,  but  oc- 
casionally the  tle-h  of  a  cooked  prawn,  or  a 
few  minute  shreds  of  mutton,  may  be  given  ; 
fresh- water  stock  delight  in  the  crumbs  of 


340 


FACTS   FOR   EVERYBODY 


home-baked  bread,  white  of  egg  minced 
very  tine,  s>ft  insect  food  of  any  kind,  par- 
ticularly maggots  and  flies,  and,  above  all, 
small  red  worms.  A  romp  may  be  got  up  at 
anytime,  by  dropping  ill  a  iively  worm; 


'"?'% 


seizes  it  in  the  manner  of  a  cat  seizing  a 
mouse,  and  the  game  ends  by  the  newt  re- 
taining a  finn  hold,  with  half  the  worm 
projecting  from  his  mouth,  and  half  a  dozen 
fishes  scrambling  to  tear  it  out,  till  the  newt 
triumphs  by  a  sullen 
perseverance,  and  gets 
the  prey  fairly  swal- 
lowed, in  little  less 
than  an  hour,  during 
the  whole  of*  which 
time  it  is  worried,  in 
vain,  bv  almost  every 
one  of  its  more  lively 
neighbours. 

In  every  case  the 
success  of  an  Aqua- 
rium depends  upon 
the  adjustment  of  a 
fair  balance  of  forces, 
and  if  care  be  taken 
to  remove  any  mat- 
ter that  might  decay 
andcreate  corruption. 


and  to  introduce  onl 
as  much  animal  1 


!7 

lie 


Hie  minnows  seize  it  and  fight  till  they  tear 
it  in  half;  before  they  can  gorge  it,  the 
loach  attack  them,  and  there  is  so  much 
floundering,  that  the  fragments  of  the  worm 
are  dropped  into  the  jaws  of  a  newt,  who 


as  the  plants  are  ca- 
pable of  supplying 
with  oxygen,  death 
will  then  be  a  rave 
event.  The  water 
shouldnot  be  changed 
at  all,  that  is  one  of 
the  leading  features 
of  the  Aquarium ; 
and  if  [you  cannot 
keep  your  stock  in 
health,  without  a 
change  of  water,  de- 
pend upon  it  you  have 
gone  the  wrong  way 
to  work,  and  must  be- 
gin again  de  novo.  An 
important  matter  is  to 
avoid  overstocking ; 
keep  down  the  amount 
of  animal  life,  until 
the  plants  are  strong, 
and  then  increase  it 
slowly,  so  as  to  see 
your  progress  safely. 
Whenever  )rou  find 
your  fishes  gasping 
at  the  surface,  be 
sure  that  there  is  in- 
sufficiency of  oxygen, 
and  remove  a  few  to  another  vessel ;  for 
whenever  a  fish  stands  upon  his  tail  at  the 
surface  for  any  length  of  time,  it  is  certain 
that  disease  is  at  work,  and  that  his  hours 
are  numbered. 


L  MISCELLANY    OF   USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


347 


FIGS.  (Latin,  Finn.)  The  fruit  of  the 
Ficns  Gm'cK,  which  comes  to  perfection 
chiefly  in  hot  climates;  the  pulp  is  whole- 
Borne,  and  somewhat  aperient,  but  the  tough 
■kin  is  indigestible,  and  should  not  be  eaten 
by  those  whose  organs  of  digestion  are  al  all 
Weak.  Children  who  are  subject  to  consti- 
pation, may  take  the  pulp  with  advantage. 
Green  figs,  as  we  call  those  which  grow  in 
this  country,  are  more  laxative  than  the 
preserved  ones  from  abroad,  but  they  hare 
a  mawkish,  ami.  to  most  persons, an  unplea- 
sant flavour.  The  finest  foreign  tigs  come 
from  Smyrna,  and  other  parts  of  Turkey ; 
if  good,  they  are  huge  and  plump,  not 
6hrivelled  aiid  leathery,  as  those  in  the 
shops  too  frequently  are,  being  in  this  state 
very  unwholesome.  Tigs  are  sometimes  used 
externally,  boiled  in  milk,  or  roasted;  they 
are  applied  to  boils  and  small  abscesses,  to 
promote  suppuration  ;  in  this  way  they  are 


particularly  applicable  to  gum-boils.  They 
are  also  an  ingredient  in  the  compound 
Decoctionof  Barley  and  Confection  of  Senna. 
In  the  following  combination,  they  make  a 
good  demulcent  gargle  for  inflammatory 
Bore  throat ' — Mallow  Roots,  1  ounce  ;  or  if 
these  cannot  be  obtained,  Linseed,  1  ounce; 
to  2  or  3  rigs,  split  open  ;  Water,  2  pints; 
boil  to  a  pint,  and  strain. 

FILBERTS.  The  fruit  of  a  variety  of  the 
Cory! us  Avtlu^a.  The  term  was  originally 
applied  to  all  nuts  with  very  long  husks ; 
but  of  late  the  varieties    have  become  so 


numerous,  that  this  distinction  has  ceased 
to  he  regarded^  ami  nut  and  filbert  havo 
become  almost  synonymous  terms,  except 
tint  the  wild,  uncultivated  hazel  nut,  and 
those  varieties  winch  nearly  approach  ii  in 
form,  are  never  called  filberts,  the  eat;ng 
of  which,  except  as  an  occasional  lux  in  y, 
we  would  warn  our  readers  against ,  like  ail 


nuts,  they  are  very  indigestible;  perhaps 
now  and  then,  with  a  glass  of  good  port  or 
sherry  wine,  and  a  little  salt  (cum  grano 
tali*),  they  may  do  no  great  harm,  but  it 
would  be  exercising  a  sound  discretion  not 
to  eat  tKem  at  all. 

P  APE  11.  Paper  is  manufactured  of  vege- 
table matter  reduced  to  a  pulp  by  means  of 
water  and  grinding.  For  the  chief  purpose 
to  which  it  is  applied  in  modern  times,  the 
ancients  had  recourse  to  a  variety  of  ma- 
terials; such  as  stone — tablets  of  wood, 
plates  of  lead,  skins,  parchment  linen,  and, 
above  all,  the  papyrus.  01  all  these  articles, 
papyrus  was  found  the  most  useful  for 
ordinary  purposes  as  a  substitute  far  paper. 
The  art  of  making  papyrus  into  paper  was 
invented  in  Egypt  several  centuries  before 
the  Christian  era.  The  art  of  making  paper 
of  cotton,  cloth,  or  rags,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  borrowed  from  the  Chinese  or  Persians, 
and  introduced  into  Europe  in  the  eleventh 
century  by  the  Saracens;  the  practice  of 
making  linen  into  paper  commenced  in  the 
twelfth  or  thirteenth  century,  and  in  France 
and  England  early  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
(See  Papf/rus,  p.  239). 

DRAUGHTS.  Draughts  is  a  game  with 
a  checkered  board  and  men,  of  much  less 
antiquity  than  chess,  and  is  perhaps  to  be 
considered  a  degenerate  descendant  of  that 
noble  sport.     In  France,   it  is  called  les 


84S 


FACTS  F0T5    EVERYBODY 


dames,  from  Laving  been  a  favourite  game 
with  ladies;  and  in  Scotland  this  significa- 
tion is  pi  i  served  in  the  term  dam-brod,  the 
name  universally  applied  by  the  common 
people  to  the  draught-board. 

Draughts  is  played  on  a  chess-board,  or  a 
board  checkered  precisely  in  the  same 
manner,  with  thirty-two  white,  and  thirty- 
two  black  squares.  The  board,  however,  is 
placed  before  the  players  differently  .  in 
th<  '89  there  must  be  a  white  square  in  the 
right-hand  corner,  but  in  draughts  the 
right-hand  comer  must  be  black— that  is, 
supposing  you  to  play  on  the  white  squares. 
The  following  is  a  representation  of  a 
draught-board,  numbered  for  the  sake  of 
illustration,  and  placed  as  it  should  be  in 
playing. 


The  game  is  played  by  two  persons,  who 
Bit  opposite  to  each  other.  Each  party  has 
a  set  of  twelve  men,  the  colour  of  the"  two 
being  different,  for  the  sake  of  distinction. 
The  men  are  generally  round  and  Hat 
pieces  of  wood  ;  one  set  white,  and  another 
black  ;  those  of  the  neatest  kind  are  turned 
out  of  boxwood  and  ebony. 

The  men  may  be  placed  either  on  the 
white  or  black  squares,  but  the  whole  must 
be  put  on  one  colour  only.  It  is  customary 
in  England  to  place  afl  upon  the  white, 
and  to  have,  as  above,  a  black  square  on 
the  right.  In  Scotland  the  black  are  played 
upon,  when  there  is  consequently  a  white 
square  to  the  right.  We  go  upon  the  sup- 
position that  the  play  is  on  the  white 
squares,  and  have  numbeied  them  in  the 
above  figure  accordingly. 

The  movements  in  draughts  are  very 
simple :  a  man  can  move  only  one  square 
at  a  time,  and  diagonally,  never  straight- 
forward or  sidewise.  If  an  enemy's  man 
stand  in  the  way,  no  move  can  take  place, 


unless  there  be  a  vacant  square  beyond  into 
which  the  piece  can  be  lifted.  In  this  case, 
the  man  leaped  over  is  taken;  he  is  re- 
moved from  the  board. 

The  grand  object  of  the  game,  then,  is  to 
clear  the  board  of  the  enemy's  men,  or  to 
hem  them  in  so  that  they  cannot  move; 
and  whichever  party  does  so  first  gains  the 
victory.  As  no  piece  can  move  more  than 
one  step  diagonally  at  a  time,  there  can  be  no 
taking  till  the  two*  antagonists  come  to  close 
quarters;  and  the  pushing  them  cautiously 
into  each  other's  neighbourhood  is  the 
principal  art  in  the  game. 

When  the  men  on  either  side  have  cleared 
their  way  by  taking,  or  found  an  open  path 
to  the  opposite  side  of  the  board,  the>  be- 
come invested  with  a  new  power  of  move- 
ment: by  reaching  the  first  row  of  squares 
on  the  opposite  side,  the  piece  is  entitled  to 
be  crowned,  which  is  done  by  placing  a  man 
on  Xhe  top  of  it.  Thus  crowned,  the  man 
may  move  backward,  but  always  diagonally, 
and  one  square  at  a  time,  as  before.  This 
power  of  moving,  and  taking  either  forward 
or  backward,  renders  it  of  consequence  to 
get  men  crowned ;  and  if  two  or  three  on 
each  side  gain  this  honour,  the  game  be- 
eumes  more  interesting,  and  may  bpeedily 
be  determined. 

Immediately  after  crowning,  great  art  is 
shewn  in  blocking  up  one  or  more  of  your 
adversary's  men,  by  the  aid  of  which  to  ac- 
complish a  series  of  decisive  moves.  For 
instance,  supposing  you  have  detained  your 
adversary's  piece  at  4,  while  he  has  others 
situated  on  25  and  26 — and  supposing  you 
have  pieces  on  12  and  19,  with  a  crowned 
man  at  14,  you  may,  by  giving  him  your  12 
and  19,  exchange  two  pieces  for  three, 
which  is  commonly  equivalent  to  winning 
the  game.  Again,  supposing  you  have 
pieces  on  13,  22,  30,  and  a  crowned  one  on 
26,  and  your  adversary  a  piece  on  5,  with 
others  scattered  in  the  direction  of  16,  8,  7, 
you  may,  by  successively  pushing  before 
him  your  pieces  on  13  and  22,  gain  a  formi- 
dable exchange. 

In  beginning  to  play,  much  depends  on 
having  the  first  move ;  and  the  rule  is,  that 
in  playing  several  games  each  party  takes 
the  first  move  alternately. 

If  a  player  touch  one  of  his  men,  he  must 
play  it.  If  a  player  omit  to  take  a  man 
when  it  is  in  his  power  to  do  so,  his  adver- 
sary can  huff  or  blow  him— that  is,  either 
take  the  man,  or  insist  upon  his  own  man 
being  taken.  The  practice  is  at  once  to  lift 
the  man  which  ought  to  have  taken  yours. 

We  present  the  following  as  an  example 
of  playing  a  game,  in  which  white  loses. 


A    MISCELLANY   OF   T7SEFFL   KNOWLEDGE. 


349 


roe  letters  X.  C,  F,  T,  at  the  head  of  the 
goify   jtumtol',    Colour,    J'row, 


V 

c 

¥ 

T 

N 

0 

w 

T 

1 

B 

11 

15 

IS 

w 

30 

25 

2 

w 

18 

29 

B 

29 

22 

3 

15 

Jo 

22 

30 

w 

26 

17 

4 

W 

18 

31 

B 

11 

15 

5 

B 

8 

11 

32 

W 

20 

16 

6 

w 

M 

25 

33 

B 

15 

18 

7 

R 

4 

8 

34 

W 

24 

20 

8 

W 

25 

22 

35 

B 

18 

27 

9 

B 

12 

16 

M 

W 

81 

24 

K) 

w 

24 

20 

37 

B 

14 

18 

11 

B 

10 

15 

88 

W 

16 

11 

J2 

W 

27 

24 

39 

B 

7 

16 

13 

B 

Hi 

19 

40 

\Y 

20 

11 

14 

w 

23 

IB 

41 

B 

n 

23 

15 

B 

15 

19 

42 

W 

ii 

8 

18 

W 

24 

15 

-3 

B 

23 

27 

17 

B 

9 

14 

44 

W 

8 

4 

18 

W 

18 

1 

45 

B 

27 

31 

19 

B 

11 

25 

4r> 

W 

4 

8 

20 

W 

32 

27 

47 

B 

31 

27 

21 

B 

5 

14 

18 

W 

24 

20 

22 

W 

27 

23 

49 

B 

27 

23 

23 

B 

6 

10 

50 

W 

8 

11 

M 

w 

16 

12 

51 

B 

23 

18 

26 

B 

8 

11 

52 

w 

11 

8 

26 

W 

28 

24 

53 

B 

18 

15 

27 

B 

25 

29 

&G. 

W 

los 

es. 

It  is  not  considered  fair  for  any  bystander 
to  advi.-e  what,  motion*  -hould  be  taken,  or 
for  a  player  to  wait  longer  than  five  minutes 
between  each  move.  The  draught-player, 
therefore,  must  en  all  occasions  act  with  much 
more  promptitude  and  decision  than  in  the 
case  of  chess.  In  short,  draughts  is  a  very 
tickH>h  game.  A  single  false  step  may  lead 
to  irretrievable  ruin  ;  and  it  is  only  after 
long  experience  in  figuring  in  the  mind 
what  would  be  the  result  of  particular 
movements  that  proficiency  is  attained. 

AVIIIST.  All  games  at  cards,  in  our 
opinion,  are  insignificant  in  comparison  with 
whist.  The  whole  structure  of  the  game  is 
ingenious,  and  a  result  of  just  calculation. 
Its  rules  have  all  been  carefully  studied, 
and  there  seems  to  be  a  sufficient  reason  why 
each  has  been  instituted.  The  game  is  a 
happy  blending  of  skill  and  chance  ;  skill 
being  the  most  important  element,  and 
chance  only  accessory,  in  order  to  impart  a 
due  relish  or  piquancy  to  the  sport,  and 
deprive  highly  skilled  players  of  being 
always  certain  of  the  victory.' 

Whist   is   played   by   four    persons,    two 

being   on   either  side.     The  four  sit  at  a 

square   table,   one   on   each   side,   partners 

being  opposite  to  each  other.    The  table 

16 


should  be  covered  with  cloth,  to  permit  an 
easy  lifting  of  the  cards.  Before  com- 
mencing the  game,  a  pack  of  cards  u  laid 
nil  the  table,  the  faces  undermost.  The 
parties  then  cut  for  partners;  that  is,  they 
leave  it  to  chance  to  determine  who  shall  be 
partners.  This  is  done  by  each  person 
lifting  or  cutting  a  portion  of  the  cards  from 
p  or  pack,  and  the  two  who  have  the 
highest  cards  play  together. 

The  value  of  the  cards  is  as  follows  : — As 
already  stated,  there  are  four  suits,  each 
suit  consisting  of  thirteen  cards — ten  being 
common,  and  three  being  court-cards. 
The  card  in  each  suit  which  has  but  one 
mark  is  called  the  ace  ;  and  this  ace  is  the 
highest  in  value  in  all  cases,  except  in 
cutting  for  partners,  when  it  is  the  lowest. 
The  next  highest  is  the  king ;  the  next, 
the  queen ;  the  next,  the  knave  ;  then  the 
ten,  nine,  eight,  and  so  on  down  to  the  two 
or  deuce,  which  is  the  lowest.  In  playing 
whist,  one  suit  is  of  higher  value  than  any 
of  the  other  three;  but  which  suit  shall 
possess  this  temporary  distinction  depends 
on  chance  in  dealing  out  the  cards  ;  the  last 
card  dealt,  out  is  turned  up,  and  the  suit  to 
which  it  belongs  is  called  trumps;  trumps, 
then,  is  the  suit  of  the  highest  value.  In 
the  course  of  a  game,  the  trump  suit  may  of 
course  vary  at  every  deal. 

The  cutting  of  the  pack,  as  above  men- 
tioned, determines  who  are  to  be  partners, 
and  at  the  same  time  determines  who  is  to 
deal.  The  rule  is,  that  he  who  had  the 
lowest  card  in  cutting,  is  the  dealer.  This 
person  shuffle*  the  cards  last,  that  is,  has  a 
right  to  mix  them  in  any  way  he  thinks 
proper,  always  keeping  the  backs  towards 
hiui.  Previously  to  this  his  adversaries  are 
entitled  to  shuffle  the  cards  also;  indeed, 
each  person  has  a  right  to  shuffle  them. 
Being  duly  shuffled,  the  pack  is  laid  on  the 
table — always  backs  uppermost — before  the 
youngest  hand,  or  the  person  sitting  to  the 
right  hand  of  the  dealer ;  and  he  cuts  it,  by 
lifting  off  a  portion,  not  less  than  four  cards, 
and  laving  it  down.  The  dealer  now  puts 
the  lower  portion  on  the  top  of  the  portion 
laid  off. 

Dealing  must  be  neatly  performed  ;  the 
dealer  holding  the  pack  in  his  left  hand, 
lifts  off  the  top  cards  with  his  right,  and 
distributes  them,  one  to  each,  all  round. 
He  begins  with  the  person  on  his  left,  who 
is  called  the  elder  hand,  then  the  person 
opposite,  then  the  youngest  hand,  and  then 
himself.  He  thus  goes  thirteen  rounds,  the 
last  card  which  he  holds  in  his  hand  falling 
to  his  own  share.  This  last  card  he  turns 
up,  and  it  determines  the  suit  to  be  trumps. 


3C0 


pacts  fou  ■everybody: 


The  dealer,  therefore,  has  at  least  always 
one  trump  in  his  hand,  but  this  advantage 
is  somewhat  neutralised  by  the  adversaries 
having  a  knowledge  of  one  of  his  cards. 
The  trump-card  lies  on  the  table  exposed 
till  the  first  trick  is  played.  Any  exposure 
of  a  card  in  dealing,  by  real  or  pretended 
accident,  is  strictly  provided  against. 

Rules  for  Dealing.  If  a  card  is  turned 
up  in  dealing,  the  adv  rse  party  may  call  a 
new  deal  if  they  think  proper;  but  if  either 
of  them  has  been  the  cause  of  turning  up 
such  card,  then  the  dealer  has  the  option. 

If  a  card  is  faced,  there  must  be  a  fresh 
deal,  unless  the  opponent  objects ;  if  two, 
the  deal  is  void. 

It  is  the  duty  of  every  person  who  plays 
to  see  that  he  has  thirteen  cards.  If  any 
one  happens  to  have  only  twelve,  and  does 
not  find  it  out  till  several  tricks  are  played, 
and  that  the  rest  have  their  right  number, 
the  deal  stands  good ;  and  the  person  who 
played  with  the  twelve  cards  is  to  be  punished 
for  each  revoke,  provided  lie  has  made  any. 
But  if  any  of  the  rest  of  the  players  should 
happen  to  have  fourteen  cards,  in  that  case 
the  deal  is  lost. 

The  dealer  should  leave  his  trump-card 
upon  the  table  till  it  is  his  turn  to  play ; 
and  after  he  has  mixed  it  with  his  other 
cards,  no  one  has  a  right  to  demand  what 
card  was  turned  up,  but  may  ask  what  suit 
is  trumps.  In  consequence  of  this  law  the 
dealer  cannot  name  a  wrong  card,  which 
otherwise  he  might  have  done. 

None  of  the  playei*s  may  take  up  or  look 
at  their  cards  while  they  are  dealing  out : 
when  this  is  the  case,  the  dealer,  if  he 
should  happen  to  miss  deal,  has  a  right  to 
deal  again,  unless  it  arises  from  his  partner's 
fault ;  and  if  a  card  is  turned  up  in  dealing, 
no  new  deal  can  be  called,  unless  the  part- 
ner was  the  cause  of  it. 

If  any  person  deals,  and  instead  of  turn- 
ing up  the  trump,  he  puts  the  trump-card 
upon  the  rest  of  his  cards,  with  the  face 
downward,  he  loses  his  deal. 

Playing  the  Game.  The  cards  being 
all  dealt,  each  takes  up  his  hand,  which  he 
must  scrupulously  prevent  any  of  his  an- 
tagonists, or  his  partner  from  seeing.  The 
cards  should  be  ranged  like  a  fan  in  the  left 
hand,  so  that  its  holder  can  see  all  his  cards 
at  a  glance.  It  is  advisable,  for  the  sake  of 
order  and  convenience,  to  arrange  the  cards 
in  the  hand,  all  of  a  suit  together.  Each 
having  his  cards  sorted,  the  game  com- 
mences by  the  elder  hand,  or  person  on  the 
left  of  the  dealer,  laying  down  a  card.  The 
person  on  his  left  follows,  and  so  on  to  the 
dealer,  who  lays  down  last. 


The  principle  of  playing  is  as  follows: — 
Whatever  suit  the  first  card  is  of,  that  suit 
must,  if  possible,  be  followed  by  each  party 
mund  ;  but  if  one  party  has  not  a  card  of 
that  suit,  he  can  lay  down  one  of  any  other 
suit.  Should  h<'  do  so,  and  afterwards  lay 
down  a  card  of  the  suit  which  he  appeared 
to  be  defieient  of,  he  has  committed  a  revoke, 
and  a  penalty  is  exacted  in  the  loss  of  three 
tricks.  It  is  necessary,  for  the  sake  of  fair- 
play,  to  be  very  rigorous  in  punishing  a 
revoke. 

The  four  cards  laid  down  in  a  round  is 
called  a  trick.  The  trick  is  won  in  various 
ways.  The  card  of  the  highest  value  wins. 
For  example,  if  the  first  player  lays  down 
a  deuce  of  spades,  the  second  a  three  of 
spades,  the  third  a  four  of  spades,  and  the 
fourth  a  five  of  spades,  this  last  person  wins  ; 
his  party  gains  a  trick.  But  should  one  of 
the  players  not  have  a  spade  in  his  hand, 
and  lays  down  a  deuce  of  the  suit  which 
happens  to  be  trumps,  that  card  wins. 
No  matter  how  high  in  value  the  cards  laid 
down  are,  the  trick  is  always  won  by  a 
trump-card,  though  it  were  only  a  deuce. 
If  several  trump-cards  be  laid  down,  or  all 
be  trumps,  then  the  highest  trump-card 
wins.  The  ace  of  trumps  is  the  highest 
card. 

When  the  trick  is  played,  it  is  lifted  by 
the  person  who  wins,  and  placed  beside  him 
in  a  heap  on  the  table,  back  uppermost; 
and  he  continues  to  take  up  all  other  tricks 
his  party  wins.  Thus  one  on  each  side 
collects  and  reckons  the  tricks. 

Whoever  wins  the  trick  becomes  elder 
hand,  and  plays  first  in  next  round ;  and  so 
on,  each  winner  plays  first  till  all  the  cards 
are  played  out. 

A  pack  produces  thirteen  tricks,  but  none 
is  counted  till  after  six.  For  instance,  if 
one  party  wins  four  tricks,  they  do  not. 
count;  and  the  other  party  which  has  nine 
tricks  counts  three.  Should  one  party  gain 
all  the  tricks,  it  counts  seven. 

The  ace,  king,  queen,  and  knave  of  trumps 
are  called  honours.  These  have  a  peculiar 
value  in  reckoning  towards  the  game. 
Should  each  person  hold  one  honour, 
honours  do  not  count ;  but  should  two  part- 
ners hold  three  honours  between  them,  they 
score  two  points ;  when  they  hold  four, 
they  score  four  points. 

In  long  whist,  the  game  consists  of  ten 
points,  gained  by  tricks  and  by  honours. 
Should  a  party  make  six  tricks  and  hold 
four  honours,  it  has  won  the  game  at  one 
deal.  It  will  therefore  be  perceived  that 
honours,  the  possession  of  which  is  a  matter 
of   mere    chance,    exert   a    powerful   in- 


A   MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


851 


Anonec  in  gaining  the  victory  over  an 
adversary. 

Only  at  one  time  in  the  game  do  honours 
not  count;   this  is  when   the  party  is  at 

nine  ;  the  odd  point  to  make  up  to  ten  being 
only  gained  by  tricks.  When  a  party  is  at 
eight,  and  the  first  trick  has  been  played, 
one  of  that  party,  who  holds  two  honours, 
may  ask  his  partner  if  he  has  one  honour; 
ami  If  he  says  he  has,  the  three  honours  are 
at  once  shown,  which  concludes  the  game. 
There  are  rules  for  calling  honours,  which 
we  mbjoin. 

In  the  course  of  playing  the  game,  no  one 
must  drop  the  slightest  hint  how  he  wishes 
his  partner  to  play,  or  make  any  other  ob- 
servation calculated  to  mislead  or  direct. 
Neither  may  any  one,  before  his  partner  has 
played,  inform  "him  that  he  has  or  has  not 
won  the  trick  ;  even  the  attempt  to  take  up 
a  trick,  though  won  before  the  last  partner 
has  played,  is  deemed  very  improper. 

All  parties  must  play  by  their  own  per- 
ceptions of  what  would  be  most  judicious. 
There  is  only  one  exception  to  the  rule  of 
keeping  silence,  which  is  in  the  case  of  a 
revoke.  If  a  person  happens  not  to  follow 
suit,  or  trump  a  suit,  the  partner  is  at 
liberty  to  enquire  of  him  whether  he  is  sure 
he  has  none  of  that  suit  in  his  hand.  This 
indulgence  must  have  arisen  from  the  severe 
penalties  annexed  to  revoking,  which  affects 
the  partners  equally,  and  is  now  universally 
admitted. 

The  great  knack  in  playing  whist  is  to 
remember  what  is  out,  and  hence,  by  the 
play  of  both  partner  and  adversaries,  to 
have  a  shrewd  guess  of  what  each  holds  in 
his  hand.  A  primary  rule  is  to  follow  a 
partner' 8  lead,  as  it  is  presumed  that  no 
one,  in  playing  first,  is  without  a  good 
reason  for  tabling  a  particular  suit. 

The  term  finessing  signifies  the  attempt 
to  gain  an  advantage  ;  thus,  if  you  have  the 
best  and  third  best  card  of  the  suit  led,  you 
put  on  the  third  best,  and  run  the  risk  of 
your  adversary  having  the  second  best ;  if 
he  has  not,  which  is  two  to  one  against  him, 
you  ar  i  then  certain  of  gaining  a  trick. 

A  loose  cird  is  a  card  of  no  value,  and 
consequently  the  most  proper  to  throw 
away  ;  it  would  be  folly  to  lay  a  good  card 
down,  when  it  must  clearly  be  taken  by  p. 
better  card  already  tabled. 

A  s( quince  is  a  succession  of  cards  in  the 
game  suit ;  as  ace,  king,  queen,  knave. 

Tvnace  is  possessing  the  first  and  third 
best  cards,  and  being  last  player;  you  con- 
sequently conquer  the  adversary  when  that 
suit  is  played. 

Scoring  is  the  method  of  reckoning  the 


points* in  a  game.  The  reckoning  is  made 
by  four  counters,  or  pieces  ot  money  ;  and 
the  way  in  which  these  pieces  ,uv  disposed 
■hows  the  score.  The  following  is  the 
ordinary  method  of  scoring: — 

123456789 

0      0    00    0G0    0 

0     00  000  0000  00   000   0       0      0 

0 

Rulks  for  Flaying. — If  a  person  plays 
out  of  his  proper  turn,  or  shows  a  card,  it  is 
in  the  option  of  either  of  his  adversaries  to 
call  that  card;  that  is,  eanse  him  to  lay  it 
down  at  any  time  in  that  deal,  provided 
it  does  not  make  him  revoke ;  or  either  of 
the  adversaries  may  require  of  the  person 
who  ought  to  have  led,  the  suit  the  said 
adversary  may  choose. 

If  a  person  supposes  he  has  won  the  trick, 
and  leads  again  before  his  partner  has 
played,  the  adversary  may  oblige  his  part- 
ner to  win  it  if  he  can. 

If  a  person  leads,  and  his  partner  plays 
before  his  turn,  the  adversary's  partner  may 
do  the  same. 

If  the  ace  or  any  other  card  of  a  suit  is 
led,  and  the  last  player  should  happen  to 
play  out  of  his  turn,  whether  his  partner 
has  any  of  the  suit  led  or  not,  he  is  neither 
entitled  to  trump  it  nor  to  win  the  trick, 
provided  you  do  not  make  him  revoke. 

If  a  revoke  happens  to  be  made,  the  ad- 
versaries may  add  three  to  their  score,  or 
take  three  tricks  from  the  revoking  party, 
or  take  down  three  from  their  score  ;  and  if 
up,  notwithstanding  the  penalty,  they  must 
remain  at  nine :  the  revoke  takes  place  of 
anv  other  score  of  the  game. 

If  any  person  revokes,  and  discovers  it 
before  the  cards  are  turned*  the  adversary 
may  call  the  highest  or  lowest  of  the  suit 
led,  or  call  the  card  then  played,  at  any 
time  when  it  does  not  cause  a  revoke. 

No  revoke  can  be  claimed  till  the  trick  is 
turned  and  quitted,  or  the  party  who  re- 
voked, or  his  partner,  has  played  again. 

If  a  revoke  is  claimed  by  any  person,  the 
adverse  party  are  not  to  mix"  their  cards, 
upnn  forfeiture  of  the  revoke. 

No  person  can  claim  a  revoke  after  the 
cards  are  cut  for  a  new  deal. 

If  any  person  calls,  except  at  the  point  cf 
eight,  the  adversaries  may  call  a  new  deal, 
if  they  think  proper. 

After  the  trnmp-card  is  turned  up,  no 
person  must  remind  his  partner  to  call,  on 
penalty  of  losing  one  point. 

No  honours  in  the  preceding  deal  can  be 
set  up  alter  the  trump-card  is  turned  up, 
unle>s  they  were  before  claimed. 

If  any  person  calls  at  eight,  and  his  part- 


362 


FACTS  FOB  EVERYBODY  : 


nor  answers,  and  the  adverse  party  have 
both  thrown  down  their  card- and  it  appears 
that  the  potties  calling  have  not  the  honours, 
the  adversaries  are  entitled,  if  they  please, 
to  compel  the  play  to  go  on,  or  to  have  a 
new  deal. 

If  any  person  answers  without  having  an 
honour,  the  adversary  may  consult  and 
stand  the  deal  or  not. 

If  any  person  calls  at  eight,  after  he  has 
played,  it  is  in  the  option  of  the  adverse 
party  to  call  a  new  deal. 

If  any  person  separates  a  card  from  the 
rest,  the  adverse  party  may  call  it,  provided 
he  names  it,  and  proves  the  separation  ;  but 
if  he  calls  a  wrong  card,  he  or  his  partner  is 
liable  for  once  to  have  the  highest  or  lowest 
card  called  in  any  6uit  led  during  that 
deal. 

If  any  person,  supposing  the  game  lost, 
throws  his  cards  upon  the  table  with  their 
faces  upwards,  he  may  not  take  them  up 
again  ;  and  the  adverse  party  may  call  any 
of  the  cards  when  they  think  proper, 
provided  they  do  not  make  the  party 
revoke. 

If  any  person  is  sure  of  winning  every 
trick  in  his  hand,  he  may  show  his 
cards ;  but  he  is  then  liable  to  have  them 
called. 

If  any  person  omits  playing  to  a  trick, 
and  it  appears  that  he  has  one  card  more 
than  the  rest,  it  is  in  the  option  of  the 
adversary  to  have  a  new  deal. 

Each  person,  in  playing,  ought  to  lay  his 
card  before  him;  and  if  any  of  the  adver- 
saries mix  their  cards  with  his,  his  partner 
may  demand  each  person  to  lay  his  card 
before  him,  but  not  to  enquire  who  played 
any  particular  card. 

Dints  to  Learners.  1.  Lead  from 
your  strong  suit — or  that  with  which  you 
could  make  the  most  tricks — and  be  cautious 
how  you  change  suits. 

2.  Lead  through  an  honour,  when  jrou 
have  a  good  hand — that  is,  cause  your  ad- 
versary on  the  left  to  lay  down  a  good 
honour — in  order  that  it  may  be  taken  up  if 
possible  by  your  partner. 

3.  Lead  through  the  strong  suit  of  the 
left-hand  adversary,  and  unto  the  weak  of 
him  who  is  on  the  right ;  but  not  in  trumps, 
unless  you  are  strong  in  them. 

4.  Lead  a  trump  if  you  have  four  or  five, 
or  a  strong  hand  ;  but  not  if  weak. 

5.  Sequences  are  eligible  leads,  and  begin 
with  the  highest. 

6.  Follow  your  partner's  lead,  but  not 
your  adversary's. 

7.  Do  not  lead  from  ace  queen  or  ace 
knave. 


8.  Do  not  lead  an  ace  unless  you  have 
the  king. 

9  Do  not  lead  a  thirteenth  card  unless 
trumps  are  out. 

10.  Do  not  trump  a  thirteenth  card  unless 
you  are  last  player,  or  want  the  lead. 

11.  The  third'  to  play  always  to  put  on  his 
best  card. 

12.  When  you  are  in  doubt,  win  the 
trick. 

13.  When  you  lead  small  trumps,  begin 
with  the  highest. 

14.  Do  not  trump  out  when  your  partner 
is  likely  to  trump  a  suit. 

15.  Having  only  a  few  small  trumps, 
make  them  when  you  can. 

16.  Make  your  tricks  early,  and  be  cau- 
tious how  you  finesse. 

17.  Never  neglect  to  make  the  odd  trick 
when  in  your  power. 

18.  Never  force  your  adversary  with  your 
best  card,  unless  you  have  the  next  best. 

19.  If  you  have  only  one  card  of  any  suit, 
and  but  two  or  three  small  trumps,  lead  the 
single  card. 

20.  Always  endeavour  to  keep  a  com- 
manding card  to  bring  in  your  strong  suit. 

21.  When  your  partner  leads,  endeavour 
to  keep  the  command  in  his  hand. 

22.  Always  keep  the  card  you  turned  up 
as  long  as  you  conveniently  can. 

23.  If  your  antagonists  are  eight,  and 
you  have' no  honour,  play  your  best  frump. 

24.  Always  take  care  to  reckon  and  amend 
the  score  at  conclusion  of  each  deal ;  and  do 
not  speak  or  attempt  to  converse  unless 
between  the  deals. 

A  rubber,  or  rub,  consists  of  three  games. 
The  side  that  has  gained  two  out  of  the 
three,  wins  the  rub.  If  the  same  side  gains, 
the  first  and  the  second  game,  that  concludes 
the  rub,  without  playing  the  third. 

In  short  whist,  each  game  consists  of  five 
points.  If  one  side  wins  the  game  before 
their  adversaries  score  at  all,  it  is  called  a 
treble  ;  if  after  they  have  scored  one  or  two, 
a  double;  if  after  three  or  four  a  single. 
These  treble,  double,  and  single  games 
count  as  3,  2,  and  1,  respectively.  If  the 
side  winning  the  rub  had,  for  instance,  a 
treble  and  a  single,  they  count  four,  which 
form  points  of  the  rub  (as  the  odd  tricks  and 
honours  form  those  of  the  game) ;  the  game, 
if  any,  won  by  the  ot^er  side,  is  deducted. 
Besides  the  points  made  by  the  games,  the 
ruhber  itself  counts  as  two  points 

Whist  is  sometimes  played  by  three  per- 
sons, the  fourth  place  being  termed  dnmby. 
The  cards  for  dumby  are  exposed  on  the 
table,  and  played  by  one  who  undertakes  to 
act  as  dumby' s  partner  throughout. 


A    MTSTF.LLANY   OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


853 


CHROMATYPE.  Tliis  is  a  new  process 
•f  photography,  and  consists  in  washing 
good  Letter  paper  with  the  following  solu- 
tion :    Bichromate   of  potash,   10  grains ; 

sulphate  of  copper,  20  prams;  distilled 
water,  1  ounce.  Papers  prepared  with  this 
are  of  a  pale  yellow  colour,  and  may  be 
kept  for  an\  length  of  t me,  without  injury, 
and  are  always  ready  for  use.  For  copying 
botanical  specimens,  or  .mgravings,  nothing 
can  be  more  btatitifnl.  Altai  the  paper 
has  been  exposed  to  the  influence  of 
sunshine,  with  the  object  to  be  copied 
superposed,  it  is  washed  over  in  the  dark, 
with  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  of 
moderate  strength ;  as  soon  as  this  is 
done,  a  very  vivid  positive  picture  makes 
its  appearance,  which  then  only  requires 
washing  in    pure   water. 

WEEDS  (UTILITY  OF).  Many  plants 
we  term  weeds,  have  valuable  medical 
qualities,  and  some  may  be  applied  to  use- 
ful purposes,  so  as  to  pay  something  to- 
wards the  expense  of  clearing  them  from 
the  ground.  Thus,  sow-thistles  (Sovchus) 
afford  food  for  rabbits  or  hogR ;  the  hog- 
weed  or  cow-parsnip  (Ilerac/eum  sphon- 
dt/lium)  is  good  for  either  swine  or  cattle  ; 
horses  and  asses  are  fond  of  young  thistles 
when  partially  dried,  and  the  seed  may  be 

S re  vented  from  spreading  by  gathering  the 
own,  which  makes  good  pillows  :  however, 
there  is  some  danger  of  trusting  them  to 
this  stage  of  growth,  as  a  high  wind  would, 
and  frequently  does,  disperse  them  over  a 
whole  country.   Charlock,  when  drawn,  may 

HEALTH  STATISTICS.  It  appears  from 
De  Bow's  monthly  statistics,  that  the  popula- 
tion of  the  United  States  are  the  healthiest  on 
the  globe.  The  deaths  are  three  hundred  and 
twenty  thousand  per  year,  or  one  and  one 
third  per  cent,  of  the  population.  In  En- 
gland the  ratio  is  over  two  per  cent.,  and  in 
France  nearly  three.  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina  are  the  healthiest  States,  and  have 
638  inhabitants  over  one  hundred  years  old. 

MAGNITUDE.  Magnitude  cannot  be 
explained  by  definition.  As  Dr.  Lardner 
observes,  there  is  no  magnitude  so  great, 
that  we  cannot  conceive  a  greater,  and  none 
so  small,  that  we  cannot  conceive  a  smaller. 
The  diameter  of  the  earth  measures  about 
8,000  miles;  but  it  is  verj  small  compared 
to  the  diameter  of  the  sun,  which  measures 
nearly  900,000  miles:  and  this,  again,  is 
itself  very  small  compared  with  the  distance 
between  the  earth  and  sun,  which  measures 
little  less  than  100,^0,000  miles;  and  even 
this  last  space,  great  as  it  is,  vanishes  to 
nothing,  compared  with  the  distance  between 
the  sun  and  the  fixed  stars. 


SCRATCHING  OUT  INK  MARKS, 
Persons  who  have  not  penknives  siways  in 

a  good  order  for  scratching  out  ink  works, 
will  find  a  piece  of  fine  sand  or  glass-p;  per 
do  just  as  well. 

NURSEBY  PICTURES  (TO  PKE- 
SERVE).  Pictures  are  an  almost  endless 
source  of  amusement  to  children,  and  as  a 
.meat  variety  may  now  be  had  at  a  trilling 
cost,  there  are  but  few  families  where  some 
are  not  to  be  found :  there  are,  perhaps,  as 
few  families  where  vexation  has  not  been 
experienced  in  finding  how  soon  the  mere 
paper  pictures  are  torn.  A  simple  plan,  by 
which  children  may  use  them  for  years, 
without  tearing,  is  to  paste  them  onto  cheap 
calico — or  the  better  part  of  worn-out  calico 
garments  will  do  ju-t  as  well.  Rub  with  a 
little  smooth  flour  paste,  the  back  of  the 
picture  and  the  calico  on  which  it  is  to  be 
put ;  lay  the  picture  smooth  upon  the 
calieo,  and  leave  it  to  dry  gradually  ;  when 
quite  dry,  neatly  cut  round  the  edges, 
and  the  picture  will  bear  all  the  treatment 
children  are  likely  to  give  it,  without 
being  torn.  Parents  who  have  not  tried, 
would  be  surprised  what  a  fund  of  amuse- 
ment they  might  inexpensively  acquire 
for  their  children,  if  they  would  so  serve 
every  picture  that  comes  in  their  way, 
and  provide  a  portfolio,  or  box  for  their 
reception. 

RING  FAST  ON  THE  FINGER.  When 
this  occurs,  the  use  of  cold  water  to  the 
finger  and  hand — the  hand  and  arm  being 
elevated  at  the  same  time — may  cause  suffi- 
cient shrinking  to  permit  of  the  removal ;  if 
this  does  not  succeed,  the  following  may.  A 
piece  of  fine  pack  thread,  or  linen  thread  is 
to  be  wrapped  evenly  and  firmly  round  the 
finger,  from  the  tip  as  far  as  the  ring, 
through  which  the  end  is  to  be  inserted, 
which  being  done,  the  pack  thread  must  be 
gradually  unwound  by  means  of  the  end 
thus  placed.  If  this  process  does  not  suc- 
ceed the  ring  must  be  tiled  oft';  it  cannot  re- 
main without  risk. 

SILVER  SPOONS.  To  remove  the  stains 
on  spoons  caused  by  using  them  for  boiled 
eggs,  take  a  little  common  salt  between  the 
thumb  and  finger,  and  briskly  rub  the  stain 
which  will  soon  disappear. 

SHOES.  "Whenever  shoes  or  boots  are 
taken  from  the  feet,  it  would  greatly  preserve 
the  upper  lea:  her  from  cracking,  if  the 
wearer  was  to  bend  back  the  soie  of  the  shoe 
on  the  knee,  or  the  back  of  a  chair,  and 
also  pinch  up  the  upper  leather;  it  should 
be  done  when  warm  from  the  feet.  Shoes 
worn  only  once  a  week,  should  be  done  in 
this  manner  every  Sunday  night.    When 


854 


FACTS   FOE   FYETtYBOPY 


put  on  again  the  next  Sunday  morning,  they 
will  have  the  feel  of  a  new  pair.  1  was  told 
this  by  a  shoemaker  out  of  business,  as  a 
secret]  some  years  ago,  and  have  always  at- 
tended to  it  since  with  a  great  a*~ing  to  my 
pocket. 

i  Lv'.A..  We  give  a  cut  of  this  troublesome 
parasitic  insect,  although  probably,  must  of 
our  readers  are  but  too  well  aware  of  its 


form  ;  for  it  is  one  of  our  commonest  house- 
hold nuisances;  we  have  it  here,  however, 
in  its  magnified  proportions,  and  a  horrid 
monster  it  looks,  with  long  muscular,  spiny 
legs,  well  adapted  for  leaping,  and  scaly 
body,  neck,  and  head,  beset  with  hairs,  and 
armed  with  two  lancets  within  a  sheath, 
for  piercing  the  skin  of  its  victim,  and  a 
proboscis  tor  sucking  up  its  blood.  Into  the 
natural  history  of  the  creature,  it  suits  not 
with  our  present  purpose  to  enter  at  any 
length  ;  we  may  just  say  that  its  scientific 
name  is  Tulex  initans,  and  that  the  female, 
of  which  the  above  is  a  representation — the 
male  being  somewhat  smaller,  and  different 
in  shape,  as  shctwn  in  next  column — deposits 
her  eggs,  some  twenty  or  thirty  in  number, 
in  the  crevices  of  boards,  or  amid  collec- 
tions of  dirt,  or  rubb'sh  of  any  kind,  from 
whence  in  six  or  eight  days  emerge  the 
whitish,  greasy-looking  maggots;  these, 
when  a  fortnight  old,  envelope  them- 
selves in  small  cocoons,  and  after  remain- 
ing in  this  state  about  ten  days,  come  out 
as  perfect  Fleas,  ready  to  make  war  upon 
men,  women,  and  children,  but  especially 
affecting  those  who  have  the  most  tender 
skins.  How  to  get  rid  of  them  ?  is  the 
anxious  question  with  all  careful  mothers 
and  tidy  housewives.  Cleanliness  and  inde- 
fatigable hunting,  we  reply;  there  is 
nothing  to  be  done  without  "trouble,  and 
catching  this  nimble  skipper,  requires  both 
quickness  and  patience  in  no  ordinary  de- 

?;ree.  When  there  are  Fleas  in  a  bed-room, 
et  the  carpets  be  taken  up,  and  the  floors 
frequently  washed,  and  then  sprinkled  with 
a  strong  decoction  of  Wormwood;  among  the 
bed  cloth  .»s,  put  a  bag  filled  with  Dry  Moss, 


the  odour  of  which  is  said  to  be  very  offen- 
sive to  them,  as  is  also  that  of  fresh -gathered 
Pennyroyal  leaves.  As  a  trap  for  them, 
some  use  Alder  leaves,  gathered  while  t  he 
dew  is  on  them,  to  this  the  Fleas  adhere, 
and  may  then  be  easily  taken.  Mercurial 
Ointment  rubbed  in  the  joints  of  the  bed- 
stead, and  Sulphur  fumigations,  are  also  said 
to  be  efficacious  in  killing  or  expelling  them  ; 
Sweet  or  Train-oil  they  cannot  abide, 
and  to  drive  them  from  their  last  strong- 
hold, the  coat  of  the  cat  or  dog,  it  is  but 
necessary  to  pour  some  along  the  back,  and 
then  rub  it  in  with  the  hand,  until  it 
is  well  incorporated  with  the  hairs.  Here 
is  a  choice  of  remedies ;  but  all  will  be 
of  little  avail  without  cleanliness  —  per- 
sonal and  otherwise.  Only  dirty,  negli- 
gent people,  are  much  troubled  with  Fleas. 
unless  they  are  necessitated  to  live  in  old 
houses,  of  which  they  have  long  had  pos- 
session, or  in  localities  extremely  favour- 
able to  their  propagation  ;  ihe  efforts  of 
such  should  be  constantly  directed  to  keep- 
ing them  under,  and  the  above  informa- 
tion may  probably  assist  them.  They  are 
often  extremely  annoying  to  sick  persona, 


^&^^^^4^ 


and  irritable  children,  depriving  them  of 
rest,  and  thus  retarding  restoration  to 
health;  for  this  reason,  the  Family  Doctor 
is  bound  to  wage  war  against  them  ;  besides, 
they  inflict  severe  bites,  and  make  ugly 
marks  on  the  skin;  now,  although  Flea  Bites 
are  proverbially  small  matters,  yet,  they 
sometimes  cause  serious  inflammation,  not 
to  speak  of  the  disfigurement;  they  should 
be  rubbed  over  with  a  little  Cold  Cream,  and 
if  much  inflamed,  kept  wet  with  a  lotion  of 
Elder  Flowers  with  a  few  grains  of  Sugar  of 
Lead  dissolved  in  it. 

CHIMNEYS  (SMOKY).  A  chimney 
which  smokes  at  the  wrong  end  is  a  great 
nuisance  ;  a  cause  of  discomfort,  vexation, 
and  annoyance  to  all  who  are  forced  to  live 
near  it;  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  very 
numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to  find 


A   MISCELLANY  OF  USEFTTL  KNOTVLEDOE. 


355 


a  remedy.  "We  have  what  are  culled  wind- 
guards,  reverberator*,  and  all  sorts  and 
of  <h  mney-pota,  to  the  great  dis- 
sent of  our  houses:  but  theae  are 
men'  expedients  which  might  be  avoided. 
'Jiit'  best  way  to  prevent  a  chimney  ttuoking 
at  the  wrong  i  tid  is  to  build  it  properly  at 
first,  or  to  alter  it  on  some  sound  and 
practical  plan. 

The  great  cause  of  smoky  chimneys  is 
that  they  are  made  too  wide  at  their  lower 
end,  where  they  eotnc  down  and  meet  the 
fire-place;  for  years  it  has  been  the  prac- 
tice to  leave  an  opening  the  whole  width 
and  depth  of  the  fire-place,  from  which  the 
smoke  rushes  out.  and  half  blinds  or  stifles 
those  who  are  sitting  by  the  fire.  How 
often  do  we  see  a  board,  or  a  strip  of  tin, 
or  a  narrow  curtain  hung  under  the  mantel- 
piece, to  keep  tiie  smoke  from  being  trouble- 
some. But  besides  this  annoyance,  these 
wide-mouthed  chimneys  waste  more  than 
half  the  heat  of  the  tire;  for,  instead  oi 
coming  out  and  wanning  the  room  as  it 
ought  to  do,  the  heat  rushes  at  once  up  the 
chimney  and  so  is  lost. 

Although  a  large  open  fire-plaee  helps 
in  keeping  a  room  ventilated,  it  is  further 
objectionable  because  of  the  draughts  which 
it  creates.  In  old-fashioned  houses,  people 
are  ob.iged  to  use  screens  and  many  other 
contrivances  to  shelter  themselves  from  the 
currents  of  air  which  come  from  all  quarters, 
to  give  stiff-necks,  ear-aches,  and  other 
unwelcome  twinges  to  those  who  sit  near 
the  great  cavern  called  a  tire-place,  where 
thej  are  scorched  on  one  side  and  frozen  on 
the  other.  With  such  arrangements,  a  room 
never  can  he  warm,  because  the  air  rushes 
away  so  fast  that  the  walls  have  never  time 
to  get  heated,  and  at  a  distance  from  the  fire 
are  as  cold  as  out  of  doors. 

A  good  deal  of  the  inconvenience  of  smoke 
might  be  avoided  by  the  proper  manage- 
ment of  a  tire.  Count  Ilumford  observes — 
'*  Nothing  can  be  more  perfectly  void  of 
common  sense,  and  wasteful  and  slovenly  at 
the  same  time,  than  the  manner  in  which 
chimney  tires,  and  particularly  where  coals 
are  burned,  are  commonly  managed  by 
servants.  They  throw  on  aload  of  coals  at 
once,  through  which  the  flame  is  hours  in 
making  its  way;  and  frequently  it  is  not 
without  much  "trouble  that  the  "fire  is  pre- 
vented from  going  quite  out.  During  this 
time  no  heat  is  communicated  to  the  room; 
and  what  is  still  worse,  the  throat  of  the 
chimney  is  occupied  merely  by  a  heavy 
dense  vapour,  not  possessed  of  any  con- 
siderable degree  of  heat,  and  consequently 
not  having  much  elasticity.     The  current 


of  wxrm  air  from  the  room  which   ; 
into  the  chimney,  eToatei  open  the  tjurrent 

of  heavy  smoke  which  rnos  s  owly  from  'he 
tire,  obstruct!  it  in  its  ascent,  ami  l> 
back  into  the  room;  hence  it  is  that  chini- 
oflen  smoke  when  too  Urge  a  quan- 
tity of  fresh  coals  is  put  upon  the  tire  So 
many  coals  .should  never  be  put  upon  the  fire 
at  once  as  to  prevent  the  free  passage  of  the 
flame  between  them.  In  short,  a  tire  should 
never  he  smothered;  and  when  proper  at- 
tention is  paid  to  the  quantity  of  coals  put 
on,  there  will  be  very  little  use  for  the 
poker;  and  this  fact  will  contribute  very 
much  to  cleanliness,  and  to  the  preservation 
of  furniture." 

'ihe  Count  devoted  much  attention  to 
household  economy  generally,  and  as  we 
know  of  no  better  plans  for  curing  or  pre- 
venting a  smoky  chimney  and  saving  fuel 
than  his,  we  shall  endeavour  to  give  such  a 
simple  account  of  them  as  will  enable  any 
working-bricklayer  or  mason  either  to  build 
a  new  chimney  properly,  or  to  alter  an  old 
one  on  correct  principles. 

Generally  speaking,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  diminish  the  opening  of  the  fire-place — 
that  is,  to  make  it  smaller;  and  to  fix  the 
grate  more  forward  and  less  high  than  has 
been  the  practice.  Sometimes  a  straight 
stone  slab  placed  all  across  under  the  mam  id, 
or  a  row  of  bricks  supported  by  a  flat  iron 
bar,  will  be  sufficient  to  effect  a  cure ;  for 
this  lowers  the  breast  of  the  chimney,  and 
diminishes  the  size  of  the  opening  of  the 
fire-place.    The  breast  of  a  chimnev  is  that 


Pig.  1.  Pig.  2. 

part  against  which  the  mantel  is  built,  and 
a  good  deal  depends  on  the  way  on  which 
this  is  finished  on  the  inside. 
Then,  if  we  wish  smoke  to  ascend  easily, 


356 


FACTS   FOR   EVERYBODY 


we  must  place  the  throat,  or  lower  part  of 
the  chimney,  immediately  over  the  tire ; 
the  back  of  the  fire-place  also  should  be 
Tbuilt  perpendicular.  There  is  no  more 
reason  why  smoke  should  refuse  to  ascend 
a  properly-coustructed  chimney,  than  that 
water  should  refuse  to  descend  through  a 
pipe.  And  it  will  be  seen  from  the  diagrams 
that  these  improvements  can  be  made  with 
but  a  small  amount  of  trouble. 

Figure  1  shows  a  fire-place  and  part  of 
the  chimney  as  usually  built;  an  opening 
with  square  sides,  in  which  the  grate  is 
fixed  so  fir  back  that  most  of  the  heat  is 
lost.  The  depth,  however,  from  back  to 
front  should  not  be  more  than  from  9  to 
13  inches;  the  back  is,  therefore,  to  be 
built  up,  as  shown  at  figure  2,  and  in  the 


Fig.  8. 
ground  plan,  figure  4.      It  will  be  seen  that 
the  chimney  breast  has  a  small  piece  added 
to  lower  it. 

Figure  3  represents  the  ground  plan  of 
the  fire-place  in  figure  1 ;  but  instead  of 
square,  it  is  to  have  sloping  sides,  and  is  to 
be  filled  up  as  in  figure  4.  To  do  this  ac- 
cording to  rule,  a  line  A,  B,  is  to  be  drawn 


11111 


Fig.  4 
straight  from  one  jamb  to  the  other;  and 
from  the  centre  of  this,  a  cross  line  e  is  to  be 
drawn  from  front  to  back.  The  mason  is 
then  to  hold  a  plumb-line  against  the  inside 
of  the  chimney  breast,  where  it  begins  to 
run  straight  upward?,  as,  for  example,  at  #, 
figure  1,  and  the  spot  where  the  plumb-line 
rests  on  the  cross  line  e  is  to  be  carefully 
marked.    Four  inches  behind  this  mark  is 


the  position  for  the  back  of  the  fire-place,  as 
shown  by  the  brickwork  in  figure  2,  which, 
by  being  so  placed,  gives  four  inches  as  the 
dimensions  from  back  to  front  of  the  throat 
of  the  chimney  seen  at  d. 

This  brickwork,  and  the  sides,  are  to  be 
carried  up  from  six  to  nine  inches  above 
♦he  lowest  part  of  the  chimney  breast,  so  as 
to  give  a  sufficient  length  and  form  to  the 
throat  d;  and  instead  of  being  finished  ir- 
regularly, or  with  a  slope  at  the  top,  it  must 
b»  perfectly  Hat  and  level;  because  when 
the  wind  sets  down  the  chimney,  if  it 
strikes  against  a  slope  it  drives  the  smoke 
into  the  room,  but  not  if  it  strikes 
upon  a  flat  Too  much  pains  cannot  be 
taken  to  make  a  good  finish  of  the  inside  of 
the  breast;  it  should  be  quite  smooth  and 
perpendicular,  so  as  to  offer  no  impediment 
to  the  ascent  of  the  smoke.  The  lower  part 
is  to  be  carefully  rounded  off  with  plaster, 
as  at  if  figure  2,  instead  of  being  left  square 
or  rough  and  badly  finished,  as  it  nearly 
always  is. 

The  way  to  fix  the  sides  or  coverings  of 
the  fire-place  is  at  aslope  or  angle,  as  shown 
at  figure  4.  It  has  been  found  that  an 
angle  of  45  degives  is  that  which  throws  the 
most  heat  into  the  room.  These  angles  and 
the  back  should  be  made  of  tire-brick,  and 
if  each  of  one  piece  the  better,  as  it  will  then 
be  easy  to  place  thein  in  the  position  repre- 
sented in  the  diagram.  The  hollow  spaces 
behind  may  be  filled  up  with  regular  layers 
of  brickwork,  all  brought  to  the  same  fiat  level 
at  the  top.  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that 
iron  is  the  best  material  for  the  back  and 
sides  of  a  grate  ;  fire-brick  is  much  better. 
Iron  absorbs  the  heat — fire-brick  throws  it 
out,  and  besides  it  can  be  white- washed 
which  is  a  great  economy,  for  white  throws 
out  both  light  and  heat,  which  black  does 
not.  All  parts  of  a  fire-place  not  liable  to 
be  blackened  by  smoke,  should  be  kept 
white,  it  is  a  common  practice  to  do  so  in 
the  United  States. 

Any  workman  may  get  the  angle  of  the 
sides  by  an  easy  way,  shown  at  figure  5.  On 
a  board,  bench,  or  table,  or  on  the  floor,  draw 
three  equal  squares,  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
inches  each  way,  as  A,  B,  C ;  and  from  the 
back  corner  e  of  the  central  square  B,  draw 
a  diagonal  line  across  the  square  A,  to  the 
outer  corner  f.  This  gives  the  angle  at 
which  the  sides  are  to  be  fixed;  and  if  a 
wooden  bevel  or  mould -board  be  made  ex- 
actly to  this  plan,  a  bricklayer  will  always 
be  able  to  use  it  in  setting  out  hio  work,  and 
with  something  like  certainty  that  he  ^s 
doing  right.  If  the  chimney  should  be  an 
uncommonly    smoky  one,  or  if  the  grate 


A    VISCF.LLANY   OP  TJSFFTJL   XNOWLFDOE. 


357 


should  not  be  exactly  of  the  required  width, 
either  of  the  other  two  angles  shown  by  Hi 


dotted  lines    may 


chosen.  To  leave 
room  for  sweeping  the 
chimney,  the  upper 
part  of  the  back  is  to 

be  i  single  slab,  ;ts  at 
o,  figure  2,  which  is 
to  lie  fitted  so  as  to 
shift  in  or  out.  This 
can  e:ts.ly  be  done  by 
standing  the  slab  in 
its  place,  and  finishing 
the  other  work  up  to 
it,  being  careful  to 
leave  all  level  at  the 
top.  Lv  taking  out 
this  slab  when  the 
chimney  re q ui res 
sweeping,  room  is  left 
for  the  passage  of  the 
brush,  and  when  it  is 
replaced  it  leaves  the 
chimney  throat  *  as 
perfect  as  before. 
The  true  proportions 
Fig.  5.  of    a    grate    are,    to 

hare  the  width  of  the  front  three  times  the 
width  of  the  back.  Nine  inches  should  be 
t**e  width  of  the  back,  and  the  depth  of  the 
gra?e  from  back  to  front  the  same,  which 
multiplied  by  thiee,  gives  twenty-seven 
inches  as  the  width  of  the  front.  These 
dimensions  are  not  to  be  departed  from,  un- 
less under  strong  necessity  ;  by  keeping  to 
them,  the  sides  or  copings  of  the  fire-place 
■will  always  be  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  as 
above-mentioned.  As  a  rule,  the  height  of 
the  fire-place  should  be  the  same  as  the 
"width. 


If  these  directions  are  carefully  followed, 

it  will  be  found  that  the  fire-place  will  be 

complete  all  but  the  bars,  a  matter  worth 

consideration,  because  the  less  iron  there  is 

16* 


about  a  grate  the  better.  The  bar*  nnd  bot- 
tom may  be  made  of  iron  all  in  one,  and  Hio 
bottom  is  not  to  be  more  than  five  inches 
ali've  the  hearth  ;  for  a  grate  when  fixed  low 
sends  more  heat  into  the  room  than  when 
fixed  high.  Figure  6  represents  a  fin 
complete.  It  does  not  look  so  elegant  or 
showy  as  those  which  modern  taste  has  pro- 
duced, but  it  will  be  found  far  more  ser- 
viceable and  economical. 

In  cases  where  the  breast  of  the  chimney 
is  nine  inches  thick,  the  four  inches  which 
have  to  be  allowed  for  the  throat  behind 
this,  will  make  the  fire-place  thirteen  inches 
deep.  The  back  mu>-t  then  be  thirteen 
inches  wide,  and  the  front  three  times  thir- 
teen, or  thirty-nine  inches,  and  the  angles 
will  be  in  their  true  position.  A  fire-place 
of  this  size  will  warm  a  large  room,  while  a 
grate  nine  inches  deep  will  serve  for  all  or- 
dinary sitting-rooms. 

A  cheerful  and  steady  fire  is  so  great  a 
comfort  as  to  make  it  worth  while  to  take  a 
little  pains  to  insure  it.  The  plan  here  de- 
scribed, if  properly  carried  out,  cannot  fail 
of  success,  and  will  leave  little  need  for 
chimney-pots  or  cowls. 

DRESS  (OX  PROPER  TASTE  IN). 
There  are  many  people  who  do  not  know 
that  in  order  to  dress  well,  thev  must  follow 
certain  rules,  and  pay  attention  to  certain 
laws,  and  that  it  is  not  a  mere  question  of 
fancy.  By  dressing  well,  we  do  not  mean 
dressing  expensively,  but  dressing  properly; 
for  it  is  not  more  difficult  to  exercise  taste 
in  the  wearing  of  low-puced  clothing,  than 
of  high  priced. 

Most  people  know,  that  in  looking  at  a 
rainbow,  they  see  seven  different  colours, 
and  for  a  long  time  it  was  thought  that  the 
number  really  was  seven,  but  of  late  years 
it  was  found  that  there  are  not  more  than 
three.    These  three  are  called  primitive  or 


primary  colours;  the  others  are  called  secon- 
dary colours,  because  they  are  made  up  by 
a  mixture  or  combination  of  the  first 
This  may  be  better  explained  by  means  of  a 
diagram.  Here  the  red,  blue,  and  vellow, 
are  the  three  primitives,  and  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  others  lie  between  them.     For  in- 


858 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY: 


stance,  the  meeting:  and  overlapping  of  the 
red  and  yellow,  produces  orange,  passing 
from  a  d<  ep  tint  on  thj  red  side,  to  a  light 
tint  on  the  yellow  side.  In  like  manner, 
the  overlapping  of  the  yellow  with  the  blue 
forms  given,  and  the  overlapping  of  the  red 
with  the  blue,  produces  violet  or  purple.  If 
the  diagram  were  coloured,  the  effect  would 
be  more  apparent,  and  it  would  be  easy  to 
see  that  two  primary  colours  are  required  to 
make  one  secondary  colour. 

There  is  another  fact  also  to  be  remarked  ; 
the  space  opposite  to  each  primitive  is  filled 
by  the  secondary  composed  of  the  other  two 
primitives,  and  these  secondaries  are  called 
complementary  colours.  Green,  therefore, 
is  the  complementary  colour  to  red,  purple 
to  yellow,  and  orange  to  blue.  This  may  be 
proved  in  another  way  : — Fix  a  red  wafer  in 
the  centre  of  a  white  sheet  of  paper,  look  at 
it  steadily  for  a  time,  then  look  at  another 
sheet  which  has  nothing  on  it,  and  there 
will  appear  to  be  a  green  wafer  in  the  middle 
of  it ;  and  so  with  the  other  colours.  This 
explains  the  reason  why  the  putting  to- 
gether of  red  and  green,  blue  and  orange, 
yellow  and  purple,  in  the  decoration  of 
rooms,  or  in  dress,  produces  so  pleasing  and 
harmonious  a  contrast.  It  is  true  to  nature, 
and  that  is  the  whole  secret. 

It  would  be  possible  by  drawing  other 
lines  across  the  same  diagram  to  represent 
all  the  varieties  of  tints,  three  of  orange, 
three  of  green,  &c,  and  in  each  case,  the 
exact  complement  will  always  be  found  op- 
posite the  two  sections  of  the  primitive  :  the 
balance  is  always  kept  up.  Out  of  all  these, 
all  sorts  of  hues  may  be  produced,  positive 
or  neutral,  arranged  either  in  their  order 
as  they  appear  in  the  rainbow,  deepening  or 
softening  one  into  the  other,  or  forming 
strong  contrasts.  It  is  by  the  latter,  that 
the  most  striking  effects  are  produced. 

In  describing  the  colours,  red  is  said  to  be 
the  most  positive  of  the  primitives,  yellow 
the  lightest,  and  blue  the  coldest.  The  first 
two  are  always  considered  to  be  warm  co- 
lours, orange  is  a  warm  secondary,  green  is 
medium,  and  violet  the  coldest.  Artists 
speak  of  the  warm  colours  us  standing  out, 
while  the  cool  ones  appear  to  go  back.  Green 
and  red  form  a  medium  contrast;  orange 
and  blue  the  extremest ;  as  in  them  the 
■warmest  and  coldest  colours  are  brought  to- 
gether. Black  and  white  are  not  colours, 
the  first  is  made  by  mixing  the  three  pri- 
maries together ;  gray  is  produced  by  a 
mixture  of  white  and  black,  and  forms  a 
colour  which  is  very  useful  in  softening  the 
effects  of  violent  contrasts. 

With  these  facts  before  us,  we  shall  now 


be  able  to  comprehend  better  in  what  way  to 
regulate  the  colours  of  dress ;  and  instead 
of  following  mere  routine  or  mere  whim,  we 
shall  perceive  that  a  little  study  and  atten- 
tion, will  keep  us  from  those  disfigurements 
too  often  seen  in  women's  dress. 

In  the  dress  of  English  ladies,  we  find  too 
frequently  a  variety  of  colours,  without  any 
pretensions  to  harmony  of  arrangement. 
Not  only  is  the  dress  "or  bonnet  selected 
without  the  slightest  consideration,  whether 
it  is,  or  is  not  suitable  to  the  complexion, 
but  a  variety  of  colours  of  the  most  disso- 
nant and  inharmonious  kinds  may  fre- 
quently be  seen  in  the  habiliments  of  the 
same  lady. 

We  continually  see  a  light  blue  bonnet 
and  flowers  surrounding  a  sallow  counte- 
nance, or  a  pink  opposed  to  one  of  a  glow- 
ing red  ;  a  pale  complexion  associated  with 
canary,  or  lemon-yellow,  or  one  of  delicate 
red  and  white,  rendered  almost  colourless 
by  the  vicinity  of  deep  red.  Now,  if  the 
lady  with  the  sallow  complexion  had  worn  a 
transparent  white  bonnet,  or  if  the  lady 
with  the  glowing  complexion  had  lowered  it 
by  means  of  a  bonnet  of  deeper  red  colour — 
if  the  pale  lady  had  improved  the  cada^o 
rows  hue  of  her  countenance,  by  surround- 
ing it  with  pale  gieen,  which,  by  contrast, 
would  have  suffused  it  with  a  delicate  pink 
hue,  or  had  the  face 

*  Whose  red  and  white 
Nature's  own  sweet  and  cunning  hand  laid  on." 
been  arrayed  in  a  light  blue,  a  light  green, 
or  in  a  ransparent  white  bonnet,  with  blue 
or  pink  flowers  on  the  inside,  how' different 
and  how  much  more  agreeable  would  have 
been  the  impression  on  the  spectator. 

How  frequently  again  do  we  see  the  di- 
mensions of  a  tall  and  embonpoint  figure, 
magnified  to  almost  Brobdignagian  propor- 
tions, by  a  white  dress;  or  a  small  woman 
reduced  to  Lilliputian  size  by  a  black  dress! 
Now,  as  the  optical  effect  of  white  is  to  en- 
large objects,  and  that  of  black  to  diminish 
them,  if  the  large  woman  had  been  dressed 
in  black,  and  the  small  woman  in  white,  the 
apparent  size  of  each  would  have  approached 
the  ordinary  stature,  and  the  former  would 
not  have  appeared  a  giantess,  or  the  latter  a 
dwarf. 

Next  with  regard  to  the  bonnet — the  co- 
lour of  the  lining  and  the  trimming  should 
be  such  as  will  best  suit  the  complexion  of 
the  wearer.  There  are,  it  appears,  two 
methods  of  setting  off  or  heightening  a  com- 
plexion, first,  by  a  decided  contrast,  such  as 
a  white  drapery,  or  one  of  a  colour  exactly 
complementary  to  the  complexion,  but  not 
of  too  bright  a  hue ;  such  for  example  is  a 


A   MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


359 


peen  drapery  for  a  rosy  complexion,  or  a 
blue  drapery  for  i  blonde.  Secondly,  by 
contrasting  a  fair  complexion  of  an  orange 
hue  with  a  lighl  green  drapery,  ■  rosj  com- 
plexion with  .i  light  blue,  or  h  canary  j  ellow, 
or  strawoolour,  with  certain  compiexi 
eliniug  t<»  orange.  In  the  last  caae,  the 
inentary  violet  neutralises  the  yellow 
of  tlu'  carnation,  which  it  brightens. 

Now,  lot  us  suppose  an  opposite  ease, 
namely,  that  tlu*  complexion  is  too  highly 
coloured,  and  the  object  of  the  painter,  or 
dress-maker  is  to  lower  it.  This  may  be 
d  either  by  means  of  a  black  drapery 
which  lowers  the  complexion  by  contrast  of 
hue,  or  by  a  drapery  of  the  same  colour  as 
the  complexion,  but  much  brighter;  for 
example,  where  the  carnations  are  too  rosy, 
the  drapery  may  be  red  ;  where  they  are  too 
orange,  an  osange-coloured  drapery  may  be 
adopted;  where  they  incline  too  much,  to 
green,  we  may  introduce  a  dark  green 
drapery,  a  rosy  complexion  may  be  con-. 
trasted  with  dark  blue,  or  one  of  a  very  pale 
orange,  with  a  very  dark  yellow. 

A  good  deal  will  be  found  to  depend  on 
the  way  in  which  the  hair  or  cap  is  worn  ; 
because,  if  a  broad  patch  of  hair  come  be- 
twet  n  the  trimming  and  the  face,  the  effect 
is  varied  ;  but  when  the  bonnet  is  worn  far 
back  from  the  face,  then  the  effect  depends 
on  the  shape  of  the  bonnet,  or  on  other  con- 
trasts. In  general,  it  will  be  best  to  follow 
the  same  law  as  laid  down  for  the  other  por- 
tions of  the  attire.  For  example,  a  fair  face- 
may  have  a  black  hat  with  a  white  or  red 
feather.  A  white  bonnet,  when  not  tran- 
span  nt,  is  most  becoming  on  a  red  or  white 
complexion  ;  but  if  it  be  of  gauze  or  a  tran  • 
■parent  substance,  it  will  then  appear  to  be 
gray  ;  the  colour  of  the  trimming  should  be 
•white  or  pink,  but  the  best  effect  seems  to 
be  produced  by  blue.  A  blue  bonnet  is  the 
best  colour  for  a  fair  woman,  with  white  or 
Orange  trimming,  always,  avoiding  red,  or 
deeper  shades  of  blue,  which  spoil  the  effect. 
Grten  also  is  suitable  for  a  fair  face,  espe- 
cially if  the  cheek  show  a  tinge  of  pink,  and 
the  trimming  should  be  white  or  pink  ;  but 
a  pink  bonnet  should  not  be  worn  unless 
there  be  some  white  or  green  trimming  be- 
tween it  and  the  face.  A  mixed  wreath  of 
white  and  green,  such  as  a  sprig  of  Jasmine, 
or  a  branch  of  May,  has  a  very  pleasing 
effect.  If  red  be  worn  by  those  who  have 
red  faces,  it  should  always  be  of  a  darker 
shade  than  the  face,  as  the  object  is  to  re- 
lieve, not  to  deepen,  the  complexion ;  and 
it  has  been  found  by  experience,  that  the 
reflection  from  a  bonnet-lining  is  much  less 
than  is  commonly  supposed.     Nearly  the 


same  may  lie  said  of  black  bonnets  ;  lh<  ir 
contrast  on  a  dark  face  is  not  always  -  I 

as  nn  ;i  ligal  (.lie,  but  a  little  contrivance 
will  make  that  suitable  which  often  appears 

unsuitable.  The  trimmings  should  lie 
white,  red,  pink,  yellow,  or  orange.     Next 

to  black  and  white,  and  orange  and  blue, 
black  and  yellow  if  considered  the  greatest 
contrast  of  colours. 

Brunettes  and  those  with  a  tawny  skin 
may  wear  white  bonnets,  but  must  avoid 
the  blue  trimmings  ;  in  their  case,  pink,  or 
cherry-colour  will  be  the  most  suitable,  not 
forgetting  that  the  hair  should  show  between 
the  bonnet  and  the  face.  A  violet-coloured 
bonnet  gives  the  skin  a  yellow  appearance, 
and  no  woman  likes  to  be  thnugnt  yellow- 
complexioned.  But  whenever  the  appearance 
is  not  satisfactory,  the  effect  should  always 
be  tried  of  placing  something  between  the 
bonnet  and  the  face;  such  as  ribands,  a 
wreath,  lace  or  tulle,  or  the  complementary 
colour,  which  should  also  be  i<  peated  on  the 
outside  of  the  bonnet.  When  we  find 
negroes  and  the  dark-skinned  people  of  the 
East  fond  of  glaring  colours,  it  is  only  an 
effect  of  the  laws  above-mentioned  ;  in 
choosing  these  colours  they  only  take  what 
beet  becomes  them ;  they  nave  no  alterna- 
tive between  these  and  a'purc  white 

With  respect  to  the  hair:  light  hair  is  to 
be  regarded  as  a  "subdued  orange,"  which 
is  more  or  less  yellow,  red,  or  brown,  a<  cord- 
ing to  the  constitution  of  the  individual. 
The  \ellowest  is  the  flaxen  or  golden  hair, 
w  huh  was  once  in  such  repute,  that  ladies 
wno  had  dark  hair  took  pains  to  bleach  it 
and  remove  the  colour.  Where  the  red 
tinge  prevails  the  hair  ischesnut  or  auburn, 
and  sometimes  positively  red.  Black  hair 
and  eyebrows  contrast  well  with  a  fair  com- 
plexion, or  harmonize  with  a  dark  one. 
Sky-blue  is  the  most  becoming  wear  for 
light  and  fair-haired  persons,  being,  as  it 
were,  a  complementary  colour  to  their  own 
hue.  Orange,  yellow,  and  red,  assort  well 
with  dark  hair,  and  in  6ome  instances  violet 
or  green  with  their  complementaries  may 
be  worn.  A  fresh,  rosy  complexion  should 
not  be  surrounded  with  pink  or  rose  colour, 
as  the  effect  will  be  to  deaden  it ;  but  if  a 
fulling  of  tulle  be  placed  between  it  and  the 
face,  then  the  objection  will  disappear.  As 
before  observed,  lace  or  similar  materials 
appear  gray,  for  the  threads  reflect  the 
light,  while*  the  spaces  absorb  it,  and  have 
a  dark  appearance  ;  and  one  being  inter- 
mingled with  the  other,  the  result  is  gray, 
a  neutralizing  tint  of  great  value.  It  should 
be  borne  in  mind,  that  transparent  white 
textures  are   always  to  be    considered  as 


360 


FACTS  FOll  EYERYBODY, 


gray.  Light  green  suits  the  skin  which  has 
no  red,  and  makes  it  look  slightly  ruddy  by 
the  contrast.  On  the  contrary,  "dark  green 
harmonises  best  with  brunettes  and  dark 
complexions  which  have  a  touch  of  orange 
in  them.  If  the  skin  be  yellow,  then  light 
yellow  is  to  be  avoided  in  the  bonnet,  as 
the  effect  it  produces  is  that  of  a  deadly 
white;  violet  gives  such  a  skin  a  green 
hue,  as  also  some  shades  of  blue.  A  dead 
white,  that  is,  one  which  is  not  transparent, 
suits  a  fresh  colour,  making  it  look  more 
rosy,  wtoile  the  effect  of  black  is  to  lower 
the  tone  of  the  colours  associated  with  it, 
and  make  the  skin  appear  fairer.  The 
three  primitive  colours  may  be  made  to 
look  more  brilliant  than  they  are  by  com- 
bining them  with  gray,  and  still  more  so  by 
white  ;  but  gray  is  perhaps  to  be  preferred, 
as  it  "forms  combinations  with  blue,  violet, 
and  dark  colours,  in  general,  which  partake 
of  the  harmony  of  analogy,  while,  on  the 
contrary,  it  forms  with  colours  naturally 
bright/  such  as  red,  orange,  yellow,  and 
light-green,  harmonies  of  contrast.  If,  for 
instance,  gray  be  placed  by  the  side  of  crim- 
son, it  will  acquire  by  contrast  somewhat  of 
a  green  hue ;  by  the  side  of  the  yellow  it 
will  appear  purplish ;  if  by  the  side  of  blue 
it  will  assume  an  orange  hue ;  the  value, 
then,  of  a  neutral  tint  of  this  description 
when  placed  in  contact  with  flesh,  is  very 
evident. 

These  observations  comprise  the  chief 
points  of  the  theory  of  dress  ;  after  reading 
them,  it  is  impossible  not  to  see  the  necessity 
for  some  degree  of  attention  to  the  laws  of 
taste.  Many  people  are  ready  to  justify 
their  neglect  on  the  ground  that  it  is  a 
waste  of  time,  or  of  morality,  to  be  particular 
in  such  matters.  But  we  take  leave  to  say 
that  such  is  not  the  case.  We  ai*e  bound 
by  social,  as  well  as  moral,  laws,  to  wear 
decent  clothing,  and  there  is  no  impropriety 
whatsoever  in  making  ourselves  look  as  be- 
coming as  possible — .always  remembering 
to  avoid  pride  and  vanity. 

CRIBBAGE.  This  game  is  played  with 
the  whole  pack  of  cards,  and  by  two,  three, 
or  four  persons,  as  the  case  may  be.  When 
there  are  three,  they  play  as  individuals ; 
when  four,  two  play  as  partners,  as  in  the 
case  of  whist.  The  value  of  the  cards  in 
cribbage  is  the  same  as  in  whist ;  but  there 
are  no  trumps,  excepting  the  knave  of  the 
suit  turned  up.  There  are  different  modes 
of  plaving,  according  to  the  number  of 
cards  dealt ;  the  number  is  generally  five  or 
six.  The  game  consists  of  sixty-one  points, 
and  to  keep  score  or  reckoning,  an  appa- 
ratus called  a  cribbage-board  is  employed. 


This  board  possesses  holes  for  the  scoring  of 
each  party,  and  the  scoring  is  effected  by 
means  of  pegs.  The  party  who  is  able  to 
bring  his  peg  into  the  last  hole  first  wins 
the  game. 

The  following  is  an  explanation  of  terms 
generally  used  in  .the  game  : — 

Crib,  the  cards  laid  out  by  each  party; 
and  whatever  points  are  made  by  them,  the 
dealer  scores. 

Fairs  are  two  similar  cards,  as  two  aces 
or  two  kings.  They  reckon  for  two  points, 
whether  in  hand  or  playing. 

Fairs  royal  are  three  similar  cards,  and 
reckon  for  six  points,  whether  in  hand  or 
playing. 

Double  pairs  royal  are  four  similar  cards, 
and  reckon  for  twelve  points,  whether  in 
hand  or  playing.  The  points  gained  by 
pairs,  pairs  royal,  and  double  pairs  royal,  in 
playing,  are  thus  effected  :  your  adversary 
having  played  a  seven,  and  you  another, 
constitutes  a  pair,  and  entitles  you  to  score 
two  points  ;  jour  antagonist  then  playing  a 
third  seven,  makes  a  pair  royal,  and  he 
marks  six  ;  and  your  playing  a  fourth  is  a 
double  pair  royal,  and  entitles  you  to  twelve 
points. 

Fifteens.     Every  fifteen  reckons  for  two 

{>oints,  whether  in  hand  or  playing.  In 
land,  they  are  formed  either  by  two  cards, 
such  as  a  five  and  any  tenth  card,  a  six  and 
a  nine,  a  seven  and  an  eight ;  or  by  three 
cards,  as  a  two,  a  five,  and  an  eight,  &c. 
And  in  playing  thus,  if  such  cards  are 
played  as  make  together  fifteen,  the  two 
points  are  to  be  scored  towards  the  game. 

Sequences  are  three  or  four,  or  more  suc- 
cessive cards,  and  reckon  for  an  equal  num- 
ber of  points,  either  in  hand  or  plaving. 
In  playing  a  sequence,  it  is  of  no  conse- 
quence which  card  is  thrown  down  first,  as 
thus  :  your  adversary  playing  an  ace,  you  a 
five,  he  a  three,  you  a  two,  then  he  a  four, 
he  counts  five  for  the  sequence. 

Flush  is  when  the  cards  are  all  of  one 
suit,  and  reckons  for  as  many  points  as  cards. 
For  a  Hush  in  the  crib,  the  card  turned  up 
must  be  of  the  same  suit  as  those  in  hand. 

The  go  is  gained  by  the  player  when  no 
other  number  can  be  played  under  thirty- 
one,  in  which  case  he  takes  one ;  but  if  the 
number  makes  thirty-one,  he  takes  two. 
The  turn-up  card  accounts  in  with  both 
hand  and  crib. 

Beg  ltlations  for  Playing.  1.  In  deal- 
ing, the  dealer  may  discover  his  own  cards, 
if  he  pleases,  but  not  those  of  his  adversary. 
If  he  does,  that  adversary  is  entitled  to  mark 
two  points,  and  call  a  fresh  deal,  if  he 
pleases. 


A     MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


361 


2.  If  the  dealer  gives  his  adversary  too 

many  curds,  the  adversary  may  score  two 
points,  and  also  demand  another  deal,  pro- 
vided he  detects  the  error  previous  to  his 
taking  Op  his  cards. 

3.  When  any  player  is  observed  to  have 
in  his  hand  more  than  Uie  proper  number 
of  cards,  in  that  ease  the  peraen  who  dis- 
covers it  may  mark  four  points  to  his  gMW, 
an'i  cail  a  new  deal,  if  he  thinks  proper. 

4.  If  the  dealer  gives  himself  more  cards 
than  he  is  entitled  to,  the  adversary  may 
score  two  points  to  his  game,  and  call  a 
fresh  deal,  if  he  thinks  proper ;  if  he  does 
not,  he  is  entitled  to  draw  the  extra  cards 
from  the  dealer's  hands ;  if  the  non-dealer 
observes  the  adversary  ha3  more  cards  than 
are  his  due,  after  they  are  taken  off  the 
table,  he  may  score  four  points  to  his  game, 
and  call  a  new  deal. 

5.  If  either  party  meddle  with  the  cards 
from  the  time  they  are  dealt  until  they  are 
cut  for  the  turn-up  card,  his  adversary  is 
entitled  to  score  two  points. 

6.  If  atiy  player  scores  more  than  he  is 
entitled  to,  the  "other  party  has  a  right  not 
only  to  put  him  back  as  many  points  as 
were  so  scored,  but  also  to  score  the  same 
number  to  his-  own  game. 

7.  If  either  party  touches  even  his  own 
peg  unnecessarily,  the  adversary  may  score 
two  points  to  his  game. 

8.  If  either  party  take  out  his  front  peg, 
he  must  place  the  same  behind  the  other. 

9.  Either  party  scoring  a  less  number  of 
points  than  are  his  due,  incurs  no  penalty. 

10.  Each  player  has  a  right  to  pack  his 
own  cards;  and  should  he  place  them  on  the 

Sack  and  omit  scoring  for  them,   whether 
and  or  crib,  he  must  not  mark  for  them 
afterwards. 

CuinBAGE  (Five-Card).  Proper  erib- 
bage  is  played  with  five  cards,  and  we  shall 
give  a  description  of  it  in  reference  to  two 
persons. 

After  the  dealer  has  been  determined  by 
cutting,  as  in  whist,  the  cards  are  dealt 
one  alternately,  to  the  extent  of  five  for 
each  individual.  The  elder  hand  takes 
three  points  on  the  board.  Each  player 
then  proceeds  to  lav  out  two  of  the  five 
cards  for  the  crib,  which  always  belong  to 
the  dealer.  In  doing  this,  always  recollect 
whose  crib  it  is,  as  the  cards  which  may  ad- 
vantage your  own  are  almost  invariably 
prejudicial  to  your  game  when  given  to 
your  adversary.  This  done,  the  non-dealer 
cuts  the  remainder  of  the  pack,  and  the 
dealer  turns  up  the  uppermost.  This  card, 
whatever  it  may  be,  is  reckoned  by  each  I 
party  i»;  hand  or  crib.    "When  it  happens  to  [ 


be  a  knave,  the  dealer  scores  two  points  to 
his  game. 

Alter  laying  out  and  cutting  as  above  men- 
tioned, the  eldest  hand  play  |  any  card,  which 
|  the  other  endeavours  to  pair,  or  to  find  one, 
the  points  of  which,  reckoned  with  the  hist, 
will  make  fifteen:  then  the  non-deaii  r  pla\  s 
another  card,  trying  to  make  a  pair,  or  pair 
royal,  and  so  (in  alternately  till  the  points 
of  the  cards  played  make  thirty-one,  or  the 
nearest  possible  numher  under  that. 

When  the  party  whose  turn  it  may  be  to 
play  cannot  produce  a  card  that  will  make 
thirty-one,  or  come  in  under  that  number 
he  then  says  "go"  to  his  antagonist,  who 
thereupon  is  to  play  any  card  he  has  that 
will  come  in  to  make  thirty-one,  if  he  can, 
and  take  two  points,  or  to  score  one  for  the 
end  hole ;  and  besides,  the  last  player  has 
often  opportunities  to  take  pairs  or  sequences. 
Such  cards  as  remain  after  this  are  not  to 
be  played;  but  each  party  having,  during 
the  play,  scored  his  points  gained,  in  the 
same  manner  as  hereafter  directed,  proceeds, 
the  non-dealer  first,  then  the  dealer,  to 
count  and  take  for  his  hand  and  crib  as  fol- 
lows, reckoning  the  cards  every  way  they 
possibly  can  be  varied,  and  always  includ- 
ing the  turned-up  card  : 

For  every  fifteen,  two  points ;  for  every 
pair,  or  two  of  a  sort,  two  points  ;  for  every 
pair  royal,  or  three  of  a  sort,  six  points ; 
for  every  double  pair  royal,  or  four  or  a  sort, 
twelve  points ;  for  every  sequence  of  any 
sort,  according  to  the  number;  for  every 
flush,  according  to  the  number;  for  every 
knave  or  noddy  of  the  same  suit  that  was 
turned  up,  one  point ;  but  when  turned  up 
it  is  not  to  be  reckoned  again,  nor  is  any- 
thing to  be  taken  for  it  when  played. 

Three  cards  of  the  same  suit  in  hand  en- 
title the  holder  to  reckon  that  number,  and 
five  for  the  crib  when  the  turned-up  card 
happens  to  be  of  the  same  suit. 

It  is  always  highly  necessary,  in  laying 
out  cards  for  the  crib,  that  every  plaver 
should  consider  not  only  his  own  hand,  but 
also  whom  the  crib  belongs  to,  and  what  is 
the  state  of  the  game  ;  because  what  might 
be  proper  in  one  situation  would  be  ex- 
tremely imprudent  in  another. 

If  you  should  happen  to  possess  a  pair 
royal,  be  sure  to  lay  out  the  other  two  cauls 
for  either  your  own  or  your  adversary's 
crib,  except  you  hold  two  fives  with  the 
pair  royal;  in  that  case  it  would  be  ex- 
tremely' injudicious  to  lay  them  out  for 
your  adversary's  crib,  unless  the  cards  you 
retain  insure  your  game,  or  your  adversary 
being  so  near  home  that  the  crib  becomes  of 
no  importance. 


FACTS   FOR   EVERYBODY*. 


It  is  generally  right  to  Mush  your  cards 
in  hand  whenever  you  can,  as  it  may  a>sist 
your  own  crib  or  baulk  your  opponent's. 

Endeavour  always  to  retain  a  sequence 
in  \our  hand,  and  particularly  if  it  is  a 
flush. 

Always  lay  out  close  cards,  such  as  a 
three  and  four,  a  five  and  six,  for  your  own 
crib,  unless  it  breaks  your  hand. 

As  there  is  one  card  more  to  count  in  the 
crib  at  five-card  cribbago  than  there  is  in 
hand,  be  sure  to  pay  great  attention  to  the 
crib,  as  the  chance  of  reckoning  more  points 
for  the  crib  than  are  in  hand  is  five  to 
four. 

For  your  own  crib,  always  lay  out  two 
cards  of  the  same  suit,  in  preference  to  two 
of  different  suits,  as  this  will  give  you  the 
chance  of  a  tlush  in  the  crib. 

Never  lay  out  cards  of  the  same  suit  for 
your  adversary's  crib. 

Endeavour  "always  to  baulk  your  oppo- 
nent's crib.  The  best  cards  for  this  purpose 
are  a  king  and  an  ace,  a  six,  a  seven,  an 
e;0ht,  a  nine,  or  a  ten  ;  or  a  queen,  with  an 
ace,  a  six,  a  seven,  an  eight,  or  a  nine ;  or 
any  cards  not  likely  to  form  a  sequence. 

A  king  is  generally  esteemed  the  greatest 
baulk ;  as,  from  its  being  the  highest  card 
in  the  pack,  no  higher  one  can  come  in  to 
form  a  sequence. 

Never  lay  out  a  knave  for  your  adversary's 
crib,  when  you  can  possibly  avoid  it,  as  it 
is  only  three  to  one  but  the  card  turned  up 
is  of  the  same  suit,  by  which  he  will  obtain 
a  point. 

Even  though  you  should  hold  a  pair 
royal,  never  lay  out  for  your  adversary's 
crib  a  two  and  three,  a  five  and  six,  a  seven 
and  eight,  or  a  five  and  any  tenth  card. 
"Whenever  you  hold  such  cards,  observe  the 
state  of  your  game,  and,  particularly  if  it 
is  nearly  ended,  whether  your  adversary  is 
nearly  out,  or  within  a  moderate  show,  and 
it  is  your  deal.  "When  this  is  the  case,  you 
must  retain  such  cards  as  will,  in  playing, 
prevent  your  adversary  from  making  pairs 
or  sequences,  &c,  and  enable  you  to  win 
the  end  hole,  which  will  often  prevent  your 
opponent  from  winning  the  game. 

Cribbage  (Thkee  and  Four  Hand). 
Three  and  four  hand  cribbage  differs  only 
from  two  hand,  in  as  far  as  the  parties  only 
put  out  one  card  each  to  the  crib  ;  and  when 
thirty-oue,  or  as  nearly  as  can  be,  have  been 
made,  then  the  next  eldest  hand  leads,  and 
the  players  go  on  again,  in  rotation,  with 
any  remaining  cards,  till  all  are  played  out, 
before  they  proceed  to  show  their  hands  and 
crib. 

In  three-hand  cr'-.bbage,  a  triangular  board 


is  used,  with  three  lines  of  holes  to  allow 
of  each  scoring  his  own  game. 

Cribbage  (Six-Card).  Six-card  crib- 
bage bears  so  great  a  resemblance  to  five- 
card,  that  any  one  playing  the -one  well 
must  play  the  other  equally  so.  It  consists 
jf  pairs,  fifteens, r  sequences,  flushes,  &c.  ; 
and  the  points  are  reckoned  and  marked  pre- 
cisely in  the  same  manner;  all  the  curds 
must  be  played  out;  that  is,  when  either 
party  has  made  the  end  hole,  the  remaining 
cards  in  hand  must  be  played,  scoring  for 
the  pairs  or  fifteens  they  may  form.  When 
last  player,  you  should  endeavour  to  retaiD 
close  cards  in  hand,  as  they  may  enable  you 
to  acquire  four  points  in  playing. 

The  dealer  is  supposed  to  have  some  some 
trifling  advantage. 

The  dealer  is  entitled  to  expect  twenty- 
6ve  points  by  his  hand,  crib,  and  next 
hand.  Thus  at  his  second  deal,  if  his  peg 
is  in  the  twenty-fifth  hole  of  the  board,  he 
has  his  complement  of  points;  the  same  at 
his  third  deal,  if  he  is  within  eleven  points 
of  the  game. 

If  the  non-dealer  by  his  first  hand  attains 
the  eleventh  hole  in  the  board,  he  will  have 
the  best  of  the  game  ;  for  he  is  entitled  to 
expect  that  he  shall  make  his  second  deal 
with  his  front  peg  in  the  thirty-sixth  hole, 
and  by  which  probably  he  will  win  the  game 
by  his  hand,  crib,  and  next  hand. 

If  you  are  dealer,  and  your  adversary  has 
above  his  complement  of  points,  you  must 
play  your  game  accordingly.  Thus,  if  you 
have  good  cards,  try  to  make  as  many  points 
as  possible  by  pairing,  fifteens,  &c.  On  the 
contrary,  if  your  cards  are  indifferent,  you 
must  play  off,  to  prevent  your  adversary 
from  obtaining  points. 

PYRAMIDS.  Solids,  which  decrease 
gradually  from  the  base,  till  they  come  to  a 
poin%  are  called  pyramids.  'J  hey  are  of 
different  kinds,  according  to  the  figure  of 
their  bases.  If  the  pj'ramid  has  a  square 
base,  it  is  called  a  square  pyramid  :  if  a  tri- 
angular base,  a  triangular  pyramid ;  if  the 
base  be  a  circle,  a  circular  pyramid,  or  a 
Cone.  The  point  in  which  the  pyramid 
ends  is  called  the  vertex.  A  line  through 
the  centre  of  the  pyramid,  from  the  vertex 
to  the  base,  is  the  height.  The  f rust  rum  of 
a  pyramid  is  what  remains,  after  any  por- 
tion of  the  top  has  been  cut  off  parallel  to 
the  base. 

BAGATELLE.  The  large  and  incon- 
venient size  of  billiard -tables  has  led  to  the 
introduction  of  bagatelle-tables — bagatelle 
being  the  French  word  for  anything  trifling. 
A  bagatelle-table  is  usually  about  seven 
feet  lung  and  twenty-one  inches  broad ;  it 


A   MISCELLANY   OF  USEFUL   KNOWLEDGE. 


3G3 


Is  lined  with  cloth,  and  a  game  is  performed 
on  it  with  balls  and  ;i  IBM  or  maC6.  The 
balls  are  small  ivory  spheres,  and  the  sport 
very  muoh  consists  'in  striking  one  or  more 
into  hfllM  at  ode  end  of  the  board.  To  per- 
form this  and  other  feats,  soaie  skill  and 
experience  are  required ;  and  the  sport  is 
far  from  unamusiug  in  a  cheerful  parlour 
circles.  Of  late  years,  bagatelle-tables 
have  become  very  common  in  the  houses  of 
the  middle  classes  of  society  ;  they  pOMCCI 
the  recommendation  of  being  purchasable 
at  a  small  expense. 

STEREOSCOPE  (THE).  The  name 
Stereoscope,  from  the  Greek  words  stereos, 
solid,  and  skopein,  to  see,  has  been  given  to 
an  instrument  of  recent  invention,  for  ex- 
hibiting in  true  relief  and  apparent  solidity 
all  objects,  or  groups  of  objects,  by  com- 
bining into  one  picture  two  representations 
of  these  objects  on  a  plane,  as  seen  separately 
by  each  eye. 


If  we  hold  up  a  thin  book  between  our 
two  eyes,  with  its  back  towards  us,  and  at 
the  distance  of  about  a  foot,  we  shall  see 
the  back  and  the  two  sides  of  the  book  when 
both  eyes  are  open  ;  but  if  we  shut  the  right 
eye,  we  shall  see  with  the  left  eye  onlv  the 
back  and  left  side  of  the  book  ,  uud  if  wu 


shut  the  left  eye,  we  shall  pee  only  the  bock 
and  the  right  side  of  it.  Or,  to  use  a  in.  re 
homely  illustial  ion,  when  we  shut  the  t.  ft 
eye.  we  see  only  the  right  side  of  our  ii  p 
willi  the  right  tyu,  and  when  we  shut  l  ho 
right  eye,  we  see  only  the  left  side  of  our 
nose  with  the  left  e\e.  And  in  general, 
when  we  look  at  any  solid  object  whatever, 
the  right  eye  sees  puts  of  it  towards  the 
right  hand  not  seen  by  the  left  eye,  and  the 
left  eye  sees  part  of  it  towards  the  left  hand 
not  teen  by  the  right  eye.  Hence  wu  arrive 
at  the  tirst  and  fundamental  truth  on  which 
the  theory  and  construction  of  the  Stereo- 
scope depend,  viz.  :  1,  When  we  look  with 
two  eyes  upon  any  solid  body  or  object 
whose  parts  are  at  different  distances  from 
us,  the  picture  of  it  which  we  see  with  the 
right  eye,  or  the  image  of  it  which  is  formed 
on  the  retina  of  the  right  eye,  is  dill,  rent 
from  the  picture  of  it  which  we  see  with  the 
left  eye,  or  from  the  image  of  it  which  is 
formed  on  the  retina  of  the  left  eye. 

This  important  fact  was  known  to  EucHd 
more  than  2000  years  ago,  and  was  illus- 
trated by  him  in  the  case  of  a  sphere,  the 
pictures  of  which  as  seen  by  each  esc  he 
proved  to  be  dissimilar.  Upwards  of  15D0 
years  ago,  Galen  described  the  different  pic- 
1  tures  formed  on  each  eye  in  the  vision  of  a 
column.  Baptttta  Porta,  in  1593,  repeats 
the  propositiou  of  Euclid  on  the  vision  of  a 
sphere  with  one  and  both  eyes;  and  he 
quotes  the  experiments  of  Galen  on  the 
vision  of  a  column  with  both  eyes,  and  with 
each  eye  alternately.  Leonardo  da  Vinci 
was  well  acquainted  with  the  same  facts; 
and  Aguilonius,  in  1G13,  wrote  a  whole 
book  on  the  vision  of  solids  {la  stereo)  with 
one  and  both  eyes,  and  expluiued  the  dis- 
similarity of  the  pictures  thus  seen  by  the 
observer. 

Optical  writers  of  more  recent  times,  such 
as  Dr.  Smith  of  Cambridge,  Mr.  Hani-,  and 
Dr.  Portertield,  were  all  acquainted  with  the 
dissimilarity  of  the  pictures  of  solids  as  seen 
by  each  eye  separately;  and  hence  we  see 
the  extreme  injustice  of  the  claim  made  by 
Mr.  Wheatstone  to  be  the  discoverer  of  this 
truth.  In  quoting  the  experiments  of  Leo- 
nardo da  Vinci,  Mr.  Wheatstone  maintains 
that  he  was  not  aware  "  that  the  otgeci  (a 
sphere)  presented  a  different  appearand  to 
eachege;"  and  lie  adds,  H he  Jailed  to  ob- 
serve this  ;  and  no  subsequent  writer^  to  my 
knoivledye,  has  supplied  the  omission.  27te 
projection  of  two  obviously  dissimilar  pic- 
tures on  the  two  reti/tce,  when  a  single  ob- 
ject is  viewed,  while  the  optic  axes  converge, 
must  therefore  be  regarded  as  a  new  fact  in 
t/ie  theory  of  vision."    This  claim  to  a  di»- 


S64 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY! 


uovery  made  2000  years  ago  by  Euclid,  and 
explained  and  illustrated  by  so  many  of  his 
distinguished  successors,  is  the  more  re- 
markable, as  Mr.  Wneatstone,  though  he 
may  have  never  seen  the  writings  of  Euclid 
or  Galen,  makes  repeated  reference  to  the 
observations  of  Porta  and  Aguilonius,  in 
which  the  discovery  is  distinctly  described. 

The  second  fundamental  truth  on  which 
the  theory  and  construction  of  the  Stereo- 
scope depend  is:  2,  When  the  two  dissi- 
milar pictures  of  any  solid  body,  as  seen  by 
each  eye  separately,  are  superimposed,  or 
laid  the  one  above  the  other  by  the  conver- 
gence of  the  axes  of  the  two  eyes,  the  ob- 
ject which  these  pictures  represent  is  seen 
in  relief,  or  as  a  solid  body,  with  its  different 
parts  at  different  distances  from  the  observer. 

Altough  this  truth  is  not  distinctly  stated 
either  by  Euclid  or  Galen,  we  can  hardly 
suppose  that  they  were  ignorant  of  it,  as  it 
is  a  necessary  result  of  their  observations. 
Since  we  do  see  an  object  in  true  relief  by 
both  eyes,  and  since  the  picture  of  the  ob- 
ject which  we  see  is  formed  by  the  super- 
position of  the  one  dissimilar  picture  above 
the  other,  the  vision  in  relief  is  the  neces- 
sary result  of  the  combination  of  the 
pictures.  They  must  have  known  it  simply 
as  a  fact,  though  they  did  not  know  its 
cause. 

Baptista  Porta  and  Aguilonius,  how- 
ever, were  well  acquainted  with  this  second 
truth.  In  explaining  the  experiments  of 
Galen  on  the  dissimilarity  of  the  pictures 
of  an  object  as  seen  by  each  eye  and  by 
both,  Porta  employs  the  annexed  diagram, 
which  is    much  more  distinct  than   that 


which  is  given  by  the  Greek  physician. 
"  Let  a,"  he  says,  "  be  the  pupil  o:  the  right 
eye,  b  that  of  the  left,  and  D  c  the  body  to 
be  seen.  When  we  look  at  the  body  with 
both  eyes,  we  see  D  c,  while  with  the  left 
eye  we  see  e  f,  and  with  the  right  eve  G  h. 
But  if  it  is  seen  with  one  eye,  it  will  be  seen 
otherwise ;  for  when  the  left  eye  b  is  shut, 


the  body  cd,  on  the  left  side,  will  be  seen 
in  ho;  but  when  the  right  eye  A  is  shut, 
the  body  CD  will  be  seen  in  fe;  whereas 
when  both  eyes  are  opened  at  the  same  time 
it  will  be  seen  in  cd"  Porta  then  pro- 
ceeds to  explain  these  results  by  quoting  the 
passage  from  Galen  in  which  he  supposes 
the  observer  to  repeat  these  experiments 
when  he  is  looking  at  a  solid  column.  In 
the  preceding  diagram  we  see  not.  only  the 
principle  but  the  construction  of  the  Ocular 
Stereoscope,  or  the  method  by  which  wo 
combine  the  two  pictures  by  looking  at  a 
point  between  them  and  the  observer,  or  be- 
yond the  pictures.  The  two  dissimilar  pic- 
tures are  represented  by  u  e;  the  picture  as 
seen  by  one  eye  by  ho;  the  picture  as  seen 
by  the  other  by  e  f  ,  and  the  picture  of  the 
solid  column  in  full  relief  by  D  c.  as  pro- 
duced midway  between  the  two  dissimilar 
pictures  hg  and  fe  by  their  union,  pre- 
cisely as  in  the  Stereoscope. 

The  important  subject  of  which  we  are 
treating  has  been  discussed  by  Aguilonius 
with  singular  ingenuity  ;  and  his  ooserva- 
tions  are  so  interesting,  that  we  shall  give 
them  in  his  own  worus.  "  When  one  ob- 
ject," he  says,  "  is  seen  with  two  eyes,  the 
angles  at  the  vertices  of  the  optical  pvramids 
(viz.  h  a  F,  g  B  e)  are  not  al  ways  equal ;  (they 
are  equal  in  the  vision  of  a  sphere  and  acylin- 
der;)  for  beside  the  direct  view,in  which  the 
pyramids  ought  to  be  equal,  into  whatever 
directions  both  eyes  are  turned  they  receive 
pictures  of  the  objects  under  unequal  angles, 
the  greater  of  which  is  that  which  is  termi- 
nated at  the  nearer  eye,  and  the  lesser  that 
which  regards  the  remoter  eye.  This,  I 
think,  is  perfectly  evident ;  but  I  consider 
it  as  worthy  of  admiration,  how  it  happens 
that  bodies  seen  by  both  eyes  are  not  all  con' 
fused  and  shapeless,  though  we  view  them 
by  the  optical  axes  fixed  on  the  bodies  them- 
selves. For  greater  bodies  seen  under 
greater  angles  appear  lesser  bodies  under 
lesser  angles.  If,  therefore,  one  and  the 
same  body  which  is  in  reality  greater  with 
one  eye,  is  seen  less  on  account  of  the 
inequality  of  the  angles  in  which  the  pyra- 
mids are  terminated,  the  body  itself  must 
assuredly  be  seen  greater  or  less  at  the  same 
time,  and  to  the  same  person  that  views  it; 
and  therefore,  since  the  images  in  each  eye 
are  dissimilar  (mini  me  .sibi  cony  rutin  t), 
the  representation  of  the  object  must  ap- 
pear confused  and  disturbed  (confuxa  at 
perturbata)  to  the  primary  sense."  In 
order  to  understand  this  pas-age,  we  must 
state,  as  a  well-known  fact,  that  in  binocular 
portraits  the  distance  between  the  tip  of  the 
nose  and  the  tip  of  the  ear  is  greater  in 


A  MISCF.LLAXY  OF  USEFUL   KNOTTr/EDGE. 


865 


the  one  picture  thnn  in  tho  other,  and  con- 
sequently the  line  joining  these  points  sub- 
tends a  greater  angle  in  the  one  than  in  the 
other.  When  these  two  lines,  therefore, 
arc  combined]  Arniloninl  concludes  that 
the  vi- -imi  of  the  tip  of  the  n<-se  and  the  tip 
of  the  ear  must  be  confused,  as  the  ends  of 
the  lines  cannot  he  united. 

"  1  hi.-  v  eM  of  the  subject,"  he  continues, 
"is  certainly  eoometenl  uith  reason;  but 
what  is  truly  wonderful  is,  that  it  is  not 
Correct,  for  bodies  are  seen  clearly  and  dis- 
tinctly with  both  eyes  when  the  optic  axes 
are  converged  upon  them.  The  reason  of 
this,  I  think,  is,  that  the  bodies  do  not  ap- 
pear to  be  BtBgle,  because  the  apparent 
iraagea  which  are  formed  from  each  of 
them  in  separate  eyes  exactly  coalesce  (sibi 
inutno  ixade  congntunt),  but  because  the 
common  erase  Imparts  its  aid  equally  to 
j  a,  exerting  its  own  power  equally  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  eyes  are  converged 
by  means  of  their  optical  axes.  "Whatever 
body,  therefore,  each  eye  sees  with  the  eyes 
conjoined,  the  common  sense  makes  a  single 
notion,  not  composed  of  the  two  which  he- 
Ion?  to  each  eye,  but  belonging  and  accom- 
modated to  the  imaginative  faculty  to  which 
it  (the  common  eenae)  assigns  it." 

Now  though  the  explanation  here  given 
of  the  distinct  appearance  of  the  solid  com- 
posed of  two  dissimilar  pictures  is  not  cor- 
rect, yet  Aguilonius  clearly  asserts  the 
second  truth,  that  though  the  unequal  lines 
and  anglos  do  not  coalesce,  yet  the  body  is 
seen  distinctly  and  in  its  true  solidity,  in 
consequence  of  the  combination  of  the  two 
pictures  of  it  as  seen  by  each  eye. 


From  these  details  it  is  manifest  that  the 
Uco  fundamental  truths  on  which  the  Stereo- 
scope depends  were  well  known  to  Aguilo- 
nius and  others  ;  and  that  nothing  more 
was  wanted  tb  an  a  method  of  forming  two 


dissimilar  pictures  of  objects,  and  a  method 
of  uniting  them  when  formed. 

Upwards  of  thirty  years  ago,  Mr.  Elliot, 
now  a  teacherof  mathematics  in  Edinburgh, 
was  led  to  study  the  Subject  of  hiiiocul.u 
vision,  in  consequence  of"  having  wri'ler 
an  esemy  in  1823.  for  the  Logic  Class,  M  On 
the  means  by  which  we  obtain  our  know- 
ledge of  distances  by  the  eye."  From  thaw 
time  he  was  familiar  with  the  idea  that  the 
relief  of  solid  bodies  when  seen  with  both 
eyes  was  produced  by  the  union  of  the  two 
dissimilar  pictures  of  them  as  seen  by  each 
eye,  which  he  believed  was  known  to  every 
student  of  vision.  During  the  vear  18:!4, 
or  previous  to  it,  he  hod  resolved  to  make 
an  instrument  for  uniting  two  dissimilar 
pictures,  or  of  constructing  a  stereoscope. 
But  though  he  had  invented  the  instru- 
ment, he  delayed  its  construction  till  1839, 
when  he  was  asked  to  write  a  paper  for  the 
Polytechnic  Society  in  Liverpool.  The 
instrument  was  exhibited  to  Mr.  Richard 
Adie,  optician,  and  Air.  G.  Hamilton,  lec- 
turer on  chemistry  ;  but  owing  to  the  diffi- 
cult? of  obtaining  binocular  pictures  for  it, 
he  proceeded  no  further  with  his  invention. 

In  order,  however,  to  show  the  effect  of 
the  instrument  to  his  friends,  he  constructed 
a  rude  picture  of  a  landscape,  as  seen  by 
each  eye  separately  ;  and  when  these  two 
pictures  were  placed  in  his  instrument,  tho 
parts  of  the  landscape  appeared  at  different 
distances  from  the  eye,  or  in  their  true 
relief.  As  this  was  undoubtedly  the  first 
landscape  constructed  for,  and  seen  in  relief 
through  the  Stereoscope,  it  possesses  much 
interest;    and  we  hare  given  an  accurate 


copy  of  the  dissimilar  pictures  in  the  «n- 
n  xed  diagram,  as  they  were  placed  by  Mr. 
Elliot,  at  the  farther  end  of  a  box  18  inches 
long,  7  broad,  and  44  deep.  In  their  pre- 
sent position  they  will  appear  in  relief  when 


FACTS  FOR  EVERYBODY:: 


united  by  the  Ster^scope,  or  by  converging 
the  optic  axes  to  a  point  at  a  proper  distance 
beyond  them.  Had  photography  been  in 
existence,  to  enable  Mr.  Eiliot  to  obtain 
binocular  pictures  of  landscapes  and  other 
objects,  the  application  of  the  Stereoscope  to 
natural  scenery  and  to  portraiture  would 
not  have  been  so  long  delayed. 

In  the  month  of  August,  1838,  Mr.  "Wheat- 
stone  exhibited  an  instrument,  under  the 
name  of  the  Reflecting  Stereoscope,  to  the 
British  Association  which  met  at  Newcastle ; 
and  an  account  of  it  was  published  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions  for  that  year. 
The  merit  of  this  invention  belongs  exclu- 
sively to  Mr.  Wheatstone,  and  nobody  has 
either  directly  or  indirectly  laid  clam  to  it. 
Although  it  answers  the  purpose  for  which 
it  was  contrived,  it  is  a  clumsy  and  bulky 
apparatus,  unnecessarily  expensive,  and  now 
seldom  seen.  The  binocular  representations 
which  it  raised  into  relief  were  chiefly  those 
of  geometrical  solids  ;  but  the  idea  of  apply- 
ing it  to  landscapes  or  portraits  is  never 
once  mentioned  in  his  paper.  The  theory 
of  the  instrument,  as  given  by  Mr.  Wheat- 
stone,  was  shown  to  be  incorrect  by  the 
writer  of  this  article,  who  first  gave  the  true 
theory  in  the  Edinburgh  Transactions  for 
1843;  and  in  the  experiments  whi<  h  he 
made  on  the  subject,  he  was  led  to  the  con- 
struction of  several  new  stereoscopes,  but 
particularly  to  the  Lenticular  Stereoscope 
now  in  universal  use. 

"  The  Reflecting  Sterescope  of  Mr.  "Wheat- 
stone  was  at  this  time,"  as  the  Abbe  Moigno 
remark*,  "almost  completely  forgotten."  Its 
merits  had  never  been  sufficiently  under- 
Stood  ;  and  even  the  Lenticular  Stereoscope, 
after  photography  had  supplied  it  with 
binocular  portraits,  excited  a  very  limited 
interest.  1  offered  it  gratuitously  to  opti- 
cians in  London  and  Birmingham;  but  it 
was  not  till  ihe  year  1850,  when  I  took  one 
to  Paris,  and  showed  it  to  the  Abbe  Moigno 
and  M.  Duboscq,  that  it  was  appreciated 
and  brought  into  notice.  Having  executed 
a  number  of  binocular  pictures  of  statues 
and  bas-reliefs,  and  portraits  of  celebrated 
individuals,  M.  Duboscq,  to  use  the  words 
of  Abbe  Moigno,  "  showed  the  wonderful 
effects  of  the  instrument  to  natural  philoso- 
phers and  amateurs,  who  flocked  to  him  in 
crowds,  and  from  whom  they  elicited  a  spon- 
taneous and  unanimous  cry  of  admiration." 

In  the  noble  collection  of  philosophical 
instruments  displayed  by  M.  Duboscq  in  the 
Great  Exhibition  of  1851,  he  placed  a  Len- 
ticular Stereoscope,  with  a  set  of  binocular 
pictures  in  daguerreotype.  The  instrument 
attracted  the   particular   attention  of  the 


Queen,  and  in  a  short  time  M.  Duboscq 
received  many  orders  for  stereoscopes  from 
England  and  the  United  States. 

Such  is  a  brief  history  of  the  Lenticular 
Stereoscope,  and  of  its  introduction  into 
this  country.  It  is  now  m  general  use 
over  the  whole  world,  and  it  has  been  esti- 
mated that  more  than  hilf  a  million  of  the 
Lenticular  Stereoscopes  have  been  sold. 
Photographers  are  employed  in  every  part 
of  the  globe  in  taking  binocular  pictures  for 
the  instrument, — among  the  ruins  of  Pom- 
peii and  Herculaneum — on  the  glaciers  and 
in  the  valleys  of  Switzerland — among  the 
public  monuments  in  the  Old  and  New 
World— in  the  museums  of  ancient  and 
modern  life — and  in  the  sacred  precincts  of 
the  domestic  circle. 

POLICE.  The  objects  of  a  police  force 
are,  first,  the  prevention  of  crime ;  second, 
its  detection;  third,  the  apprehension  and 
punishment  of  offenders;  and  it  is  especially 
their  duty  to  impress  the  minds  of  evil  dis- 
posed persons  with  the  conviction  that  'heir 
apprehension  and  punishment  will  he  the-ure 
consequence  of  the  transgression  of  the  law. 

Prevention  of  Crime.  When  a  breach 
of  the  peace  is  likely  to  take  place,  as  when 
persons  are  making  preparations  to  fight, 
even  within  a  house,  a  constable  may  enter 
the  house  to  prevent  them,  and  take  the 
parties  into  custody,  and  should  the  doors  be 
closed,  he  may  break  them  open  upon  re- 
fusal of  admission.  If  a  person  threaten 
another  with  immediate  personal  violence,  a 
constable  may  interfere;  or  if  one  draw  a 
weapon  upon  another,  attempting  to  strike,  a 
constable  may  take  him  into  custody  ;  or  if  a 
person  enter  the  house  of  another,  although 
peaceably  and  lawfully,  a  constable  may,  at 
the  request  of  the  owner,  having  first  re- 
quested him  to  go  out,  turn  him  out ;  but  if 
persons  be  merely  quarrelling  or  insulting 
each  other,  a  constable  has  no  right  to  take 
them  into  custody,  but  should  be  ready  to 
prevent  a  breach  of  the  peace.  A  constable 
may  apprehend,  and  lodge  in  the  station- 
house  till  taken  before  a  magistrate,  a  per- 
son begging,  or  encouraging  a  child  so  to 
do  ;  or  lodging  in  any  deserted  or  unoccupied 
building,  or  in  the  open  air,  not  having  any 
visible  means  of  subsistence,  and  not  giving 
a  good  account  of  himself  or  herself;  a  per- 
son wandering  abroad,  and  endeavouring, 
by  the  exposure  of  wounds,  or  deformities, 
to  obtain  alms ;  or  going  about  to  procure 
charitable  contributions  of  any  kind,  under 
any  false  or  fradulent  pretence.  A  person 
playing,  or  betting  in  any  street,  highway, 
or  other  public  place,  at  or  with  any  table 
or  instrument  of  gaming,  at  any  game  er 


A   MISCELLANY"   OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


367 


pretended  game  of  chance—  a  person  having 
in  his  possession  a  picklock,  crow,  jack,  bit, 
or  other  implement  with  intent  feloniously 
to  break  into  ■  building  ;  or  it'  armed  with  a 
gun  or  offensive  weapon  with  intent  to  com- 
mit a  felonious  act — a  person  alter  suiwt, 
and  before  mnriting  carrying  a  bundle  of 
goods  suspected  to  be  stolen 

A  person  drawing  a  ti  uck,  or  carriage, 
rolling  a  cask,  or  wheel,  or  carrying  a 
ladder  or  a  placard  upon  the  footway,  alfix- 
ing  posting  bills,  blowing  a  horn,  or  using 
a  noisy  instrument,  ringing  a  door  bell, 
wilfully  extinguishing  the  light  of  any 
lamp,  flying  a  kite,  sliding,  or  playing  at 
any  game  on  the  footway,  or  committing 
any  othef  offeuce  whereby  the  public  tho- 
roughfare is  obstructed,  or  an  offence  is 
committed  to  the  annoyance  of  the  passen- 
gers or  neighbourhood,  in  view  of  a  con- 
stable, may  be  taken  into  custody. 

Persons  charged  with  aggravated  assaults 
may  be  apprehended  without  a  warrant, 
although  not  in  the  view  of  a  constable,  if, 
by  reason  of  the  recent  commission  of  the 
Mrome,  a  magistrate's  warrant  for  )  is  ap- 
prehension could  not  have  been  obtained. 
Constables  may  apprehend  offenders  whose 
names  and  residences  are  unknown  to  them, 
as  any  street  musician  who  shall  have  been 
required  to  depart  from  the  neighbourhood 
of  a  house  on  account  of  the  illness  of  any 
inmate,  or  for  other  reasonable  cause. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  police  to  warn  per- 
sons, and  in  case  their  warning  is  not  im- 
mediately attended  to,  to  summon  persons 
committing,  amongst  others,  the  following 
offences:  —  Burning  corks,  hooping  barrels, 
hewing  stones,  laying  coals  or  other  mate- 
rials, or  beating  carpets  in  the  streets  or 
public  thoroughfares,  or  throwing  dirt  or 
rubbish  into  the  streets  or  river  Thames, 
neglecting  to  sweep  the  footways  opposite 
to  or  adjoining  their  houses,  obstructing 
footways  by  projections,  or  leaving  cellars 
and  areas  dangerously  open.  Persons  so 
offending  are  liable  to  a  penalty  of  forty 
shillings  ;  and  if,  by  the  commission  of  any 
of  the  offences  above  enumerated,  any  per- 
son shall  suffer  any  hurt  or  damage,  a  ma- 
gistrate may  order  reasonable  compensation 
to  be  made  to  the  amount  ot  ten   pounds. 

In  c  ises  of  fire  the  police  are  to  keep  the 
ground  and  the  streets  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  clear  of  obstructions,  and  to  render 
every  assistance  possible  in  the  removal  of 
property,  conformably  with  the  wishes  and 
suggestions  of  the  proprietoro ;  and  if  de- 
sired, articles  of  value  may  be  conveyed  to 
the  nearest  station-house. 

Duties  of  the  Police.    They  are  to  he 


civil  and  respectful  to  the  public,  par- 
tieu'arly  females  needing  their  assistance ; 
but  are  forbidden  to  e  iter  into  conversa- 
tion with  any  person  whomsoever,  except  on 
matter!  relating  to  i heir  duf.v.  They  are 
not  to  refuse  assistance  for  the  protection 
of  person  and  property  near  their  own 
boats;  and  under  no  pretence  whatever 
may  any  member  of  the  police,  force  take 
a  gratuity  from  any  person,  or  receive  9ny 
penalty  for  lodging  or  supporting  any  in- 
formation, without  the  express  permission 
of  the  Commissioner. 

In  cases  of  robbery,  they  a~e  not  to  relax 
their  endeavours  until  the  offender  is 
brought  to  justice. 

In  the  execution  of  their  duty  they  are  to 
be  very  particular  not  to  use  unnecessary 
violence,  and  must  not  use  their  staves  be- 
cause the  party  in  custody  is  violent  in  be- 
haviour or  language;  or  use  any  language 
towards  persons  in  their  custody  calculated 
to  provoke  or  offend  them.  And  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  inspector  to  pay  instant,  and 
particular  attention  to  all  complaints  made 
against  any  individual  of  the  police  force, 
to  enter  the  complaint  in  a  book,  and  to  re- 
quest the  complainant  to  sign  the  entry. 

The  inspector  or  station -sergeant  must 
discharge,  upon  his  recognizances,  with  or 
without  sureties,  when  no  magistrate  is  sit- 
ting, any  person  charged  with  an  offence  for 
which  he  is  liable  to  be  summarily  con- 
victed, or  with  having  carelessly  done  any 
hurt  or  damage ;  or  even  a  person  charged 
with  a  felony  or  grave  misdemeanor,  in 
custody  without  a  warrant,  upon  the  refusal 
of  the'  person  making  the  charge  to  enter 
into  a  recognizance. 

No  person  is  to  be  permitted  to  smoke  or 
drink  in  a  station-house,  or  to  remain  there 
except  while  actually  engaged  in  business. 

All  money  or  other  property  brought  to 
the  station-house  is  to  be  marked  by  the  in- 
spector or  station-sergeant,  and  entered  in 
a  book,  and,  if  taken  from  a  prisoner,  is  not 
to  be  returned  till  the  decision  of  the  ma- 
gistrate is  known  ;  but  this  is  not  to  pre- 
vent any  small  sum  being  spent  in  re- 
freshment. 

BILLIARDS.  This  elegant  sport  may  be 
said  to  combine  the  principles  of  bowls, 
golf  and  some  other  games  in  which  object  a 
are  impelled  from  the  hand.  Whether  the 
game  was  invented  in  France  or  England  is 
not  (dearly  ascertained ;  but,  as  it  is  men- 
tioned by  Shakspeare,  it  is  at  least  a3  old  in 
thi<  country  as  the  sixteenth  century. 

Billiards  is  plaved  with  a  table,  certain 
kinds  of  rods,  and  balls.  The  table  varies 
in  size ,  that  in  most  common  use  being 


3GS 


TACTS  FOE  EVERYBODY 


twelve  feet  long,  and  six  feet  one  inch  and 
a  half  in  width.  Whatever  be  its  dimen- 
sions, it  requires  to  be  perfectly  level  and 
smooth.  It  is  ordinarily  made  of  pieces  of 
slate  joined  together;  and  these  being 
brought  to  a  dead  level,  the  surface  is 
covered  with  tine  green  cloth  All  round  is 
a  ledge  or  cushion  two  inches  high,  and 
stuffed  with  India  rubber.  The  table  is 
furnished  with  six  pockets,  one  at  each  of 
the  four  corners,  and  one  on  each  side  at  the 
middle.  The  mouths  of  these  pockets  or 
purees  are  level  with  the  surface,  so  as  to 
allow  the  balls  to  glide  easily  into  them. 
,  The  balls  are  of  ivory,  varying  from  an 
inch  and  a  half  to  two  inches  in  diameter. 
Two  are  white,  and  one  is  red.  One  of  the 
white  is  distinguished  by  a  spot.  There  are 
usually  two  players  in  the  ordinary  winning 
and  losing  game ;  he  who  owns  the  plain 
ball  is  called  Plain,  and  he  who  owns  the 
spotted  ball  is  termed  Spot.  The  red  ball 
belongs  to  neither,  but  is  aimed  at  by  both. 
The  rods  or  bills  used  by  the  players  are 
of  two  kinds,  and  different  lengths,  to  suit 
different  players.'  The  ordinary  kind  of 
rod  is  called  a  cue.  It  is  long  and  smooth, 
with  one  end  thick  and  heavy  (1),  and  the 
other  tapered  to  a  point;  this  is  covered 


with  a  button  of  leather.  The  other  kind 
of  rod  is  termed  a  mace;  it  has  a  club-like 
extremity  (2),  and  is  much  less  frequently 


=5 


C^ 


used.     Almost  all  players  employ  cues  of  a 
length  and  weight  to  suit  themselves. 

In  playing,  the  left  hand  is  rested  with 
the  palm  undermost  on  the  table.  The  palm 
is  hollowed,  and  the  thumb,  close  to  the 
forefinger,  is  raised  up  to  form  a  bridge  or 
rest  for  the  cue.  The  hand  should  be  at 
the  distance  of  about  six  inches  from  the 
hall.  The  cue  is  lightly  held  in  the  right 
hand,  the  blow  being  struck  with  the  small 
extremity.  Thus  held,  in  a  free  but  firm 
manner,  and  resting  on  the  channel  between 
the  forefinger  and  thumb,  the  cue  is  given  a 
sharp  run  forward,  so  ts  to  hit  the  ball  in 
the  required  direction,  and  with  that  exact 
degree  of  force  which  will  make  it  perform 
the  desired  feat.  To  prevent  slipping,  the 
point  of  the  cue  is  generally  chalked. 


THE     END, 


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for  the  Set $10   OO 


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The  Sociciblo  ;  or,  One  Thousand  and  One  Home  Amucements.  Con- 
taining Acting  Proverbs,  Dramatic  Charades,  Acting  Charades,  or  Drawing- 
room  Pantomimes,  Musical  Burlesques,  Tableaux  Vivunts,  Parlor  Games,  G.m  s 
of  Action,  Forfeits,  Science  in  Sport  and  Parlor  Magic,  an  I  a  choice  collection  of 
curious  menial  an  I  mechanical  Puzzles,  &c,  illustrated  w.th  nearly  300  Engrav- 
ings and  Diagrams,  the  whole  being  a  fund  of  never-ending  entertainment.  Py 
the  author  of  "The  Magician's  Own  Book."  Nearly  400  pages,  12mo,  cloth,  gilt 
side  stamp.  "The  Sociable  ;  or,  One  Thousand  and  One  Home  Amusements," 
is  a  repertory  of  games  and  other  entertainments,  calculated  for  the  use  of 
family  parties,  the  fireside  circle  or  those  social  gatherings  among  friends  and 
neighbors  which  pass  away  the  winter  evenings  with  so'much  animation  and 
delight.  It  is  impossible  for  any  company  to  exhaust  all  the  sources  of  irre- 
proachable mirth  and  mutual  enjoyment  produced  in  this  volume 
Price $1   25 

Th9  Magician's  Own  Book  ;  or,  A  Complete  Guide  to  the  Art 
of  Conjuring.  Being  a  Hand-Book  of  Parlor  Magic,  and  containing  several 
hundred  amusing  Magical,  Magnetical,  Electrical,  and  Chemical  Experiments, 
Astonishing  Transmutations,  Wonderful  Sleight-of-IIand  and  Card  Tricks, 
Curious  and  Perplexing  Puzzles,  Quaint  and  Entertaining  Tricks  and  Questions 
in  Numbers,  Secret  Writing  explained,  Sleights  and  Subtleties  iu  .Legerdemain, 
&c,  together  with  all  the  most  noted  Tricks  of  Modern  Performers.  Illustrated 
with  over  50)  Wood  Engravings,  12rao,  cloth,  gilt  side  and  back  stamp,  400  pages. 
Here  is  the  whole  process  made  simple  of  manipulating  the  cards,  and  perform- 
ing Tricks  with  Sleight-of-hand.    Price - $1  25 

Parlor  Theatricals  ;  or,  Winter  Evenings'  Entertainment.  Contain- 
ing Acting  Proverbs,  Dramatic  Charades,  Acting  Charades,  or  Drawing-room 
Pantomimes,  Musical  Burlesques,  Tableaux  Vivants,  &c.  By  the  author  of 
44  The  Sociable,"  "The  Magician's  Own  Boole,"  "The  Secret  Out,"  &c  l2mo, 
gilt  side  and  back,  illustrated  with  descriptive  engravings  and  diagrams. 
Price 75  cts. 

The  Book  of  1,000  Tales  and  Amusing  Adventures. 

Containing  over  SOO  engravings  and  4o0  pajr.es.  This  is  a  magnificent 
book,  and  is  crammed  full  of  the  narra;ives  and  adventures  of  travelers,  the  ro- 
mantic tales  of  celebrated  warriors,  amusing  stories  in  Natural  History,  besides 
a  thousand  things  relating  to  curious  tricks,  entertaining  sports,  pastimes  and 
games.  In  this  capital  work  we  have  onr  old  friend  Peter  Parley  again,  and  he 
tells  his  stories  as  well  as  ever.  The  book  is  worth  ten  times  tho  price  we  ask 
forit.     Price ...$1  25 

Ladies'  Gtlide  to  Crochet.  By  Mrs.  Ann  S.  Stephens.  Co- 
piously illustrated  with  original  and  very  choice  designs  in  Crochet,  etc.,  printed 
in  colors,  separate  from  the  letter  press,  on  tinted  paper.  Also  with  numerous 
wood-cuts  printed  with  the  letter  press,  explanatory  of  terms,  etc.  Oblong,  pp. 
117,  beautifully  bound  in  extra  cloth,  gilt.  This  is  by  far  the  best  work  on  the 
subject  of  Crochet  yet  published.  There  are  plenty  of  other  books  containing 
Crochet  patterns,  but  the  difficulty  is,  they  do  not  have  the  necessary  instructions 
how  to  work  them,  and  are,  iherefore,  useless.  This  work,  however,  supplies 
this  much-felt  and  glaring  deficiency,  and  has  the  terms  in  Croche*  so  clearly  ex- 
plained, that  any  Crochet  pattern,  however  difficult,  may  be  worked  wi+h  ease. 
Price * $1  25 

10,000  "Wonderful  Things.  Comprising  the  Marvelous  and 
Hare,  Odd,  Curious,  Quaint,  Eccentric,  and  Extraordinary,  in  all  Ages  and 
Nations,  in  Art,  Nature,  and  Science,  including  many  wonders  of  the  world,  en- 
riched with  hundreds  of  Authentic  Illustrations.  Edited  by  Edmund  Fillingham 
"King,  M.  A.,  author  of  "  Life  of  Newton."  &c,  &rs.  12mo,  cloth,  gilt  side  and 
back.  In  the  present  work,  interesting  scenes  from  Nature,  curiosit'es  of  Art, 
Costume,  and  Customs  of  a  by-gone  period,  rather  predominate  ;  but  we  have 
devoted  many  of  its  pages  to  "descriptions  of  remarkable  occurrences,  beautiful 
landscapes,  stupendous  waterfalls,  and  sublime  sea  pieces.    Price $1  25 


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Popular  Books  sent  Free  of  Postage  at  the  Prices  massed. 

Parlor  Theatricals;  or,  Winter  Evenings'  Entertainment.  Contain- 
ing Acting  Proverbs,  Dramatic  Charades,  Acting  Charades,  or  Drawing-room 
Pantomimes,  Musical  Burlesque*,  Tableaux  Vtvents,  Ate,',  with  Instructions  1  r 
Amateur*;  how  to  Construct  a  stage  and  Curtain;  how  to  get  up  Costumes  and 
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arrange  Tableaux,  el  •.  Illustrated  with  Engravings.  Paper  covers,  jir.ee  25  ci  s. 
Bo  ind  in  boards,  cloth  back, 3  8  cti». 

The  Parlor  Magician ;  or,  One  Hundred  Tricks  for  the  Drawing-Room, 

eont  a mm  *  an  Extensive  and  Miscellaneous  Collection  of  Conjuring  and  T. 
main:  Sleights  with  Dies,  Dominoes,  Cards,  Ribbons,  Bings,  Fruit,  Coin,  Balls, 
Handkerchiefs,  etc,  all  of  which  may  be  Performed  in  the  Parlor  or  Drawing-R  torn, 
Without  the  aid  of  any  apparatus  ;  also  embracing  a  choice  variety  of  Curious  De- 
ceptions, which  raav  be  performed  with  the  aid  of  simple  apparatus;  the  whole 
illustrated  and  clearly  explained  with  121  engravings.  Paper  covers,  price  2  5  els. 
Bound  in  boards,  with  cloth  back 3  8  els. 

The  Book  of  500  Curious  Puzzles.    Containing  a  larj 

lection  of  entertaining  Paradoxes,  Perplexing  Deception  in  numbers,  and  Amusing 
Tricks  in  Geometry.  By  the  author  of  M  The  Sociable,"  •«  The  Secret  Out,"  "The 
Magician's  Own  Book."  Illustrated  with  a  Great  Variety  of  Engravings.  This 
book  will  have  a  large  sale.    It  will  furnish  Pun  an!  Amusement  for  a  whole 

winter.     Paper  cover-;,  pries - 555  eta. 

Bound  in  boards,  w.th  cloth  back 38  cts. 

Book  of  Kiddles  and  Five  Hundred  Home  iimuse- 

ments,  containing  a  Choice  and  Curious  Collection  of  Baddies,  Charades,  Enigmas, 
Rebuses,  Anagrams,  Transpositions,  Conundrums,  Amusing  Puzzles,  QaeerSleights, 
Recreations  in  Arithmetic,  Fireside  Games,  and  Natural  Magic,  embracing  Enter- 
taining Amusements  in  Magnetism,  Chemistry,  Second  Sight,  and  Simple 
turn*  in  Science  for  Family  and  Social  Pastime,  illustrated  with  sixty  engravings. 

Paper  covers,  mice  95  c««. 

Bound  in  boards,  with  cloth  back .- 3  8  ci*» 

Parlor  Tricks  with  Cards,  containing  Explanations  of  all  the 

Tricks  and  Deceptions  with  Playing  Cards  ever  invented,  embracing  Tricks  with 
Cards  performed  by  Sleight-of-hand  ;  by  the  aid  of  Memory,  Mental  Calculation, 
nnd  Arrangement  of  the  Cards  ;  by  the  aid  of  Confederacy,  an  I  Tricks  Performed 
by  the  aid  i»f  Prepared  Cards.    The  whole  illustrated  an  1  made  plain  an  1  easy,  with 

seventy  engravings.    Paper  covers,  price 25  cts* 

Bound  in  boards  with  clotn  back —.38  els* 

The  Book  of  Fireside  G-ames.  Containing  an  Explanation  of 

the  most  Entertaining  Games  suited  to  the  Family  Circle  as  a  Recreation,  such  as 
Games  of  Action,  Games  which  merely  require  attention,  Games  which  require 
memory,  Catch  Games,  which  have  for  their  objects  Tricks  or  Mystification,  Games 
in  which  an  opportunity  is  afforded  to  display  Gallantry,  wit.  or  some  slight 
knowledge  of  certain  Sciences,  Amusing  Forfeits,  Fireside  Games  for  "Winter  Even- 
ing Amusement,  etc.    Taper  covers,  price 2~»  cts. 

Bounl  in  boards,  with  cloth  back 38ct&. 

The  Poet's  Companion ;  A  Dictionary  of  all  Allowable  Rhyma  ii 
the  English  Language.  This  is  a  Book  to  aid  aspiring  genius  in  the  Composition 
of  Rhymes,  and  in  Poetical  Effusions  generally.  It  gives  the  Perfect,  the 
Imperfect,  and  the  Allowable  Rhymes,  and  will  enable  you  to  ascertain,  to  a 
ttty.  whether  any  word  c  in  be  mated.  It  is  invaluable  to  any  one  who  desires 
to  court  the  muses,  and  is  used  by  some  of  the  best  writers  in  the  country. 
Brice 35  cts 

Karey  &  KnowlsorVs  Complete  Horse  Tamer  and  Far- 
rier, comprising  the  whole  Theory  of  Taming  or  Breaking  the  Horse,  by  a  New  and 
Improved  Method,  as  practiced  with  great  success  in  the  United  States,  and  in  all  the 
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for  Feeding  Horses,  etc  Also,  Thr  Complete  Fauujer;  or,  Horse  Doctor  ;  a  Guide 
for  tho  Tr  a'm  nt  of  IIor>  es  in  all  Diseases  to  which  that  noble  an  m  .1  is  liable, 
being  •  fifty  y  ■  >r  '  extensi'-j  practice  of  the  author,  1  v  J  hx  C.  K.vowr.- 
son,  daring  his  life,  an  English  Farrier  of  hi^ti  popularity,  containing  the  latest 
discoveries  in  the  cure  ofSoavia.  Illustrated  with  descriptive  Engravings.  Bound 
in  boards,  with  cloth  back 35  Cls. 


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Live  and  Learn  ;  A  Guide  for  all  who  wish  to  Speak  and  Write  cor- 
rectly; particularly  intended  as  a  Book  of  Reference  for  the  solution  of  difficulties 
connected  w;td  Grammar,  Composition,  Punctuation,  &c,  &c,  with  expla- 
nation of  Latin  and  French  words  and  phrases  of  frequent  occurrence  in  newspapers, 
reviews,  periodicals,  and  books  in  general,  containing  examples  of  one  thousand 
mistakes,  of  daily  occurrence,  in  speaking,  writing,  and  pronunciation.  21G 
pages,  cloth,  12mo.  "Live  and  Learn"  is  a  most  useful  book,  designed  as  a 
guide  to  Grammar,  Composition,  and  Punctuation.  So  few  people  speak  or 
write  really  good  grammar,  and  fewer  still  punctuate  decently,  that  a  bock  that 
informs  them  how  to  do  so— and  not  only  that  indicates  their  faults,  but  shows 
them  how  they  are  to  be  corrected — cannot  fail  to  be  popular;  there  is  not  a  per- 
son, indeed,  who  might  not  learn  something  from  it.    Price 63  cts. 

Inquire  "Within,  for  anything  you  want  to  know.  A  book  of 
Universal  Knowledge,  containing  more  than  Three  Thousand  Facts  for  the  Peo- 
ple, and  will  give  you  correct  information  on  every  possible  subject  that  you 
ever  heard  or  thought  of!  "Whether  you  may  desire  to  make  love  to  a  pretty 
girl,  or  cook  a  dinner— to  cure  a  sick  friend  or  cut  an  acquaintance— to  get  up  a 
dinner  party  or  dine  abroad — to  play  at  cards,  at  chess,  or  any  other  popular 
game,  or  go  to  church — whether  you  wish  to  establish  yourself  in  life  according 
to  the  rules  of  etiquette,  or  live  in  a  plain,  genteel  way— this  is  a  book  thvtt  tells 
how  to  do  it.  It  is  the  most  wonderful  and  valuable  book  ever  printed. 
Price ., $1  25 

The  Secret  Out :  or,  One  Thousand  Tricks  with  Card*.  A  Book 
which  explains  all  the  Tricks  and  Deceptions  with  Playing  Cards  ever  known  or 
invented,  and  gives,  besides,  a  great  many  new  and  interesting  ones — the  whole 
being  described  so  accurately  and  carefully,  with  Engravings  to  illustrate  them, 
that  anybody  can  easily  learn  how  to  practice  these  Tricks.  This  book  contains, 
in  addition  to  its  numerous  Card  Tricks  above  described,  full  and  easily  under- 
*  ctood  explanations  of  some  Two  Hundred  and  Forty  of  the  most  curious,  amus- 
ing, and. interesting  Sleight-of-Hand  and  Legerdemain  Tricks  ever  invented, 
and  which  are  illustrated  by  Engravings  to  make  each  Trick  understood  with 
case.  Illustrated  by  about  300  Engravings,  and  bound  in  a  handsome  gilt  bind- 
ing.   It  contains  about  four  hundred  pages.     Price. j$l  2o 

Laughing  G-aS.  An  Encyclopaedia  of  Wit,  Wisdom,  and  Wind- 
By  Sam  Slick,  Jr.  Comically  illustrated  with  100  original  and  laughable  engrav- 
ings, and  nearly  500  side-extending  Jokes,  ant  other  things  to  get  fat  on;  and 
the  best  of  it  is,  that  everything  about  the  book  is  new  and  fresh — all  new — new 
designs,  ne"v  stories,  new  type — no  comic-almanac  stuff.  It  will  be  found  a  com- 
plete antidote  to  "hard  times."     Price 25  els. 

Charley  "White's  Joke  Book.  Being  a  perfect  Casket  of  Fun, 
the  first  and  only  work  of  the  k'nd  ever  published.  Containing  a  full  expose  of 
all  the  most  laughable  Jokes,  Witticisms,  &c,  as  told  by  the  celebrated  Ethio- 
pian Comedian,  Charles  "White.    94  pages.    Price 13  els. 

Black  Wit  and  Darke v  Conversations.     By  Chakleb 

"White.  Containing  a  large  collection  of  laughable  Anecdotes,  Jokes,  Stones, 
"Witticisms,  and  Darkey  Conversations.    Price ISJ  cts. 

Chins  from  Uncle  Sara's  Jack-Knife .    Illustrated  with  over 

one  hundred  Comical  Engravings,  and  comprising  a  collection  of  over  five  hun- 
dred laughable  Stories,  Funny  Adventures,  Comic  Poetry,  Queer  Conundrums, 
Terrific  Puns,  Witty  S;;yings,  Sub'dme  Jok?s,  and  Sentimental  Sentences.  The 
whole  being  a  most  perfect  portfolio  for  those  who  love  to  laugh.  Large  octavo. 
Price 35  cts. 

Fox's  FltMoniail  Comicalities.  Containing  Strange  Sayings, 
Eccentric  Doings,  Burlesque  Speeches.  Laughable  Drolleries,  Funny  Stories,  in- 
terspersed  with  Beflned  "Wit,  Broad  Humor,  and  Cutting  Sarcasm,  copied  ver- 
batim, as  recited  by  the  celebrated  Ethiopian  Comedian.  "With  several  Comic 
Illustrations.    Price - - - -13  cts. 


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